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A complex dynamic systems approach to lasting

positive change: The Synergistic Change Model

Reuben D. Rusk, Dianne A. Vella-Brodrick & Lea Waters

To cite this article: Reuben D. Rusk, Dianne A. Vella-Brodrick & Lea Waters (2017): A complex
dynamic systems approach to lasting positive change: The Synergistic Change Model, The Journal
of Positive Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2017.1291853

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291853

Published online: 13 Feb 2017.

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The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2017.1291853

A complex dynamic systems approach to lasting positive change: The Synergistic

Change Model
Reuben D. Ruska,b, Dianne A. Vella-Brodricka and Lea Watersa
a
Centre for Positive Psychology, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; bMindquip Limited,
Christchurch, New Zealand

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This paper argues that psychological and social functioning is fundamentally complex, and that this Received 6 April 2016
complexity is critical to understanding how lasting positive changes can be achieved. Principles Accepted 27 January 2017
from complex systems theory are integrated into an empirical positive psychological framework
KEYWORDS
to propose a domain-based systems model of positive change called the Synergistic Change Positive psychology;
Model. This model proposes that enduring positive change depends on the formation of mutually intervention; change theory;
supportive interactions across multiple domains of psychological and social functioning. The complex systems theory;
paper uses the model to explore three types of response to intervention – relapse, spill-over, and sustained well-being;
synergy – which have been supported in the existing positive psychology literature. Three practical enduring change; synergy
intervention strategies arising from the model are outlined to inform the design of future positive
interventions. The model challenges reductionistic approaches to positive change and offers several
approaches to embrace the complexities of lasting positive change in future theory and research.

Research in the field of positive psychology (PP) indicates Lyubomirsky and Layous (2013) proposed the Positive-
that positive psychological interventions (PPIs) can boost Activity Model (PAM), which identifies several factors that
well-being (Sin & Lyubomirsky, 2009), but the mecha- influence the effectiveness of PPIs. Specifically, the PAM
nisms by which lasting change can occur have remained articulates four aspects through which positive activities
unclear. The present article seeks to provide a guiding can improve well-being: emotions, thoughts, behaviours,
model of positive psychological change using a complex and need satisfaction. In this model, the degree to which
dynamic systems framework. It attempts to meet the call of positive activities increase well-being is moderated by fea-
Mongrain and Anselmo-Matthews (2012, p. 389) to provide tures of the activity (e.g. dosage and variety) and attrib-
a ‘guiding theory of psychological growth’ that can inform utes of the person (e.g. motivation, beliefs, personality, and
PPI design to cultivate lasting positive changes. demographic). According to the PAM, higher well-being is
The need for theoretical insight into positive psycholog- maintained by continuing to engage in a variety of activ-
ical change has already received some attention from pos- ities that support well-being. Lyubomirsky and Layous
itive psychology researchers who have put forward some (2013) identify three factors that vary across individuals
models to explain changes in well-being; three of which and influence their persistence in such activities: individual
are now described. Sheldon, Boehm, and Lyubomirsky’s motivation; endorsement by family and social groups; and
(2013) Hedonic Adaptation Model is a temporal model that resources such as available time. Yet, the PAM does not
draws on the principle of hedonic adaptation to explain provide guidance on how to increase the likelihood that
how an initial boost in well-being arising from a positive particular individuals will persist with particular activities
change in life circumstances (or an activity) can be main- to maintain increases in their well-being.
tained at a later point. It suggests several moderating Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, and Gross (2015) have put
factors that make benefits more likely to be maintained: forward emotion regulation theory as a framework for
intrinsic motivation, greater variety, and greater appreci- understanding positive change. The theory describes five
ation. However, the model does not articulate how these strategies to shape emotional experiences: situation selec-
factors can be increased and sustained by an individual to tion (e.g. choosing to go on a date); situation modification
maintain positive changes in well-being. (e.g. sitting by the open fire); attentional deployment (e.g.

