Basic Electrical Engineering

Chapter 1
General Electric System

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 What is electricity?
Electricity is a form of energy which is associated with the movement of charge
(electrons) along a conductor.
Electricity is a secondary energy that can be obtained from different primary sources.
Primary energy consists of unconverted or original fuels. Secondary energy
includes resources that have been converted or stored.
 Primary energy sources include petroleum, natural gas, coal, biomass, flowing
water, wind, and solar radiation. Those are the fuels that can be mined, reaped,
extracted, harvested, or harnessed directly.
 Secondary energy cannot be harnessed directly from nature; rather, secondary
energy is energy that has already been converted. For example, electricity cannot
be mined or harvested. It is generated as a secondary form from primary fuels, like
natural gas, flowing water, sun, wind, etc.

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 Fig. 1.1

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 Electrical energy is superior to other forms of energy due to the following reasons.
•Convenient form: Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy compared to the
other form of energy. Because it can be easily converted from one form to the desired form
of energy. Examples are light bulbs, heaters, electric motors, etc.
•Easy control: The electrically operated machines have very simple and convenient
technique to control and operate. Almost all operations can be controlled by switches.
•Less polluting: Use of electricity doesn’t produce any polluting exhausts.
Flexibility: The most important factor of the superiority of electrical energy over other
forms of energy is the flexibility that it provides. It can be easily transferred from one
location to other location with the help of conductors.
Less expensive: Electrical energy is the most economical form of energy among over all
forms.
Higher transmission efficiency: The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated
at a distance from the generation center. The electrical energy can be easily transmitted
from the generation center to the consumers with the help of overhead transmission lines
very conveniently and efficiently.
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 Role of Electricity in Modern Society
Modern society is the electrical society !
Electricity is one of the greatest technological innovations of mankind.
It has now become a part of our daily life and one cannot think of a world without electricity.
Imagine a world without electricity! Or Imagine a world without facebook and Instagram 

We can’t imagine life without electric light, telephone, mobile phone, electric trains,
electric motors, televisions, room heaters, movies ------. Electricity has become so
ubiquitous that we take it for granted.
Electricity has made humans an incredibly intelligent, aware and healthier society. Without
electricity, hospitals would have significantly less medical equipment available.
Most peoples’ living quality would be significantly reduced if electricity were to somehow
disappear.
In the past century and a half, electricity has steadily evolved from a scientific curiosity, to a
luxury of the affluent, to a modern need. Along the way, it has been shaped by a variety of non-
technological factors: economic, political, social, and environmental, to name a few.
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  Electricity is the basis of most modern inventions and naturally without it, the 21st
century would be comparable to the 19th.
 One only needs to consider the consequences of a relatively short power outage
factories close down, phones and computers go dead, traffic slows to a crawl, food
spoils in refrigerators to accurately observe how power-dependent our society has
become.

In summary, we need electricity

- in home
- in work
- in transportation
- in hospitals
- in recreational activities
- ---------

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 The development level of a nation can be assessed by its per capita electrical
energy consumption.
Large per capita electrical energy consumption means well equipped households, vibrant
commercial activities, advanced transportation facilities and a large industrial output.
Table 1.1
Country Average electrical energy per
capita (kWh per person per year)
USA 12,071
Norway 24,006
Japan 7,371
China 4,417
India 1,300
Bangladesh 351
Nepal 267 (2020 AD)
World Average 2,700
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 Sources of Electrical Energy
Electricity can be harnessed from a wide variety of sources. Here are the most common
sources:
Hydro
Electrical energy created from water stored in huge dams. The energy created by the
water released from these dams is transformed into electricity by hydro-electric turbines
and generators. It is less expensive than mining fossil fuels and does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect.
Fossil fuels
Heat energy obtained by burning the fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, etc.) is utilized to heat
water and the turbine is rotated by the steam.
Nuclear energy
Heat energy obtained during the nuclear reaction (fission, fusion) is utilized to heat water
and the turbine is rotated by the steam.

