International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No.

2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

Feminization of Primary School Teaching: A Societal and

Cultural Limitation to Boy-Child Education

S. D. Osaat (Ph.D) & Ukoha Okenwa

Department of Educational Foundations
Faculty of Education
University of Port Harcourt
Port Harcourt, Nigeria
[email protected], [email protected]
[email protected]

Abstract
The rate at which public primary schools are becoming increasingly dominated by female
teachers in all parts of the globe is quite alarming. News headlines such as: No Male
Teachers in 4,500 Primary Schools, A Quarter of All Primary Schools Have No Male
Teachers, Women Teachers Dominate in Congo Brazzaville Schools, and Primary School
Teaching: A Woman’s World, are eloquent testimonies that there is currently a severe
gender-imbalance issue among public primary school teachers that is gradually wiping men
out of the system, the world over. This paper is a conscientious attempt to highlight the
reality of this predicament, investigate the causes, assess the impact of same on pupils
(especially boys), and proffer solutions for it. It found, among other things, that the
dominance of female teachers in primary schools leaves boys with inadequate male role
models, affects school discipline, hampers pupils’ moral development and concludes that it
will be impossible for a fully socialized adult male to emerge from a socialization process
that featured too few or no adult males. In view of this, affirmative action on the part of
government to ensure that a fixed quota of public school teaching staff are filled by men and
an upward review of teachers’ remuneration are recommended, in the hope of motivating
more men to return to public primary school classrooms.

Keywords: Feminization, Culture, Socialization, Education, Primary School, and Boy-child.

Introduction
The socialization of children is a cardinal goal of education everywhere in the world,
especially at the primary school level. Many believe that primary schools afford the society
the best platform to lay a solid foundation that would enable the child to become successful
and productive as an adult member, the rest of his or her life.
For this to be realized, however, discipline and character-building must be taken serious in
the educational process. This is the reason why an educated man or woman is not
characterized by mere possession of knowledge and skills, but more so by the manifestation
of civilized and acceptable patterns of living. It is important to note that the standard for
determining what is acceptable, in terms of the way of life, is defined largely by the culture of
the society that is socializing the child; it goes without saying, therefore, that education is
expected to serve the interest of the society in raising individuals who not only possess a
cultural-know-how but are equally compliant to societal norms. Hence, any process or system
of education which does not take the culture of its subjects into serious consideration is not
worth the name.
The main contention here, in view of the foregoing, is that since culture manifests itself
socially in the different attitudes, behaviours, interests, and roles exhibited by men and

IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 1

 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

women, feminization of public primary schools is a major departure from cultural reality –
which occasions the misrepresentation of the society in the eyes of pupils and results in their
under-socialization.

Clarification of Concepts
Culture
Although scholars define culture in various ways, each one of them agrees that it has to do
essentially with all the influences that characterize the predominant way of life of any people.
Hornby (2010:357) opines, for instance, that culture comprises “the customs, beliefs,
behaviour and material objects that constitute a people‟s way of life.” Similarly, Fafunwa in
Okeke (2016:131) posits that culture is “the way of life of a people exemplifying their
accumulated wisdom, knowledge, and skills which are passed from one generation to
another.” Another interesting definition comes from Santrock in Okeke (2016: 131) who
considers culture as “all the products of an interacting group of people, including their
patterns of behaviour and beliefs, all of which are transferred from one generation to
another.”

The clearly outstanding idea in all the definitions above is that of the aggregate of all factors
that shape the lifestyle of any particular people. It will therefore be logical to describe culture
as all the ingredients of living that make social life both livable and worth living. To illustrate
the extensiveness of these ingredients, Gonzalez-Mena (2008:7) quips:
the term culture includes the way lives are influenced by race,
gender, age, abilities and disabilities, language, social class,
including status and economic level, education, religion and /
or spiritual practice, geographical roots of the family and
present location as well. Sexuality, including sexual orientation
is also part of the picture.

Believing that the list is endless, Tischler in Dienye (2012:83) extends it to include “all that
human beings learn to do, to know, to produce and to believe as they grow to maturity and
live out their lives in the social groups to which they belong”.