CONTACT  Reuben D. Rusk  [email protected]

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2   R. D. RUSK ET AL.

savouring the food); cognitive change (e.g. realising how (Thelen & Smith, 1996). These principles have been applied
fortunate you are); and response modulation (e.g. express- to many scientific disciples, including engineering, mete-
ing enjoyment). These strategies can be engaged before, orology, economics, biology, and ecology.
during, and after an event. Quoidbach et al. (2015) found Recent decades have seen this knowledge applied
evidence from a wide range of studies that employing within psychology to understand groups and organisa-
these strategies can benefit well-being. However, their tions (e.g. Thietart & Forgues, 1995). Complex systems
theory does not explain why certain individuals might per- theory has been used to understand the resolution of
sist with these strategies after learning them to maintain intractable conflict (Vallacher, Coleman, Nowak, & Bui-
higher well-being, while others might not persist. Wrzosinska, 2010), family transformation (Bütz et al., 1996;
Although these three models provide valuable insights Koopmans, 1998), organisational change (Boyatzis, 2008;
into what creates a change in well-being, they have not Dooley, 1997), and career path development (Garmon,
adequately answered the larger, perhaps more important, 2004). It has been applied in social psychology (Goldstein,
question: ‘How can changes in how people function be 1997; Wiese, Vallacher, & Strawinska, 2010) and used to
maintained so that increases in their well-being can be explain why organisational change often fails (Svyantek
sustained?’ A better understanding of why some change & DeShon, 1993).
efforts to increase well-being are successfully sustained Over the last two decades, complex systems approaches
over time, while others are not, is critical if the field of pos- have been adopted more broadly to address both intra-per-
itive psychology is to evolve. sonal and inter-personal change. Lonie (1991) pioneered
The present paper addresses this key question: ‘What this approach as a ‘new paradigm’ for counselling. Several
is it that makes an effort to increase and sustain well-be- books applying complex systems theory to psychology
ing ultimately successful rather than unsuccessful?’ It will have now been published (e.g. Guastello, Koopmans, &
begin by arguing that psychological change is fundamen- Pincus, 2008; Molenaar, Lerner, & Newell, 2014a; Thelen &
tally complex and involves the interplay between many Smith, 1996). According to Vallacher et al. (2010, p. 263),
dynamic elements. The authors will then put forward a ‘… the dynamical perspective has emerged as a primary
model of positive psychological change that is based in paradigm for the investigation of psychological processes
complex dynamic systems theory, the Synergistic Change at different levels of personal and social reality.’
Model (SCM). The model will then be used to explore At an individual level, complex systems approaches
characteristic ways in which individuals respond to inter- have been used to understand therapeutic change
vention to help explain what creates lasting change in (Coburn, 2002; Hayes & Strauss, 1998; Iwakabe, 1999;
well-being and what does not. We will explore how and Stones, Rattenbury, & Kozma, 1994). Anchin (2008) has
why relapse occurs and how interactions between various argued that a complex systems approach provides a
change elements may enable more permanent changes unifying paradigm for psychotherapy. Indeed, Hayes
in well-being. Three strategies for positive interventions and Strauss (1998) found support for several principles
derived from the model will be outlined. Finally, some of postulated by systems theory in an experimental study of
the challenges and limitations of this approach to change therapeutic change. Bütz (1997) reviewed the application
will be highlighted to help guide future research. of complex systems to psychology and argued that the
consideration of temporal dynamics was important
for therapy. Ward (2001) used the systems approach
Complex systems approaches to psychological
to highlight the importance of time as a variable in
change
dynamic cognitive change. The ideas within complexity
The view that psychological change is fundamentally theory have also been used to understand behavioural
complex is not new. Systems approaches to psychology change (Heath, 2000; Resnicow & Page, 2008; Resnicow
have embraced this idea of complexity for over 50 years. & Vaughan, 2006), life transitions counselling (Bussolari &
In Family Therapy and other forms of Systemic Therapy, Goodell, 2009), motivation (Juarrero, 2002), psychological
for example, the individual is viewed within a broader development (Smith, 2005; Thelen & Smith, 2007), and
relational system (Bütz, Chamberlain, & McCown, 1996; personality variation (Nowak, Vallacher, & Zochowski,
Prochaska & Norcross, 2009). Within developmental psy- 2005).
chology, Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, Several researchers have argued that complex systems
1977, 1979) has been an influential approach. Since that approaches are appropriate as a guiding theoretical view
time, the theoretical understanding of complexity has of psychological change (Hayes & Strauss, 1998; Thelen,
progressed significantly. Research devoted to understand- 2005). The Boston Change Process Study Group (2010) pre-
ing complex dynamic systems has identified a number of sented the complexity perspective as a unifying paradigm
common principles encapsulated by complexity theory for change. An edited volume on psychological change
 THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   3