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 Solar Radiation
The energy contained in the solar radiation can be converted into electricity by using
solar photovoltaic cells.

Wind
Moving air which is created when the sun heats the air and cooler air moves in to replace
it. This causes wind. Through the ages people have learned to harness the wind's energy.
Like the sun, it can also be used to create electricity. Wind power generates less than 1%
of the electricity in Australia, but more wind farms are being built every year.

Geothermal
Heat energy is available beneath the earth surface in some places in the form of hot water
or hot rocks. This heat energy is utilized to produce water steam and rotate the turbines.

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 Fig. 1.2

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 1.1 Constituent Parts of an Electrical System
1.1.1 Generation, Transmission, Distribution of Electrical Energy

Fig. 1.3
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 Generation (Source):
Hydropower is the main
source of electricity in
Nepal.
Potential energy of water
in reservoir is passed
through Penstock to a
water turbine. Potential
Energy of water is
transferred to mechanical
rotation by means of
water turbine. A shaft
coupled with turbine
rotates the Generator and
Fig. 1.4
electricity is produced.

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 Transmission:
Generally power station are far from load
centers. So electricity generated is
required to transferred from generation
station to load centers via transmission
line. Power is transmitted at very high
voltage to reduce losses. But the power is
not generated at low voltage. Generated
voltage is raised up to transmission
voltage level by using step-up
transformer. Then it is transmitted to
different parts of the country via
transmission towers and lines. There are
also some substations which interconnects
different transmission lines. Fig. 1.5
Interconnected network of transmission
line is also known as grid.
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 Distribution:
Near the load center, at distribution substation
the transmitted voltage is reduced to Primary
Distribution voltages 11kV, 33kV or 66kV via
step down transformer from which electricity
for large industrial consumer can be supplied.
A number branches of primary distribution
supply starts from distribution substation and
which is known as feeders. From feeders,
voltage is further reduced to 220V380V via
pole mounted distribution transformer to
supply small industrial, commercial as well as
domestic Consumer. It is known as secondary
distribution.

Fig. 1.6
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 Utilization (Load):
Electricity is supplied to different consumers via connection lines through an Energy
meter which is used to determine monthly electricity consumption of that consumer.
Domestic: Electricity is used for mainly lighting, cooking, heating and cooling,
cleaning, personal caring, computer and entertainment.
Commercial: Lights, office equipment, computer and entertainment, heating and
cooling, cooking, personal caring, lift, elevator, etc.
Industrial Load: Motors, lights, HVAC, etc.
Transport Load: Electric trains, trams, trolley busses, cable cars, electric vehicle
charging stations, etc.
Agricultural Load: Water pumps used in irrigation

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 1.1.2 Control and Communication in an Electrical System
Control and Protection:
Electrical systems are generally very large and complex networks. Control and protection
of different equipment and the overall network is very important. Such control and
protection is done by the means of different switches, sensors and breakers.
A switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with
power system control and protection. It also includes all devices associated with metering
and regulating of electrical power systems. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner
forms switchgear. In other words systems used for switching, controlling and protecting
the electrical power circuits and different types of electrical equipment are known as
switchgear. This is very basic definition of switchgear.
Simplest examples of control and protection devices are low-voltage switches and re-
wirable fuses used in our homes.

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 Communication:
For the smooth operation of the electrical power system, reliable communication among
the different components of the network is necessary. Electrical system employ almost
all types of communication mediums ranging from telephone to advanced
communication networks.
Use of digital systems, proprietary software, robotics and artificial intelligence has
already become common for communication in power networks.

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 1.2 Current Flow in a Circuit
First, lets talk about some basic concepts regarding electric circuits.
Circuit Concepts
Circuit: A circuit is a conducting path through which an electric current either flows or
is intended to flow.