Socialization
The definitions of culture discussed above give a clue that culture is both learned and
transmitted. One of the processes by which people learn the culture of their society is
socialization. In view of this, Anthony (2001:87) writes that socialization is “the process
through which the culture of a society is transmitted to its new members.” Onyido (2016:36)
concurs that it is “the process through which new generations learn the necessary skills,
morals, and philosophies that will aid them in becoming productive citizens of tomorrow.” In
Dienye (2012:98), socialization is considered as “the process by which persons acquire the
knowledge, skills and dispositions that make them integrated members of the society,”
Many scholars hold the view that socialization transforms the individual from a mere
biological being to a typical social being, which implies that it replaces their animalistic
tendencies with human inclinations (Onyido, 2016; Dienye, 2012). Corroborating this view,
Maccionis in Dienye (2012:98) defines socialization as “the life-long social experience by
which individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture.”

Education
The term “education” is really not an easy concept to explain. In the first place, education has
the attribute of growth, like a living organism, which makes it amenable to changes in
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 2
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

response to changing times and circumstances. Secondly, many people look at education
from different perspectives – sociological, humanistic or ethical. Again, the term “education”
is inseparably linked to the way of life and core beliefs of any community where it is
practiced; since no two cultures or societies are exactly the same, education means different
things to different groups of people and, therefore, consistently defies attempts to squeeze it
into a single, universally satisfactory definition. In spite of its volatile nature, scholars have
made numerous commendable efforts to define education instructively. This paper will,
however, highlight the sociological views only, due to space constraint.

Nwangwu in Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2001:24) is of the opinion that education is “the process

by which every society attempts to preserve and upgrade the accumulated knowledge, skills,
and attitudes in its cultural setting and heritage, in order to foster continuously the well-being
of mankind …” O‟Connor echoes the idea that education is a machinery of the society,
affirming that it is “the process by which societies through schools, colleges, universities and
other institutions deliberately transmit their cultural heritage” (Okoh & Omordu, 2013:14;
Osaat, 2010:21; Dienye, 2012:94). These sociological definitions strongly emphasize that
education is a cultural activity which basically serves the interest of the society. Kolhberg and
Mayer (1987:48) put this fact succinctly by noting that “educating consists of transmitting
knowledge, skills and moral rules of the culture” adding that, though the rules of the culture
may change or remain static in the course of time, education remains “the transmission of the
culturally given.”

Modelling
As a derivative of the word „model‟, the term „modeling‟ applies both to teaching
(exemplifying, demonstrating or showing to others how to behave) and learning (emulating
or copying from others how to behave). From the point of view of copying behavior,
modeling means patterning one‟s behaviour or lifestyle after those of another person that one
esteems and wants to be like. To Strong and De Vault (1989) it is the act of imitating the
behaviour of influential people. In this regard, Wikitionary (n.d) explains that modeling is the
act of acquiring novel skills by simply imitating others. From the perspective of setting
examples of good behaviour, modelling speaks of consistently portraying desirable attitudes
and behaviours for someone else (particularly, a younger fellow) to copy. Hence, Gallimore
and Tharp in Umeasiegbu (2014) picture modelling as the intentional or unintentional display
of worthwhile or desirable manners, behaviours, etc. in a way that influences the behaviours
of others. Similarly, Gonzalez-Mena (2008:152) states that modeling is “a teaching device
and guidance tool in which an adult‟s attitude or behaviour becomes an example the child
consciously or unconsciously imitates.” She points out that whether or not they know it,
adults are constantly modeling for children (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). More or less, therefore,
modeling is an educational process that not only makes it possible for children to pick up and
re-enact behaviours but also enables them to inhibit or drop certain others (Wikipedia, n.d).