The Synergistic Change Model

To build a complex dynamic system model of change spe-
cifically for well-being, a compatible framework is needed.
The Domains of Positive Functioning (DPF-5) framework of
Rusk and Waters (2015) is an empirical framework based
on the PP literature that is suitable for this purpose. Rusk
and Waters (2015) used an empirical approach to study
over 3000 key terms relating to positive psychological and
social functioning from a corpus of over 18,000 PP-related
documents. They then analysed the literature using
co-term analysis and cluster analysis to identify underlying
themes pertaining to positive psycho-social functioning.
Here, the broad term psycho-social functioning refers to
all aspects of mental and social activity. The DPF-5 cov-
ers the five major domains of psycho-social functioning
identified by the analysis: (1) Attention and Awareness, (2)
Comprehension and Coping, (3) Emotions, (4) Goals and
Habits, and (5) Relationships and Virtues. Rusk and Waters
Figure 1.  The complex dynamic systems-based Synergistic (2015) also recognised the importance of environmental
Change Model. factors and biological/physiological factors, and Rickard
and Vella-Brodrick (2014) have argued the latter are critical
5 domains of Direction of desired change
for sustained changes in well-being.
positive The SCM is a new model put forward in the current
functioning
(a) paper for creating lasting changes in well-being based
on the domains of the DPF-5 framework. The five core
domains, plus environmental and physiological influences,
n Intervention
Single-domai represent the major ‘parts’ of a complex dynamic system
(b)
of psycho-social functioning. The psychological and social
processes, states, and tendencies in these domains repre-
Relapse sent what changes as a result of an effective intervention.
(c)
The fundamental principle in the SCM is that each
domain influences psycho-social functioning in every
Intervention other domain, as illustrated in Figure 1. This principle of
(d) Multi-domain
interaction is a foundational aspect of complexity theory.
These interactions form a dynamic system that is capa-
Non-linear ble of both stability and change. In other words, changes
(e) Interaction in how a person functions in one domain (e.g. Attention
and Awareness) can, in turn, change how that person
functions in other domains (e.g. Emotions). Indeed, the
(f) Stabilisation
analysis by Rusk and Waters (2015) showed that the con-
cepts in a given domain have many links to the concepts
in the other domains. For example, one’s mindset (in the
Figure 2. The tipping tray analogy of the SCM for intervention- Comprehension and Coping domain) could influence mul-
induced change, showing five marbles that represent five key tiple elements within other DPF-5 domains, including (a)
domains of psycho-social functioning.
that person’s social relationships in the Relationships and
Virtues domain, (b) their goals and perseverance in the
upheld complex systems principles ‘as most efficacious Goals and Habits domain, (c) their tendency toward rumi-
for explaining the vagaries and complexities of change, nation in the Attention and Awareness domain, and (d)
especially in human systems.’ (Perna & Masterpasqua, 1997, their mood in the Emotions domain. The inter-linkages
pp. 299–300). This previous research thus provides a rich between PP research topics provide evidence that the
platform upon which a theory of positive psycho-social domains function inter-dependently (Rusk & Waters, 2015).
change can be developed. The environmental and biological/physiological domains
4   R. D. RUSK ET AL.