(a)
(b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.7
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A simple practical circuit
Fig. 1.8
A radio transmitter circuit (example of a complex network)
Fig. 1.9

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 Network: A complex circuit is also termed as the electrical network or network.
Parameters: The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters. Most
common parameters are resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C). These
parameters may be lumped or distributed.
Parameters are also called circuit elements.
Passive Element: An element which absorbs or dissipates electrical energy is passive
element. R, L and C are passive elements.
Passive Circuit: A circuit which doesn’t have a source of emf in it is a passive circuit.
Active Element: An element which is capable of supplying electrical energy is active
element. Battery and generator are active elements.
Active Circuit: A circuit which contains one or more than one source of emf in it is an
active circuit.

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 Node: A node is a junction in circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected
together.
Branch: Branch is the part of the network (circuit) lying between the nodes.

Loop : A loop is any closed path

in a circuit.
Such a closed path is formed by
starting at a node, passing
through a set of nodes, and
returning to the starting node
without passing through any
node more than once.

Fig. 1.10
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 Flow of current in a material:
Current is the flow of charge in a medium (material). A material in which charge can
flow with ease is called a conductor. Metals are generally very good conductors. So
circuit elements are generally connected to each other with metallic wires.

Metals conduct electricity well due to the fact that the outermost electrons in their
atoms are held by weak atomic forces, allowing these electrons to flow easily from one
atom to another. This flow of electrons is what lies at the heart of an electric current.
When an electric field is applied to a metal, it causes these electrons to move. Metals
conduct electricity by allowing free electrons to move between the atoms. These
electrons are not associated with a single atom or covalent bond. Since like charges
repel each other, the movement of one free electron within the lattice dislodges those in
the next atom, and the process repeats – moving in the direction of the current, toward
the positively charged end. Since each electron shares the same electrical charge, the
particles repel one another strongly.

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 Current can flow in a conductor when two conditions are fulfilled.
(i) A closed conducting path (ii) An emf (electromotive force) source

Open
Closed conducting path (no closed path)

No closed path
emf source No current

(b)

(a)
No emf source
No current
Fig. 1.11 (c)
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 As a physical quantity, current is the rate at which charge flows past a point on a circuit.
As depicted in the diagram below, the current in a circuit can be determined if the
quantity of charge Q passing through a cross section of a wire in a time t can be
measured. The current is simply the ratio of the quantity of charge and time.
Proton in atom has positive charge and electron has negative charge. The charge on a
single electron is -1.6×10-19 Coulomb and on a single proton is +1.6×10-19 Coulomb. We
can consider charge Q as the amount of electrons in movement.
So, Current is expressed mathematically as
or in the language of calculus,

where, I is current, Q is charge in Coulomb

and t is time in seconds. Unit of current is
Amperes (Coulombs/sec)
Fig. 1.12

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 Quick Q/A:
1) What is the value of current in the following figures?

(a) (b)

2) A current of 3 A flows for 30 seconds. How much charge has flowed.

3) A current of 20 A flows in a circuit. How long does it take for 5000 C of charge
to flow?

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 1.3 Potential, Potential Difference and Electromotive Force
Lets start with the gravitational analogy.
A gravitational field exists about the Earth
that exerts gravitational influences upon all
masses located in the space surrounding it.
If we want to move an object up along the
gravitational field from the surface of the
Earth, we have to do ‘work’ against the
gravity. Moving an object upward against
the gravitational field increases its
gravitational potential energy. An object
moving downward within the gravitational
field would lose gravitational potential
energy. Earth surface has zero
gravitational potential.
Earth’s Gravitational Field
Fig. 1.13
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 In the similar manner, an electric field
exists around a charge (or a charged
object). Electric field lines begin at the
positive charge and end at negative charge.
Each point or surface around a charge is
associated with a certain amount of electric
field strength.
If there are multiple charges in the vicinity
of a point, the total electric field strength is
determined by the vector addition of the
individual field strengths.
Now, if we want to move a charge in this
field, some sort of ‘work’ against this field
is necessary.
Fig. 1.14
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 For example, lets suppose there are two point charges q1 and q2. The force of attraction
or repulsion between two charges q1 and q2 will be governed by Coulomb’s Law which
states that the force will be proportional to product of the charges q1 × q2 and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance ‘R’ between them and depends upon the
medium in which the charges are placed.

