Unit 5: Soil Water and Effective Stress

5.1 Types of soil water

Water present in the void of soil mass is called soil water. There are mainly following
types of soil water.
i) Adsorbed water
It is defined as the water surrounding soils grain in the film due to attractive forces
between the particle & it. It has different density, freezing point & other property other than
ordinary water. It is also known as bound water, hydrated water or hygroscopic water.
The fine grained soils have a layer of adsorbed water strongly attached to the surface.
The adsorbed water layer is not free to move under gravity. It causes an obstruction to flow of
water in the pores reducing permeability of soils.
The hygroscopic water is that water which is absorbed by the dry soil particles from the
atmosphere. It is held as a very thin film around the soil particles. It is held due to adhesion or
attraction between the surface of the soil particles and water molecules.
An air-dried soil will contain hygroscopic water. Since hygroscopic water is held with
considerable force, it can not be removed easily from the soil particles. However, if the soil is
heated up to 105°C in an oven, the hygroscopic water is removed.
ii) Gravitational water
The rain water which enter into the soil mass to form the ground water is called
Gravitational water. The gravitational water is that portion of the total water in the soil which is
free to move under gravity. It is that water which is not held by the soil but drains out freely
under gravity.
This water occupies the large pores in the soil. As the water is added to the soil, the
amount of gravitational water increases. The upper limit of the gravitational water occurs when
the soil is fully saturated. The water content at that stage is known as the saturation capacity.
iii) Pore water
The water outside surfaces of adsorbed water which determine the physical property of
soil, is called pore water. It is also known as capillary water.
The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has drained off from
the soil is known as capillary water. It is held in the soil by surface tension in the form of film
around the soil particles. It is not free to move under gravity.
The plant roots gradually absorb the capillary water and the water content of the soil
decreases. In fact, it is the principal source of water for plants. Therefore, the capillary water is
designated as available water.
5.2 Water table
• It is defined as the height or depth of water from bed of soil & ground level of soil
respectively.
• Ground water occurs almost everywhere beneath the land surface.
• Natural sources of freshwater that become ground water are (1) areal recharge from
precipitation that percolates through the unsaturated zone to the water table (Figure 4)
and (2) losses of water from streams and other bodies of surface water such as lakes
and wetlands.

5.3 Permeability, factors affecting permeability of soil

Soils are permeable due to the existence voids through which water can flow
from points of high energy to points of low energy. The study of the flow of water
through permeable soil media is important in soil mechanics.
Permeability:

Factors affecting permeability of soil

i) Particle size:
So let’s begin with particle size. When a soil mass contains coarse grained particles it
contains large volume of voids and those voids are interconnected. So, high amount of water may
flow through these interconnected voids easily. Hence such soils have higher value of
permeability.
While soil mass with fine grains have poorly connected void structure consequently we
observe lower value of permeability.
ii) Specific surface area of soil particles:
The surface of the soil particles offers a resistance to the flow of
water. The more surface is in contact with the flowing water
greater is the resistance posed to the water. Hence lower will be
the permeability.
Specific surface area is the total surface area of the particle
divided by its volume.

If volume of a particle is kept constant but its surface area is increased then specific
surface area of that particle will also increase.
Coarse grained particles have relatively less specific surface area so they pose less
resistance to flow of water consequently offer relatively high coefficient of permeability, while fine
soil particles have larger specific surface area so resistance will be more hence permeability will
be less.
So the permeability is inversely proportional to the specific surface.
iii) Shape of soil particles:
Specific surface area of a particle also depends on its shape. Hence
permeability also depends on the shape of the soil particles.
Rounded soil particles have relatively less specific surface area when
compared to angular particles.

So when water flows through soil mass consists of rounded particles it

will face less resistance and permeability will be relatively higher than if
water flows through soil mass of angular particles.

iv) Soil Structure:

Permeability also depends on how these
particles arrange themselves in a soil mass that
is in the structure of the soil mass. Water flows
through voids and the connectivity of these voids
depends upon the structural arrangement of the
soil particles.
In case of fine grained soils if the soil particles
are arranged in flocculated structure then its permeability will be more when compared to that if
the particles are arrange in the dispersed structure as we know flocculated structure has more
voids than in the dispersed structure.
Including these factors permeability of soil deposit also depends upon the structural defects like
cracks or fissures in the soil mass.
v) Void Ratio:
Void ratio of a soil mass is the volume of voids present in it divided by the volume of solids.