The Boy-Child
This paper focuses on the male child of primary school age, between six and twelve years.
The primary school age is a period when children grapple with the challenge of personality
development. They experience what psychologists call „gender consistency‟ – the realization
that sex and gender are invariant and permanent (Kohlberg, 1987; Lippa, 1990; Shaffer &
Kipp, 2007). Relating what happens from the time children achieve gender consistency,
Shaffer and Kipp (2007:536) write:
And when they finally understand, at the age of 6 or 7
that their gender will never change, children begin to
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 3
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

focus less exclusively on gender schemas and to pay more

and more attention to same-sex models to decide which
attitudes, activities, interests, and mannerisms are most
appropriate for members of their own sex.

To confirm this from a boy-child‟s perspective, Kohlberg (1987:536) recapitulates:

To prefer the same sex in a consistent or categorical
manner required conceptual growth and the development
of fixed logical classes. For boys under 5, liking the same
sex applies only to peers. By age 6 or 7 it applies to both
father and strange adults. At this age, measures of
preference and imitation for the father over the mother
indicate the first gender cross-over to same-sex
preference. Thus, what is often called father-
identification, as well as what is called masculinity of
values, grows with and out of the cognitive growth of a
boy‟s gender identity.

This indubitable fact of life is further reiterated by Spock and Rothenberg (1985) who
observe that the actual source of the boy-child‟s strong sex identity are not the toy cars and
trucks or cowboy suits he gets from his parents, but essentially the positive relationship he
has from early childhood with his father, which inspires him to want to become exactly like
him. They quickly clarify that those who lack a father have a way of creating one in their
imagination out of the pleasant qualities they see regularly in friendly men. A group of
scholars led by Luecke-Aleksa in Shaffer and Kipp (2007) found that even while watching
television, they pay more attention to male characters than to females. In essence, not having
enough male teachers in primary schools amounts to leaving boys behind, thereby making
schooling less interesting to them. It is more like watching Real Madrid Football Club play a
crucial match without Ronaldo or Barcelona FC, without Messi. Their real fans will feel
unenthused and dissatisfied, though the teams have a complete eleven-man squad of capable
players on the field of play; they want to see that star-player who does differently the same
thing the other players are doing. Boys look-out for male teachers the same way ardent
football fans lookout for their play-maker. In fact, the boy-child is naturally hardwired with
an intrinsic and desperate yearning for adult male influence and inspiration as a model.

Feminization of Schools
Bradley in Flynn (2010) extensively addresses the issue of feminization of school
environment and curriculum, which he believes is impacting the boy child negatively. The
tendency for teachers to select books, materials, and activities that suit the feminine gender
will definitely be very high in schools where all or an overwhelming majority of the teachers
are females; this makes boys feel that education or schooling is a female enterprise (Flynn,
2010). Even when there happens to be an activity that boys like, the way „aunties‟ control it,
like: „don‟t shout‟, „don‟t push one another‟, „no competition‟, „there are no winners and no
losers‟ all contradict the boy-child‟s gregarious and competitive nature and therefore, makes
it uninteresting to him. Bradley notes that this is like preventing boys from actually being
boys or from behaving as such (Flynn, 2010). In effect countless thousands of primary school
boys struggle through school with rising class-work and little or no competitive, physical
activities among themselves (Paton, 2011).News reports evidence that this is happening in all
parts of the world today.

IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 4

 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

In England, for instance, no male teachers were found in 4,569 (27%) primary schools
(Paton, 2011). The Telegraph has a similar report captioned, “Male Teacher: a Most Wanted
Man” in which it describes male primary school teachers as an „endangered species‟ and cites
a survey conducted by the Training and Development Agency (TDA) which found that about
50% of primary school pupils in England have never been in contact with a male teacher
(Westland, 2009).

In the Republic of Ireland, 1,417 primary schools (43.1%) had no male teachers as at March
2004 and in Scotland, the General Teaching Council (GTC) raised a shocking alarm that
women constituted of 92% of the 2002 / 2003 set of probationary primary schoolteachers
(Carr, 2004). The story is the same in Canada where a notable scholar laments that a lot of
children could now go from nursery to high school without ever interacting with a single
male teacher in some parts of Quebec (Flynn, 2010). In Ontario, another Canadian state, one
primary school teacher in every five is a male (Carr, 2004).