Where,
F is the force in Newtons
q1 and q2 are the charges in coulombs
R is the distance in meters
is the permittivity of the medium in Farads / meter
The Absolute Permittivity for free space or vacuum,

Hence, to move a charge in the electric field, we have to work against this force.

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 Electric Potential:
The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as being numerically equal
to the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to the point.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity and it has the volt (V) as its unit. Volt is actually
joule/coulomb.
𝑾
Thus,
𝑸 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒔

Based on this definition, the potential at infinity is zero.

The electric potential at a given point in an electric field is one volt, if the work done
in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric field is
one joule.

Point at infinite
distance
Fig. 1.15
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 Potential Difference:
In practice, we are more concerned with the electric potential difference (p.d) between
two points than the absolute value of electric potential in a point.
The electrical potential difference VA-VB between points A and B is defined as the
amount of work done to carrying a unit charge from one point to another in an electric
field. In other words, the potential difference is defined as the difference in the electric
potential of the two charged bodies. The unit of potential difference is volt (V)
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is one volt, if the work
done in moving a unit positive charge from the point of lower potential to the point of
higher potential against the electric field is one joule.

Fig. 1.16
 If VA > VB then VAB will be positive and is known as potential drop or voltage drop
from point A to point B.
 If VA < VB then VAB will be negative. VBA= (VB – VA) = –VAB
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 Electromotive Force (emf):
The energy needed to set up a current in a conductor is called
electromotive force (emf).
In other words, in an electric circuit , electromotive force is the
work done by a source on an electrical charge.
To have current flowing in an conductor, we need to impress a
potential difference on it, i.e. we need to connect its two ends to
the two terminals of a source of electrical energy.
For example, within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs that
transfers electrons from one terminal (leaving it positively
charged) to another terminal (leaving it negatively charged). So
there exists a potential difference between these two terminals. Fig. 1.17
If the two terminals of this battery are connected to the two ends of a conductor forming a
closed path, a current flows in the conductor. We can use this current to light a bulb or
heater, etc. Here, the battery is a source of electromotive force (emf). A generator too is a
source of emf, although its principles are completely different from that of a battery.
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 Hence, we can say that an emf source converts some other type of energy into electric
energy (in the form of potential difference). In a battery, chemical energy is converted
into electrical energy whereas in a generator, mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy.
If we can keep the potential
difference constant by
maintaining the conversion
continuous (the chemical
reaction inside the battery or
the speed of the turbine in case
of generator), the flow of
current is continuous.
The electrical energy thus
supplied by an emf source can (a) Battery as an EMF Source (b) Generator as an EMF Source
be utilized as per our need.
Fig. 1.18
The term ‘electromotive force’ is actually a misnomer. Why?
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 1.4 Electrical Units
The ampere is the basic of electrical units. It is an SI base unit, the only electrical unit
derived from the outcome of an experiment.
(1) Ampere
The definition of the SI unit of current, the ampere, comes from the study of magnetism.
Electric currents in wires give rise to magnetic fields. Those magnetic fields in turn give
rise to magnetic forces on the wires. Two parallel wires carrying current exert a force on
each other. The official SI definition of the ampere is:
The ampere is that constant current which if
maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-
section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum -
would produce between these conductors a force
equal to 2 × 10-7 newtons per meter of length.
Ampere is abbreviated to ‘A’. Fig. 1.19
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 (2) Coulomb
The coulomb is the SI unit of charge. The size of a coulomb is derived from the
ampere.
One coulomb is defined as the amount of charge flowing when the current is 1
ampere.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb/sec
or equivalently, 1 coulomb = 1 ampere.second.
Coulomb is abbreviated into ‘C’.