If volume of voids in the soil increases the flow path becomes wider and voids
interconnectivity increases. Hence permeability of soil increases.
So in general we can say permeability of a soil mass increases with the increase in its
void ratio and decreases when voids ratio decrease.
But it is not true for all types of soils. Clay soils have higher void ratio because of their
flocculated structure but still their permeability is very low because the flow path through voids in
case of clays is extremely small and poorly connected.

vi) Degree of Saturation:

The saturation of the soil mass also affects its permeability. If the soil is
partially saturated then it may have some voids which contain entrapped
air. These entrapped air pockets may block the flow path which may
reduce the permeability of the soil. While if the soil is fully saturated there
will not be any such blockage.
Hence we can say the permeability of a partially saturated soil is smaller
than that of fully saturated soil.

vii) Temperature:
Permeability is dependent on the viscosity and we know viscosity is inversely dependent
on the temperature. Hence, Permeability is directly related to temperature.
We know as the temperature of the liquid increases its viscosity
decreases, consequently it permeability increases. Similarly when
temperature of the liquid flowing through soil decreases, its viscosity
increases hence its permeability decreases.

5.4 Seepage through soils

Flow of water through soils is called seepage. Seepage takes place when there is
difference in water levels on the two sides of the structure such as a dam or a sheet pile as
shown in Fig. 1. Whenever there is seepage (e.g., beneath a concrete dam or a sheet pile), it is
often necessary to estimate the quantity of the seepage, and permeability becomes the main
parameter here.

Figure. 1 Seepage beneath (a) a concrete dam (b) a sheet pile

5.5 Darcy’s Law
In 1856, a French engineer Darcy proposed that, the flow through soils is laminar, the
discharge velocity (v) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i). Darcy’s law is thus:
v∝i
v = k i …………… (i)
Here, the constant k is known as the coefficient of permeability or simply permeability. It is also
called hydraulic conductivity. Since i is dimensionless, k has the unit of velocity. In geotechnical
engineering k is commonly expressed in cm/s (although m/s is the preferred metric unit), and
other possible units include m/s, m/day, and mm/hour. In mining engineering, mm/hour is the
preferred unit for permeability of mine fills and bricks.
Hydraulic gradient is the total head loss per unit length. When water flows from point A to point
B as shown in Figure, the total head at A has to be greater than that at B. The average hydraulic
gradient between A and B, is the total head lost between A and B divided by the length AB
along the flow path.

Coefficient of Permeability (Hydraulic Conductivity)

It is defined as the rate of flow per unit area of soil under unit hydraulic gradient, it has
the dimensions of velocity (L/T) such (cm/sec or ft/sec). It depends on several factors as follows:
1. Shape and size of the soil particles.
2. Distribution of soil particles and pore spaces.
3. Void ratio, permeability increases with increase of void ratio
4. The degree of saturation, permeability increases with the increase of the degree of saturation.
5. The composition of soil particles.
6. Soil structure
7. Fluid properties.
(k) Varies widely for different soils, as shown in the table
5.6 Determination of coefficient of permeability: laboratory methods
Permeability of a coarse grained soil can be determined by a constant head permeability
test (AS1289.6.7.1-2001; ASTM D2434), and in a fine grained soil, falling head permeability test
(AS1289.6.7.2-2001; ASTM D5856) works the best.

1) Constant head permeability test

It’s suitable for cohesionless soils with permeability > 10-4 cm/sec.
A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure.

In a constant head permeability test

(Fig. 1), the total head loss (h )
L
across a cylindrical soil specimen of
length L and cross sectional area A, is
maintained constant throughout the
test, and at steady state, the flow rate
(Q) is measured.
Therefore, the discharge velocity (v) is
given by: v = Q/A
The hydraulic gradient (i) across the
soil specimen is h /L. Applying Darcy’s
L
law, Q/A = k h /L
L
Therefore, k is given by: Fig.1 Constant head permeability test
QL
k = Ah ………. (i)
L