An eloquent observation from a daily that male teachers are gradually heading for extinction
is a confirmation that, even in far-away Australia, male teachers are phasing out fast.
Describing the situation as „chronic‟, a news reporter points out that about 90 public primary
schools in a particular province do not have any male teachers. In confirmation of this report,
Opie (2016) laments that male primary school teachers are now very hard to come by in
Australian public schools. She expresses fear that, with the constant recession in the number
of men who apply for studies in education, male primary school teachers may soon become
history.

Africa is not left out of this evolution. Congo Brazzaville‟s public primary schools are
overwhelmingly dominated by female teachers who constitute 82% and are said to be given
the priority over men (Africa Review, 2013). A study conducted in Aba-North Local
Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria revealed that five of the eleven schools surveyed
had one male teacher each, while the remaining six had no single male teacher at all
(Okenwa, 2012).A recent study conducted in the neighbouring Rivers State shows there is a
serious problem of gender-imbalance among public primary school teachers with women
being a whopping 63% majority (Okenwa, 2018).

Speaking on the impact of gender-imbalance among primary school teachers, Strong and De
Vault (1989:91) observed that:
The effects are surprisingly rapid; simply by moving in
a particular area and giving attention to a particular
type of play, a teacher, within minutes, can eliminate
sex differences in play patterns that were “obvious” all
semester … the fact that such behaviour can be
eliminated quickly shows the enormous impact of the
environment – including the teacher – on children‟s
day-to-day conformity to sex roles.

Some Factors Responsible for the Feminization of schools

i. Low Status / Pay
Teaching is rated lowly among other professions, almost everywhere in the world. Many
think the teachers‟ working conditions and pay are considerably poor, in comparison with
those of some other professionals. A research conducted by Men Teach, reportedly suggests
that low status and pay discourage men from going into teaching (Snyder, 2010). Alluding to
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 5
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

this, Nelson (2011) and James (2013) argue that, as primary bread-winners, most men would
naturally feel emasculated to engage in such a lowly-paying job. Stated in clear terms,
therefore, men have abandoned teaching because of its loss of prestige. Boys now opt for
science-oriented disciplines that would lead to high-paying jobs; others simply go into
business because it offers quicker and greater rewards (Pech, 2011; Carr, 2014). Even the few
who venture into teaching consider themselves as passers-by taking primary school teaching
jobs as a stepping stone to some other better-paying jobs (Aminigo, 2003).

ii. Stereotype that Teaching is Women’s Work

There is a wide-spread misconception that the primary school teaching job is a women‟s
preserve (Rich, 2014). People who hold this erroneous view try to justify it by arguing that
women are naturally more nurturing than men and therefore more suited for the job. This
stereotype is partly the mistake of equating the primary school with early childhood care
development and educations where care-giving are nurturing are the main objectives. The
truth, however, is that the primary school differs from early childhood care centers in the
sense that it begins at just the very point (age six) when children generally grapple with
gender-typing challenges and, therefore, need same-sex models.

iii. Discriminatory Policies

It is unfortunate that in some places, men who indicate interest in teaching primary school
pupils are turned down or discriminated against. A teacher in Florida discloses that some
school administrators now have a policy of never hiring a male teacher in order to completely
avoid issues of paedophilia (Paton, 2011). Reacting to this, Habor in Snyder (2008) argues
that the bias against male applicants is very unfair, since men are not the only people who
commit paedophilia. He reveals that as at May 2010, all eight of the teachers arrested for
involvement in sex with students in Florida were female.
Not long ago, a discriminatory policy to hire only women for teaching in public primary and
secondary schools became effective in a certain Pakistanian province (Ullah, 2017).The
gender-imbalance among male and female teachers will continue to worsen unless
discrimination against male applicants is nipped in the bud.