(3) Electron Charge (e)

The charge on an electron is expressed in coulombs as e = −1.602176565×10 −19
coulombs.
If we invert this expression, we see that the coulomb can be stated in terms of
number of electron charges:
1coulomb=6.241509343×1018 electrons

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 Quick Concept check
1) How many electrons in 1 ampere?
One ampere is 1 coulomb/second.
So, when a current of 1 ampere is flowing in a wire, there are 6.241509343×1018 electrons
flowing by every second.

2) How many coulombs in 1 mole of electrons?

One mole of electrons is 6.02214×1023 electrons — Avogadro's Number.
One mole of electrons corresponds to the below amount of coulombs:

So, one mole of electrons is about approximately 100,000 coulombs of charge.

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 (4) Volt
The volt is the unit of electric potential difference - electric potential difference is also
known as voltage.
The size of 1 volt is officially defined as the potential difference between two points
of a wire carrying a current of 1 ampere when the power dissipated in the wire is 1
watt.
1volt=1watt/ampere
The volt can also be expressed in terms of energy and charge as,
1 volt=1 joule/coulomb
Volt is abbreviated to ‘v’. Generally ‘V’ is used for naming an emf source and ‘v’ is used
to denote the amount of potential difference.
(5) Ohm
The ohm is the electrical unit of resistance. One ohm is defined as the resistance
between two points of a conductor when 1 volt is applied and a current of 1 ampere
is flowing. Ohm is denoted by Greek letter ‘Ω’.
1 Ω = 1 volt/ampere
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 (6) Others
Farad (F)
The farad (F) is the standard unit of capacitance. In base SI units one farad is the
equivalent of (s4 A2/kg m2).
One farad is defined as the capacitance across which, when charged with one
coulomb, there is a potential difference of one volt.
Equally, one farad can be described as the capacitance which stores a one-coulomb
charge across a potential difference of one volt.

F is a large unit. Commonly used units are microfarads, μF (1μF=10-6 F) and picofarads,
pF (1 pF = 10-12 F).
Capacitance
A capacitor is a passive component that stores energy in the form of an electric charge.
This characteristics is called its capacitance.

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 Henry (H)
The Henry (H) is the unit of inductance.
One henry is the value of self-inductance in a closed circuit or coil in which one volt is
produced by a variation of the inducing current of one ampere per second.
One henry is also the value of the mutual inductance of two coils arranged such that
an electromotive force of one volt is induced in one if the current in the other is
changing at a rate of one ampere per second.
In base SI units one henry is the equivalent of (kg m2 s-2 A-2).
Inductance
An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. This characterisitics is called its ‘inductance’.
H is a large unit, so more commonly used units are the microhenry, μH (1μH =10-6H) and
the millihenry, mH (1mH = 10-3H).

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 1.5 Resistor, Resistivity
 Resistance is the property of the substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the
flow of current through it.
 Substances with very low resistance are called conductors and substances with very
high resistance are called poor conductors or insulators.
Metals, acids and salt solutions are good conductors of electricity. Among pure metals.
Silver, copper and aluminum are very good conductors. This is due to the presence of a
large number of free or loosely attached electrons in their atoms.
Bakelite, mica, glass, rubber, p.v.c., dry wood, paper, cotton, ceramics, etc. are examples
of poor conductors.

Resistance element is represented in a circuit by the symbol shown below.

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 Unit of Resistance
The unit of resistance is ohm. Unit Symbol: Ω
A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere of current to
flow through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals.
The laws of resistance:
The laws of resistance state that, electrical resistance R of a conductor or wire is
1) directly proportional to its length, l
2) inversely proportional to its area of cross - section, a
3) depends upon nature of material
4) Depends on the temperature of the conductor.

Fig. 1.20

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 Neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that
--------- (1)

Where ρ is a constant depending on the nature of the material of the conductor and is
known as the specific resistance or the resistivity.