EXAMPLE 1
Flow takes place through a 100 mm diameter and 275 mm
long soil sample, from top to bottom, as shown in the figure
below. The manometers are 120 mm apart, and the water
level difference within the two manometers is 100 mm at
-4
steady state. If the permeability of the soil is 3.7 x 10 cm/s,
what is the flow rate?
Solution:
Hydraulic gradient across the soil specimen =100/120 = 0.833
-4 -4
∴velocity of flow = k i = (3.7 x 10 ) (0.833) = 3.082 x 10 cm/s
2
Cross sectional area of the specimen = 78.54 cm
-4 3
∴flow rate = (3.082 x 10 ) (78.54) = 0.0242 cm /s = 1.45
3
cm /min

Example 2
Refer to the constant-head permeability test arrangement. A test gives these values:
L = 30 cm, A = area of the specimen = 177 cm2, Constant-head difference, h = 50 cm, Water
collected in a period of 5 min = 350 cm3
Calculate the hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec.
2) Falling head permeability test
A typical arrangement of the falling-head
permeability test is shown in Figure. Water
from a standpipe flows through the soil. The
initial head difference h1 at time t = 0 is
recorded, and water is allowed to flow
through the soil specimen such that the final
head difference at time t = t2 is h2.
The rate of flow of the water through the
specimen at any time t can be given by

Where:
q = flow rate
a = cross-sectional area of the
standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil
specimen
Rearrangement of Eq. gives

Integration of the left side with limits of time

from 0 to t and the right side with limits of
head difference from h1 to h2 gives:

Or,

Example 3
For a falling-head permeability test, the following values are given:
Length of specimen = 200 mm, Area of soil specimen = 1000 mm2, Area of standpipe = 40 mm2,
Head difference at time t = 0 = 500 mm, Head difference at time t = 280 sec = 300 mm.
Determine the hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.
Solution
Given a=40 mm2, L = 200 mm, A = 1000mm2, t =280 sec, h1=500 mm, and h2=300 mm.

40∗200 500
𝑘=2.303 1000∗280 𝑙𝑜𝑔10300 = 1.46∗10−2 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
5.7 Principle of effective stress
Introduction
The soils are multiphase systems. In a given volume of soil, the solid particles are distributed
randomly with void spaces between. The void spaces are continuous and are occupied by water
and/or air. To analyze problems (such as compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of
foundations, the stability of embankments, and lateral pressure on earth-retaining structures), It
needs to know the nature of the distribution of stress in a given cross section of the soil profile.
PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPT
In saturated soils, the normal stress (σv) at any point within the soil mass is shared by
the soil grains and the water held within the pores. The component of the normal stress acting
on the soil grains, is called effective stress or intergranular stress, and is generally denoted by
σ'. The remainder, the normal stress acting on the pore water, is knows as pore water pressure
or neutral stress, and is denoted by u. Thus, the total stress at any point within the soil mass
can be written as:
σv = σv' + u. ……….. (5.1)

This applies to normal stresses in all directions at any point within the soil mass. In a dry soil,
there is no pore water pressure and the total stress is the same as effective stress. Water
cannot carry any shear stress, and therefore the shear stress in a soil element is carried by the
soil grains only.

VERTICAL NORMAL STRESSES DEU TO OVERBURDEN

In a dry soil mass having a unit weight of γ (see Figure), the normal vertical (σv) stress at a
depth of h is simply γh. If there is a uniform surcharge q placed at the ground level, this
stress becomes γh + q.

Figure: Overburden stress at a point in a homogeneous soil

In a soil mass with three different soil layers as shown in Figure, the vertical normal stress at X is
γ h +γ h +γh .
1 1 2 2 3 3

Figure: Overburden stress at a point in a layered soil

Example 4
For the soil profile, calculate the vertical stresses at points (A), (B), and (C).
Solution
For point (A), h = 0, thus 𝜎𝑣 = 0

For point (B)

𝜎𝑣 =𝛾dry1 h1 = 16.5 * 6 = 99 kN/m2

For point (C)

𝜎𝑣 =𝛾dry1 h1 + 𝛾dry2 h2 = 16.5 * 6 + 17.8 * 13 = 330.4 kN/m2

Now let’s see what happens in a saturated soil? For the soil shown in Figure, for simplicity we
will assume that the water table is at the ground level. Let the saturated unit weight and
submerged unit of the soil be 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 and 𝛾 ′ respectively. The total vertical normal stress at X is
given by:
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾sat h ……… (5.2)
The pore water pressure at this point is simply,
u = 𝛾w h ………. (5.3)
Therefore, the effective vertical normal stress is,
σv' = 𝛔𝐯 - u.
σv' = 𝛾sat h - 𝛾w h = 𝛾 ′ * h