Consequences of the Feminization of Schools

i. Boys’ Loss of Interest in Schooling
The Telegraph reports an alarming rate of truancy lately, with boys being the notorious
culprits. This frightening disclosure was made amidst apprehensions that boys now find
school repellent due to shortage of positive role models (Paton, 2011). It does appear that the
hyperactive nature of the boy-child requires lots of psychomotor engagements to satisfy; the
school can hardly hold any attraction for him as long as it fails to make adequate provisions
for this.

ii. Boys’ Academic Under-achievement

Sequel to their loss of interest in school, as a result of disinteresting school environment and
curriculum, boys end up performing badly in academics. Levin in Paton (2011) reportedly
feels that the education system is to blame for this situation. Admitting that there is a serious
problem of boys‟ academic under-performance in many places, he regrets that the increasing
feminization of schools is not giving them a fair bargain.

iii. Alarming Rate of Indiscipline

Scholars have found that the under-representation of any gender among teachers is capable of
eliciting deviant behaviour in learners of that particular gender (Okeke, 2016). There is no
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 6
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

gainsaying the fact that indiscipline has assumed an alarming proportion in primary schools
today, especially among boys. A confirmation of this comes from Paton (2011) who cites a
government source which laments that pupils‟ unruly behaviour is discouraging many
professionals from remaining on the job. Pech (2011) noted that most young pupils from poor
backgrounds, who feel strongly about traditional stereotypical gender roles, readily resist the
female teacher‟s authority. Figures from England show that assaults on teachers reached a
five-year high in 2010, with forty-four seriously injured persons rushed to hospital (Paton,
2011).

iv. Dearth of Adult Male Role Models

Another major effect of the gender imbalance among primary school teachers is that positive
role-models for boys are fast disappearing. Boys, regrettably do not have easy access to
positive role-models as do girls. A lot of factors have combined to make single parenting
rampant and mothers are usually the custodial parents in families where parents are either
separated or divorced. In many homes fathers spend long hours daily at work and other social
engagements. Now, primary school teachers who are supposed to offer pupils wholesome
socialization, on behalf of their parents and the entire society, are now being dominated by
female teachers, thereby leaving boys with no choice than to resort to weak, passive, and
immoral role-models who dominate the entertainment industry (Briggs, 1975). The bottom
line is that the society pays dearly for this in the long run in form of high crimes rate. This is
the very point that gives these writers the greatest concern.

v. Under-Socialization of the Boy-Child

It is important to keep in mind that schools are institutional arrangements put in place by
every society to ensure the successful and complete socialization of their children; teachers
serve as socializing agents representing the society, to make sure that this is achieved.
However, the feminization of primary schools hinders the full realization of this noble
objective, on the part of the boy-child.

The point is that the feminization of primary schools undermines the fact that the society
(which teachers represent) is populated by men and women and that the culture of every
society (which teachers are to transmit) manifests or expresses itself socially by means of the
varied roles men and women perform. A situation where male teachers are either grossly
under-represented or totally non-existent in a school setting presents an unwholesome,
distorted picture of the society to pupils; it particularly puts a limit to the adult male way of
life the boy-child sees and imbibes. This is so because there is limit to the degree of
masculine habits, traits, behaviours, attitudes and characteristics that female teachers can
practically and effectively exemplify for the boy-child. Boys are, in effect, being under-
socialized in most schools, as it is impossible to expect a fully socialized adult male to
emerge from a socialization process that featured too few or no adult men.

Conclusion
Culture sees individuals everywhere as either males or females and assigns different roles to
them accordingly. Since the transmission of what obtains in a people‟s culture is a manifest
goal of their education, the feminization of primary schools poses a societal and cultural
limitation to boy-child education by preventing him from seeing the male perspective of life
in his culture which he is expected to copy or emulate.
The lingering debate on whether or not the teacher‟s gender matters to pupils‟ educational
development has polarized scholars for too long; while some believe it does, others think
otherwise. However, considering the fact that meaningful education, as all scholars admit,
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 7
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

develops pupils mentally, morally, and physically, it appears logical to reason as follows:
i. That, as for pupils‟ mental or intellectual development, the teacher‟s gender may
not matter at all, since much of what are required for effectiveness are the
teacher‟s level of knowledge of the subject matter and his / her ability to
communicate or impart same to pupils.