Resistivity (ρ):
Specific resistance or resistivity (ρ) of a
material defined as the resistance between
the opposite faces of a meter cube of that
material.
If in eqn. (1) above we put
l = 1 m and A = 1 m2, then R = ρ

Unit of resistivity is ohm-m (Ω-m). Fig. 1.21

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 Table 1.2 Resistivity of different materials:

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 Conductance and Conductivity:
Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of the resistance (R). Whereas resistance of a
conductor measures the opposition which it offers to the flow of current, the conductance
measures the inducement (or ease) which it offers to its flow.
Unit of conductance : Siemens (S).
From equation (1),

So, ------------------(2)

Where σ is called the conductivity or the specific conductance of a conductor.

Unit of conductivity is Siemens per meter (S/m) .
Definition of conductivity (σ) can be stated based on the definition of .

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 Table 1.3 Resistivity and conductivity of conducting materials

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 Fixed and Variable Resistors
Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in either of two groups: fixed or
variable.
Fixed resistors have a fixed value of resistance.
Variable resistors, as the name implies, have a terminal resistance that can be varied by
turning a dial, knob, screw, or whatever seems appropriate for the application. They can
have two or three terminals, but most have three terminals.
If the two- or three-terminal device is used as a variable resistor, it is usually referred to
as a rheostat.

Symbol of variable resistor

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 1.6 Ohm’s Law
This law applies to electric conduction through good conductors and is stated as follows:
The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the
current (I) flowing between them is constant, provided the temperature of the
conductor does not change.
In other words, V/I = Constant or V/I = R
where R is the resistance of the conductor between the
two points considered.
In other words, “provided R is kept constant, current is
directly proportional to the potential difference across
the ends of a conductor”.
George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German physicist,
discovered Ohm’s law in 1826. Fig. 1.22

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 Classworks:

(1) Determine the current resulting from the application of

a 9 V battery across a network with a resistance of 2.2Ω .

Solution:

(2) Calculate the resistance of a 60 W bulb if a current of 500 mA results from an

applied voltage of 120 V.

Solution:

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 1.7 Temperature Rise and Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Resistances of all materials change with the change in temperature. The rise in
temperature has the following effects:
(i) Increase in the resistance of pure metals: The increase is large and fairly regular
for normal ranges of temperature. The temperature/resistance graph is a straight line.
So, metals have a positive temperature co-efficient of resistance.
(ii) Increase in the resistance of alloys: Though in their case, the increase is relatively
small and irregular. For some high-resistance alloys like Eureka (60% Cu and 40% Ni)
and manganin, the increase in resistance is (or can be made) negligible over a
considerable range of temperature.
(iii) Decrease in the resistance of electrolytes and insulators (such as paper, rubber,
glass, mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon: Hence, these materials are said
to possess a negative temperature-coefficient of resistance.

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 1.7.1 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance of a metallic conductor
Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of R0 at 0°C be heated of t° C and let its
resistance at this temperature be Rt. Then, considering normal ranges of temperature, it is
found that the increase in resistance Δ R = Rt − R0 depends
(i) directly on its initial resistance
(ii) directly on the rise in temperature
(iii) on the nature of the material of the conductor.
or Rt − R0 R × t or Rt − R0 = α R0 t ---------------- (i)
where α is a constant and is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance of the
conductor.
Rearranging Eq. (i), we get,

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 R0 = 1 Ω, t = 1°C, then α = Δ R = Rt − R0
Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a material may be defined as : the increase in
resistance per ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature.
From Eq. (i), we find that; Rt = R0 (1 + α t) ----------- (ii)
The above equation holds good for both rise as
well as fall in temperature. As temperature of a
conductor is decreased, its resistance is also
decreased. The temperature/resistance graph
for copper is shown in fog. 1.23, and it is
practically a straight line. If this line is
extended backwards, it would cut the
temperature axis at a point where temperature
is − 234.5°C. It means that theoretically, the
resistance of copper conductor will become
zero at this point. Fig. 1.23
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 But the practical result is little bit different. As shown in the Fig.
1.23, the curve departs from a straight line at very low
temperatures. But for theoretical calculations, we can consider it
to be straight.
From the two similar triangles of Fig. 1.23, it is seen that :

So, Rt = R0 (1 + α t)

where α = 1/234.5 for copper.