influence functioning in the other five domains, and may marbles represent aspects of psycho-social functioning
also be influenced by them, but these interactions have within each of five domains of positive functioning, posi-
not been shown explicitly in Figure 1 for clarity. tioned on a tray with a central pivot. From an initial state
Since the SCM is a complex systems model, the prin- of undesired functioning represented at the left of the tray
ciples that generally hold true of complex systems apply. (a), an intervention cultivates desired functioning in one
One of these principles is that the effects of changing one domain (b). However, when the intervention ends, relapse
element depend on the current state of the system. This occurs as the marble rolls back to the initial state (c). In
means that the relationships between the domains are contrast, an intervention could cultivate positive function-
dynamic, time-dependent, and non-linear. Complex sys- ing across multiple domains (d), which may be aided by
tem theory also suggests that non-linear outcomes are to spill-over effects. By doing so, the intervention may cause
be expected. the tray to tip (e), causing a non-linear change in the sys-
The complex nature of these interactions means that tem and stabilising the marbles at the end that represents
any attempt to specify a particular causal sequence to desired functioning (f ). This idea of ‘tipping the system’ is
describe the overall process of change would be inade- the key principle of the SCM.
quate. Indeed, specifying only one such sequence would Making changes within any single domain may fail to
also be inappropriate, since complex systems display multi- tip the system into a new dynamically stable state, yet
ple pathways for change. Moreover, the SCM suggests that changes within multiple domains may have a synergistic
the sequence in which changes occur to create new stable effect. When synergy occurs, the system ‘tips’ into a new
behaviours may vary between individuals and groups. dynamically stable pattern of behaviour, which stabilises
The interactions between domains may either reinforce the changes. For example, an intervention encouraging
or undermine the changes in a given domain, and they acts of kindness (Relationships and Virtues) could be rein-
have important implications for intervention. The SCM forced by experiencing positive emotions from kindness
implies three distinguishable types of dynamic processes (Emotions), beliefs about kindness (Comprehension and
that may arise from intervention: relapse, spill-over, and Coping), planning regular acts of kindness (Goals and
synergy. All three dynamic processes are consequences of Habits), and becoming mindful of opportunities for kind-
the principle that the functioning within one given domain ness (Attention and Awareness). The concept of synergy is
influences the functioning in others. the primary insight of the SCM. It suggests an important
Consider the first of these processes: relapse. Here, inter- principle: lasting change will be more likely when rein-
actions between domains undermine the changes within forcing changes occur within most or all DPF-5 domains.
a given domain. From a complex systems perspective,
the changes in the system are unstable and inadequate
Support from existing literature
to cause the system to develop a new dynamically stable
pattern of functioning. The changes made in one domain The domains of the SCM and the inter-linkages between
are ‘undone’ because they are not supported by the other them are supported by the analysis of PP literature by Rusk
domains. Relapse is more likely when changes occur within and Waters (2015). This section provides further support
only one or two domains, since isolated changes are less for the SCM by reviewing evidence within the PP litera-
likely to change the overall dynamic stability of the psy- ture for the three types of dynamic interactions it predicts:
cho-social system. relapse, spill-over, and synergy.
Interactions between domains can also work positively
in the case of spill-over. If functioning within one domain
Relapse
is increased through intervention, the effects may, at least
temporarily, ‘spill over’ into other domains and increase the In some PPIs, participants have relapsed to pre-interven-
functioning in them. For example, a gratitude interven- tion levels of functioning after the PPI has ended. For
tion that increases attention to good aspects of one’s life example, the benefits of the ‘gratitude visit’ PPI tested by
(Attention and Awareness) may have a spill-over effect on Seligman, Steen, Park, and Peterson (2005) did not last at
one’s explanatory style and expectations for good in the three and six month follow-up measurements. Another
future, thus assisting their ability to cope (Comprehension example comes from Tricarico (2012), who conducted a
and Coping). two-week gratitude intervention which showed improve-
Synergy occurs when interactions between multiple ments at post-test, but those improvements did not
domains are mutually reinforcing and sufficiently strong endure to follow-up.
to create a new stable pattern of behaviour. An imper- Many researchers have noted the tendency for well-
fect analogy to understand synergy is a tipping tray with being to return to a baseline level after a PPI, which has
five marbles placed inside it as shown in Figure 2. The five prompted discussion about whether lasting increases in
 THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   5