ii. That, as for pupils‟ moral and physical developments, the teacher‟s gender does
really matter, since so much will depend on how the teacher manages or handles
both pupils, activities and situations, as well as how practically effective the
teacher is at performing certain physical, social and cultural roles, rather than how
much knowledge he or she possesses.

iii. Given that education, more than simply taking care of pupils‟ mental or
intellectual development, is concerned with their moral and physical development
both of which men and women naturally handle or manage differently, owing to
their varied psychological and physical make-ups; to contend that the teacher‟s
gender is inconsequential to pupils‟ educational development is to hold a narrow
and illogical view of education and is, therefore, not true.

Recommendations
Considering the fact that men, as primary bread-winners, generally find it extremely difficult
to stay on low-income / status jobs, it is strongly recommended that government should effect
an upward review of primary school teachers‟ remuneration, in order to make teaching at that
level more attractive and comfortable for men.
Based on the fact that most scholars view a gender-balanced teaching corps as the best
arrangement for enhancing pupils‟ education, it is recommended that government should take
affirmative action to guarantee that public primary schools are henceforth staffed by equal
numbers of male and female teachers.
In view of the fact that unless more young people pursue degree programmes in teaching, the
number of male teachers will continue to decline, it is recommended that government should
motivate more young men to go in for education courses at the university / college level by
granting them scholarship.

References
Africa Review (2013). Women teachers dominate congo brazzaville schools. Retrieved
from:www.africareview.com/news/women-teachers-on-the-rise-in-congo/979180- on
05/01/18.
Akindutire, I. O. & Adu, F. O. (eds). (2002). Nigeria certificate in education series, book 1.
Ado Ekiti: Green Line Publishers.
Aleyidemo, S. C. (ed) (n.d). Post graduate diploma in education (PDE) book 3. Kaduna:
National Teachers‟ Institute.
Aminigo, I. M. (2003). Educational philosophy and national development. Buguma: Hanging
Gardens Publishers.
Anthony, I. C. (2001). Social studies for schools: A comprehensive way to understand our
environment. Okposi: CityBest Printing Company.
Briggs, D. C. (1975). Your child’s self-esteem. New York: Dolphin Doubleday.
Carr, J. (2004). [ed]. Gender imbalance in primary teaching – A discussion document. From
https://www.into.ie/ROI/publications/GenderImbalancePrimaryTeaching.pdf retrieved
on 04/06/2017
Dienye, V. U. (2012). Sociology of education. Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 8
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