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 Value of Temperature Coefficient (α) at Different Temperatures
For any metal, the value of α itself is not constant but depends on the
initial temperature on which the increment in resistance is based. When
the increment is based on the resistance measured at 0° C, then α has
the value of α0. At any other initial temperature t° C, value of α is αt
and so on. For any conductor, α0 has the maximum value.
Suppose a conductor of resistance R0 at 0° C (point A in Fig. 1.24) is
heated to t° C (point B). Its resistance Rt after heating is given by
Rt = R0 (1 + α0 t) ---------- (i)
where α0 is the temperature-coefficient at 0°C.
Now, suppose that we have a conductor of resistance Rt at temperature
t° C. Let this conductor be cooled from t° C to 0°C. Obviously, now
the initial point is B and the final point is A. The final resistance R0 is
given in terms of the initial resistance by the following equation
R0 = Rt [1 + αt (− t)] = Rt (1 − αt . t) --------- (ii) Fig. 1.24

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 From Eq. (ii) above, we have 𝒕 𝟎
𝒕
𝒕
Substituting the value of Rt from Eq. (i), we get
𝑹𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝒕 𝑹𝟎 𝟎
𝒕 𝑹𝟎(𝟏 𝜶𝟎𝒕)×𝒕 𝟏 𝒕
𝟎

⸫ 𝒕
𝟎
-------- (iii)
𝟏 𝒕
𝟎

In general, let α1= temp. coeff. at t1 °C ; α2 = tempt. coeff. at t2 °C. Then from Eq. (iii)
above, we get 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎𝒕𝟏
𝟎 or
𝟏 𝟏 𝒕
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎

Similarly, 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
𝒕
𝟐 𝟎
Subtracting one from the other, we get
or or 𝟐
𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 𝟏
𝟏
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 For example, values of α for copper at different temperatures are given in table below.
Table 1.4 Temperature Coefficient of Copper at Different Temperatures

In view of the dependence of α on the initial temperature, we may define the

temperature coefficient of resistance at a given temperature as the change in
resistance per ohm per degree centigrade change in temperature from the given
temperature.
In case R0 is not given, the relation between the known resistance R1 at t1°C and the
unknown resistance R2 at t2°C can be found as follows :
R2 = R0 (1 + α0 t2) and R1 = R0 (1 + α0 t1)

𝟐 𝟎 𝟐

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
------ (iv)

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 The above expression can be simplified and approximated as follows :
𝑹𝟐
𝟎 𝟐) ( 𝟎 𝟏)
-1
𝑹𝟏

𝟎 𝟐) ( 𝟎 𝟏)
[Using Binomial Theorem for expansion
and neglecting squares and higher powers
of (α0t1)]
𝟎 𝟐- t1) [Neglecting product (α02t2t1)]
⸫ R2 = R1 [1 + α0 (t2 − t1)]
Generally, relation is further modified in practice as the following.
⸫ R2 = R1 [1 + α1 (t2 − t1)]
where, α1 is the temperature at temperature t1.

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 Numerical Problems
1. The resistance of a coil decreases from 70 Ω at 75°C to 50 Ω at 15°C. Calculate the
value of temperature-coefficient of resistance of the material of the coil at 0°C. Find the
resistance at 0°C.
Solution:

or
or ⸫

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 2. A piece of copper wire has a resistance of 50 Ω at 10°C. What is the maximum
operating temperature if the resistance of the wire is to be increased by 20%? Assume α
at 10°C = 0.0041°C-1.
Solution
R1 = 50 Ω
R2 = 50 + 0.2 × 50 = 60Ω
α1 = 0.0041
t2 = Unkown temperature at which R2 will be 60Ω.
Since
Rt2 = Rt1[1 + αt1 (t2 – t1)]
R2 = R1[1 + α1 (t2 – t1)]
or, 60 = 50[1 + 0.0041(t2 – 10)]
Solve this for the answer.
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 1.8 Voltage and Current Sources
We can’t have the electric current flow in a circuit without the source of electric energy.
Based on the type of their supply, there are two types of sources, voltage sources and
current sources.
1.8.1 Voltage Sources
A voltage source is a two-terminal device which generates a potential difference across
its two terminals. When these two terminals are joined to a network of interconnected
components that form a continuous conductive path, current will flow.
The voltage of a voltage source is also called its EMF and denoted by ‘E’.
If such a voltage source can maintain a constant voltage to the outside circuit whatever
be the amount of current drawn from the voltage its called an ideal voltage source.
Ideal voltage sources have zero internal resistance.
Ideal voltage source is possible in theory only. Practically, ideal voltage sources are
unobtainable. Practical voltages sources have some amount of internal resistance
(shown as RS in figures below). The terminal voltage of such a source gets reduced with
the increase in current due to the voltage drop in the internal resistance.
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Fig. 1.25 Symbols of Voltage Sources
Fig. 1.26 Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources

Fig. 1.27 Comparison of Characteristics of Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources

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 Internal resistance of a voltage source is
shown in series with the source.
Practical example:
If the source has an internal resistance r then,
Terminal voltage Vt = (E – I r) Volts ---------- (i)
where I is the current drawn from the Voltage
source in Amperes (A), r is the internal resistance
of the voltage source in Ohms ( Ω ).
As can be seen from this equation, if the current I
is increased, the output voltage obtained at the
terminals will get decreased.
The internal resistance has to be very small in
order that the voltage drop inside the source will Fig. 1.28 Illustration of Ideal and Practical
be very small and maximum voltage may be Voltage Sources
available to the load.
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 1.8.2 Current Sources
A current source is a device which supplies a current to a circuit.

Fig. 1.29 Symbol of Current Source

An ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the same current
to any load resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in mind that
the current supplied by the current source is independent of the voltage of source
terminals. It has infinite resistance.
A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the
resistance in parallel.

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 Fig. 1.30 Ideal and Practical Current Sources

As can be seen from Fig. 31,

some of the current from the
current source gets diverted
to the branch with resistance
RP. So the current available
at output terminal is reduced.
Output current or current at
terminal, I0 = IS - IR Fig. 1.31 Comparison of Characteristics of Ideal and
Practical Current Sources
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1.8.3 Conversion of Practical Voltage and Current Sources
A given voltage source with a series resistance can be converted into (or replaced by) and
equivalent current source with a parallel resistance. Conversely, a current source with a parallel
resistance can be converted into a voltage source with a series resistance.
Suppose, we want to convert the voltage source of Fig. 1.31 (a) into an equivalent current source.
First, we will find the value of current supplied by the source by placing a ‘short’ across in
terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 1.31 (b). This current is IS = VS/R. A current source supplying
this current IS and having the same resistance R connected in parallel with it represents the
equivalent source. It is shown in Fig. 1.31 (c).

A A A

IS
IS (= VS / R)

B B B
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.31 Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source
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 Similarly, a current source of IS and a parallel resistance R can be converted into a
voltage source of voltage VS = IS R and a resistance R in series with it. For this we first
have to measure the open circuit voltage across terminals.
For example, in Fig (a) below, voltage across terminals A and B when they are open (i.e.
open circuit voltage VOC) is the voltage across R itself which is equal to IS.R.

A A A

IS IS VOC VS
( = IS R)

B B B
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.32 Conversion of Current Source into Voltage Source

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 A voltage source-series resistance combination and a current source-parallel resistance
combination are equivalent if, and only if their
1. respective open-circuit voltages are equal, and
2. respective short-circuit currents are equal.
Source conversion is summarized in Fig. 1.33 below.

Fig. 1.33
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