well-being above a ‘set-point’ are even possible (Sheldon in my life.’ This report suggests the awareness train-
et al., 2013). Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, and Schkade (2005) ing was associated with changes in self-efficacy beliefs
have proposed that for sustained changes in well-being, (Comprehension and Coping) and social interactions
individuals need to continue to engage in activities that (Relationships and Virtues).
promote well-being. Growing evidence supports this view. With the recent interest in identifying ‘mechanisms’ by
For example, a mindfulness intervention study by Morgan, which PPIs work, many studies are now finding media-
Graham, Hayes-Skelton, Orsillo, and Roemer (2014) showed tion effects. For example, Toussaint and Friedman (2009)
a clear link between continued mindfulness practice and found that the influences of forgiveness and gratitude on
sustained benefits. Such findings imply that sustained well-being are mediated by affect and belief states. From
increases in well-being require sustained changes in how the perspective of SCM, some mediation effects may be
a person functions, which may include an ongoing variety evidence of spill-over between different domains.
of activities to combat hedonic adaptation. One consequence of the spill-over effect is that similar
The SCM provides a theoretical perspective to under- changes may be accomplished through multiple pathways,
stand why some intervention-induced changes in psy- which is consistent with complexity principles (Thelen,
cho-social functioning are not sustained. It suggests that 2005). One empirical example of the existence of multi-
in the absence of the creation of a stable set of synergis- ple pathways comes from Oman, Richards, Hedberg, and
tic changes, the psycho-social system is unstable, and will Thoresen (2008), who investigated the effects of a mindful-
tend to relapse to the previous mode of functioning. For ness intervention on caregiving self-efficacy among health
example, an intervention could train individuals to adopt professionals. Their qualitative analysis showed 15 differ-
an optimistic explanatory style. If it were to do this by ent ‘pathways’ of influence, whereby changes in one ele-
targeting only the Comprehension and Coping domain, ment (e.g. one-point attention) influenced functioning in
the functioning in the other domains may undermine the other domains (e.g. task prioritisation and slowing down),
attempted change in explanatory style. For example, an all of which ultimately increased caregiving self-efficacy.
individual may not make a habit of using an optimistic Support for spill-over effects also comes from beyond
explanatory style (Goals and Habits domain), or may be the field of PP. For example, Jacobson et al. (1996) inves-
overwhelmed by negative emotions that counter opti- tigated the separate effects of different components of
mism (Emotions domain), or may socialise with pessimis- cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT). One group was
tic friends (Relationships and Virtues domain). The model administered a treatment focusing exclusively on the
suggests that relapse to old patterns of thought and behavioural activation component of CBT, a second
behaviour could occur in this scenario as a consequence group received that treatment plus training to modify
of interactions between domains, which tend to restore automatic thoughts, and a third group was administered
the dynamic stability of the system. full CBT treatment. No significant differences in outcome
were found between groups, either post-treatment or at
6-month follow-up. Moreover, the behavioural activation
Spill-over
treatment was equally effective as the other treatments
Spill-over effects can occur as a result of PPIs. For exam- that included cognitive components in altering negative
ple, Landsman-Dijkstra, van Wijck, and Groothoff (2006) thinking and dysfunctional attributional styles. This result
conducted a body awareness program, and qualita- is evidence of a spill-over effect, in which changes in the
tively assessed the changes experienced by participants. Goals and Habits domain produced by behavioural acti-
Participants who experienced more notable changes in vation influenced functioning in the Comprehension and
body awareness reported changes within other domains of Coping domain. This finding is consistent with the data
positive functioning. For example, one reported: ‘The train- presented by Prochaska and Norcross (2009) showing
ing made me more calm and more aware of myself and that despite sometimes large differences between many
my priorities in life.’ This statement shows that increases in psychotherapy systems, they have comparable efficacy in
bodily awareness (Attention and Awareness) were associ- treating several disorders, including depression. To explain
ated with improvements in the Emotions domain and the these similarities in effectiveness, Prochaska and Norcross
Goals and Habits domain. Another participant reported: (2009) put forward the common factor hypothesis, which
‘I have more energy and creativity to do the things I want holds that the majority of change is created by factors
to,’ indicating that the effects of the training spilled over common to all therapies (e.g. therapeutic relationship,
to influence creativity (Comprehension and Coping) and positive expectancy). The SCM presents an alternative
self-directed behaviours (Goals and Habits). A third person explanation, whereby the different therapies may target
reported: ‘I now trust my feelings more when it comes to different aspects of psycho-social functioning, but through
interactions and communication with important persons interaction effects, more widespread changes occur. This
6   R. D. RUSK ET AL.