Flynn, A. (2010). Jon Bradley: Are we leaving our boys behind? Retrieved on 14/06/2017
from:http://www.menteach.org/mens_stories/jon_bradley_are_we_leaving_our_boys_
behind?
Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2008). Foundation of early childhood education. New York: McGraw
Hill Companies
Hornby, A. S. (2010). Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary, international student’s edition.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
James, S. D. (2013). Why there is a shortage of male teachers in elementary schools.
Retrieved on 14/07/2017 from https://www.aol.com/2013/03/25/men-teachers-
elementary-school/
Kohlberg, L. (1987). The young child as a philosopher. In Kohlberg, L (ed). Child
psychology and childhood education: A cognitive-developmental view. New York &
London: Longman Inc.
Kohlberg, L. & Mayer, R. (1987). Development as the aim of education. In Kohlberg, L (ed).
Child psychology and childhood education: A cognitive-developmental view. New
York & London: Longman Inc.
Lippa, R. A. (1990). Introduction to social psychology. California: Wadsworth Publishing
Company.
Nelson, A. (2011). Men who teach early grades are rare role models. The Georgia Bulletin,
February 3, 2011. Retrieved on June 14, 2017 from https://georgiabulletin.org/news/
2011/02/men-who-teach-early-grades-are-rare-role-models/
Nwanna-Nzewunwa, O. P. (2009). Sociology of education for certificate and diploma
students. Port Harcourt: Springfield Publishers Ltd.
Okeke, E. C. (2016). Education and society: From sociological perspectives. Port Harcourt:
Pearl Publishers International Ltd.
Okenwa, U. (2018). Gender-imbalance among public primary school teachers and pupils‟
moral development in rivers state, nigeria. Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of
Education, University of Port Harcourt, in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the degree of Master in Education.
Okenwa, U. (2012). Shortage of male primary school teacher and its effects on the school
system: a case study of Aba-north lga of abia state. An unpublished PGDE Research
Project Submitted to the Faculty of Education, Usmanu Danfodiyo University,
Sokoto.
Okoh, J. D. & Omordu, C. (2013). Philosophy of education. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.
Onyido, J. A. (2016). Sociology of education made easy. Port Harcourt: Gen-x Press.
Opie, R. (2016). Male teachers’ number dwindling, work in education an ‘isolation
experience’ for men. Retrieved on 27/07/2017 from www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-
22/number-of-male-teachers-dwindling-isolating-experience-for-men/7178766
Osaat, S. D. (2010). Philosophy of education: An assessment. Port Harcourt: Shapea
Publishers Ltd.
Paton, G. (2008). Paedophile hysteria preventing men applying to work in primary schools.
Retrieved, 4/06/17from:
https://www.ipce.info/newsletters/e_28/hysteria_preventing.htm
Paton, G. (2011). Student teachers to be taught to handle unruly pupils. Retrieved, 4/06/2017
from www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8601751/student-teachers-to-be-
taught-to-handle-unruly-pupils.html
Paton, G (2011). Boys more likely to struggle in co-ed schools. Retrieved, 14/06/2017 from
www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews/8628868/boys-more-likely-to-
struggle-in-co-ed-schools-says-top-head.html
Paton, G. (2011). No male teachers at 4,500 primary schools, figures show. Retrieved,
IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 9
 International Journal of Education and Evaluation ISSN 2489-0073 Vol. 4 No. 2 2018
www.iiardpub.org

14/06/17 from www.telegraph.co.uk/news/8734967/No-male-teachers-at-4500-

primary-school-figures-show.html
Pech, M. E. (2011). Measuring the effects of male teacher shortage. Retrieved, 14/06/2017
from plus.lefigaro.fr/note/measuring-the-effects-0f-male-teacher-shortage-20110914-
547682
Rich, M. (2014). Why don’t more men get into teaching? Retrieved, June 14, 2017 from
https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/07/sunday-review/why-dont-more-men=go-into-
teaching.html
Shaffer, D. R. & Kipp, K. (2007). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence.
California: Thomas Learning Inc.
Snyder, T. (2008). Male call: Recruiting more men to teach elementary schools. Retrieved on
14/07/2017 from https://www.edutopia.org/male-teachers-shortage
Spock, B. & Rothenberg, M. B. (1985). Dr. spock’s baby and childcare. New York: Pocket
Books.
Strong, B. & De Vault, C. (1989). The marriage and family experience, 4th ed. Minnesota:
West Publishing Company.
Ullah, H. (2017). Feminization of primary school teaching in KP. Retrieved on 27/07/2017
from www.fp.brecorder.com/2017/05/2017518179835/
Umeasiegbu, (2014). The teacher as a role model. In Umerah, C; Akaegbobi, O. & Eyisi, J.
(eds). Excellence in the teaching profession. Lagos: Transworld Times Press (Africa)
Ltd.
Westland, N. (2009). Male teacher: A most wanted man. Retrieved on 27/07/2017 from
www.telegraph.co.uk/education/4347966/male-teacher-a-most-wanted-man.html
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. (n.d). Primary school. Retrieved on June 7, 2017 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/primary_school
Wikitionary. (n.d). Modeling. Retrieved from: https://en.wikitionary.org/wiki/modeling
on August 5, 2017.
Woodhead, C. (2002). Male black teachers needed. Retrieved on 14/07/2017 from:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/1747096.stm

IIARD – International Institute of Academic Research and Development Page 10