Figure: Stress at a point in a

homogeneous saturated soil
When the water table is at some depth below the ground
level as shown in Figure, the total and effective vertical
stresses and the pore water pressure can be written as:
𝜎𝑣 = 𝛾m h1
u = 𝛾w h2
σv' = 𝛾m h1 + 𝛾 ′ * h2

Figure: Stresses at a point when the

water table is below the ground level
Example 5
For the soil profile calculate the vertical total, effective stresses and pore water pressure at
points (A), (B), and (C).
Solution
At Point A:
Total stress: 𝜎𝑣𝐴 = 0
Pore water pressure: uA = 0
Effective stress σvA' = 0
At Point B:
Total stress: 𝜎𝑣𝐵 = 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 * h1 = 16.5*6 = 99 kN/m2
Pore water pressure: uB = 0
Effective stress σvB' = 99 – 0 = 99 kN/m2
At Point C:
Total stress: 𝜎𝑣𝐶 = 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 * h1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 * h2
= 16.5*6 + 19.25 * 13 = 349.25 kN/m2
Pore water pressure: uB = 𝛾𝑤 * h2
= 9.81 * 13 = 127.53 kN/m2
Effective stress σvB' = 349.25 – 127.53 = 221.72 kN/m2
Example 6
Plot the variation of total and effective vertical stresses, and pore water pressure with depth for
the soil profile shown below:
Solution
The values of 𝜎, u, and 𝜎 ′ computed above are summarized in Table

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

The general relationship between total stress, effective stress and pore water pressure
was given as 𝜎 = 𝜎' + u
The pore water pressure (u) at a point in a layer of soil fully saturated by a capillary rise
is equal to -𝛾𝑤 h (h = height of the point under consideration measured from the groundwater
table) with the atmospheric pressure taken as a datum.
Example 7
A soil profile is shown in. Given: H1 = 1.83 m, H2 = 0.91 m, H3 = 1.83 m. Plot the variation of 𝜎,
𝜎', and u with depth.
Solution;
Determination of Unit Weight
Dry sand:
5.8 Quick sand condition
Quicksand condition occurs when seepage pressure, which acts in the upward direction,
overcomes the downward direction pressure due to submerged weight of soil, and the sand
grains are forced apart. The result is that the soil has no capability to support a load.
The soil that experiences quicksand condition would lose shear strength and bearing capacity.
The shear strength of cohesionless soil depends on the effective stress. The shear strength is
given by:

The effective stress is given by the following expression:

Fig. 1: Quick Sand Condition

The terminologies of equation 2 are explained and illustrated in fig. 1. Plugging components of
equation 2 results in the following expressions:

So, equation 5 may be expressed as follows:

Substituting the value of submerged unit weight in terms of void ratio:

Taking G=2.67, and e=0.67, the result of equation 9 is equal to one.

Thus, the effective stress becomes zero for the soil with above values of G and e, when the
hydraulic gradient ‘i’ is unity, i.e. head causing the flow is equal to the length of the specimen.
If the critical gradient exceeds, the soil moves upward, and the soil surface appears to be
boiling. The quick condition is also known as boiling condition. During this stage, a violent and
visible agitation of particles occurs. The discharge suddenly increases due to an increase in the
coefficient of permeability occurred in the process. If a weight is placed on the surface of the
soil, it sinks down. The soil behaves as a liquid having no shear strength.
5.9 Approximate stress distribution method for loaded areas
Construction of a foundation causes changes in the stress. The net stress increase in the soil
depends on the load per unit area to which the foundation is subjected, the depth below the
foundation at which the stress estimation is desired, and other factors. It is necessary to
estimate the net increase of vertical stress in soil that occurs due to construction so that
settlement can be calculated. The estimation of vertical stress is based on the theory of
elasticity.

Stresses Caused by a Point Load

Boussinesq (1883) solved the problem of
stresses produced at any point in a
homogeneous, elastic, and isotropic medium
as the result of a point load applied on the
surface of an infinitely large half-space.