theory is consistent with the multiple-pathways axiom of suggested another positive spiral, whereby increased har-
complexity theory (Thelen, 2005). diness and hope reduce stress, which enhances flow, which
Beneficial, positive functioning traits are often corre- increases self-efficacy, which in turn may increase hardi-
lated with one another, which is consistent with the spill- ness and hope. Another reciprocal upward spiral between
over effects and tendency toward dynamic stability posited humour and positive emotions has been demonstrated by
by the SCM. For example, gratitude has been shown to Crawford and Caltabiano (2011).
correlate with positive reinterpretation, coping and plan- In relationships, Kubacka, Finkenauer, Rusbult, and
ning (Wood, Joseph, & Linley, 2007). Froh, Yurkewicz, and Keijsers (2011) found evidence that gratitude contrib-
Kashdan (2009) found gratitude is associated with positive utes to a reciprocal process of relationship maintenance,
affect, optimism, social support, and prosocial behaviour, prompting further gratitude and creating an upward
with most associations remaining significant even after spiral. Compassion and kindness have also been sug-
controlling for positive affect. Quoidbach, Berry, Hansenne, gested as elements of upward spirals. Sin, Della Porta, and
and Mikolajczak (2010) found correlations between sev- Lyubomirsky (2011) suggested that upward spirals may
eral domains of positive functioning. For example, positive form between acts of kindness, self-efficacy, and relation-
mental time travel was positively correlated with behav- ships, and Canevello and Crocker (2010) argued that com-
ioural display, capitalizing, and being present. Conversely, passionate goals and responsiveness reinforce each other
fault finding was positively correlated with negative men- to benefit relationships.
tal time travel and negatively correlated with being pres- In organisational research, reinforcing cycles have been
ent. These correlations support the idea that cognitive discussed for decades. Locke and Latham (1990) proposed
functions do not operate independently and they would the ‘high performance cycle’, in which goals, self-effi-
be expected if interactions create dynamic stability in the cacy, effort, rewards, and satisfaction interact in a perfor-
system comprised of the domains of positive functioning, mance-enhancing spiral. This hypothesised spiral between
as suggested by the SCM. happiness and work-place productivity has also been dis-
cussed by Boehm and Lyubomirsky (2008) and Fisher (2010).
Salanova, Bakker, and Llorens (2006) showed positive spirals
Synergy
exist between work-place flow (engagement) and personal
Synergy occurs when different elements of psycho-social and organisational resources, as Schueller and Seligman
functioning interact in ways that reinforce each other to (2010) have also suggested. Sheldon and Houser-Marko
stabilise changes. These synergistic interactions have been (2001) and Judge, Bono, Erez, and Locke (2005) suggested
discussed in PP literature for some time, but they have that self-concordance and goal attainment may participate
been referred to as upward or positive spirals. The concept in an upward spiral to cultivate well-being.
of a positive spiral dates back to at least the ideas of Ryff Virtues have been also construed as elements that con-
and Singer (1998), who argued that positive mind-body tribute to upward spirals. For example, Cameron, Bright,
spirals should be investigated in addition to the negative and Caza (2004) wrote of the ‘amplifying effect’ of organi-
spirals that have been observed in depression (Fredrickson, sational virtuousness, whereby virtuousness interacts with
2004; Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006). positive emotions, social capital and prosocial behaviour
At the individual level, Bandura (1997) suggested to create an upwards spiral. The results of Vianello, Galliani,
that mastery experiences and self-efficacy influence and Haidt (2010) indicate that virtuous leadership can
each other reciprocally. Several researchers have sug- indeed promote positive spirals within organisations.
gested that gratitude may form part of a positive spiral Fredrickson and Dutton (2008) noted that these positive
(Crawford & Caltabiano, 2011; Gudan, 2010; Lyubomirsky spirals can also spread outwards to energise whole social
& Layous, 2013). Froh et al. (2009) suggested that crea- networks and organisations. Thus, they can create a syn-
tivity, intrinsic motivation and purposefulness may par- ergistic effect between individuals and the group. Luthans
ticipate in upward spirals with gratitude. Wood, Maltby, and Youssef (2007) suggested authentic leadership could
Gillett, Linley, and Joseph (2008) showed that gratitude form part of upward spirals within organisations.
interacts with social support, and suggested that the two The PP literature has typically discussed these upward
reciprocally promote each other. A longitudinal study spirals as mechanisms through which PPIs can improve
by Froh, Bono, and Emmons (2010) also found evidence well-being. However, Cohn and Fredrickson (2010) have
that gratitude initiated positive upward spirals involving speculated that such feedback cycles might help to sustain
prosocial behaviour and life satisfaction. Lambert, Graham, the benefits of PPIs. The SCM provides a theoretical basis
Fincham, and Stillman (2009) found that gratitude may for this speculation, and implies that the formation of these
also have a reciprocally supportive interaction with a synergistic spirals is indeed a powerful means by which the
sense of coherence. Kauffman and Linley (2007) have effect of a PPI can be made enduring.
 THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   7

Moderation effects provide further support for the elements are termed pivotal, in the sense that they can
SCM, since they show that effects of certain elements of initiate synergistic changes that tip the system into a new
psycho-social functioning can be enhanced or weakened stable mode of functioning.
through the influence of other elements. Moderators Positive emotions may provide one example of these
interact with the outcome but are uncorrelated with the pivotal elements of psycho-social functioning. Fredrickson
treatment. The SCM suggests that moderators of change and Joiner (2002) and Fredrickson (2004) have suggested
will be the rule rather than the exception. For example, that positive emotions help to create ‘upward spirals’,
Chen, Chen, and Tsai (2012) found that ambivalence over since they can broaden thought-action repertoires and
expressing emotion moderated the effects of a gratitude build psychological and social resources and thereby fos-
PPI. McIntosh (2007) found that empathy moderated the ter more positive emotions. According to Garland et al.
benefits of a gratitude intervention. Chan (2011) also (2010), there is now compelling evidence that positive
found that a meaningful life orientation moderated the emotions form part of such upward spirals. Consequently,
benefits of a gratitude intervention. In another exam- PPIs that cultivate positive emotions may trigger synergis-
ple of cross-domain interaction, Wieber, Odenthal, and tic changes within a range of psycho-social domains that
Gollwitzer (2010) found that feelings of self-efficacy (in the increase their potency and sustained impact.
Comprehension of Coping domain) moderate the effects Positive expectancy provides another example of
of implementation intentions (Goals and Habits). Sheldon a potential pivotal target. Karademas, Kafetsios, and
and Lyubomirsky (2006) demonstrated that the effects of a Sideridis (2007) showed that positive expectancy (in
gratitude intervention were moderated by self-concordant the Comprehension and Coping domain) influences the
motivation (Goals and Habits). Attention and Awareness domain, in that it biases people
Moderation effects between domains can also be toward positive stimuli rather than threat-related stimuli.
non-linear. For example, Lopes and Cunha (2008) showed This positive attentional bias is likely to then reinforce
that hope moderates passive coping among pessimists. the positive expectancy. There is evidence that positive
However, among optimists, hope did not impact coping, expectancy influences the Virtues and Relationships
demonstrating a non-linear interaction between optimism domain. For example, Deptula, Cohen, Phillipsen, and Ey
and coping. Such results provide further evidence of the (2006) showed cross-sectionally that it was associated with
kind of nonlinearities typical of complex systems, and social outcomes among children. Srivastava, McGonigal,
the SCM suggests that such nonlinearities are likely to be Richards, Butler, and Gross (2006) showed in a longitu-
common. dinal survey that positive expectancies predicted more
positive romantic relationships. The famous Pygmalion
Study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) also showed the
Implications for positive interventions
powerful effect of positive expectancy on the Goals and
This paper is interested in helping researchers to answer Habits domain, in this case for academic achievement.
a key question: ‘What is it that makes an effort to increase Consequently, by targeting positive expectancy, inter-
and sustain well-being ultimately successful rather than ventions may be able to trigger synergistic changes to
unsuccessful?’ The SCM model proposes that synergis- enhance and sustain benefits to well-being.
tic interactions, in which there is mutual reinforcement
between many elements of psycho-social functioning,
Intervention strategy 2: Leverage existing strengths
are needed to ‘tip’ the system into a new stable set-point.
and values
Consequently, we propose that PPIs will be more effective
if they are designed to produce synergistic change. To this There is evidence that PPIs can have synergistic effects with
end, we use the SCM to suggest three possible interven- an individual’s existing traits or strengths. This evidence
tion approaches that can create synergistic changes in comes from Lyubomirsky and Layous’s (2013) finding
psycho-social functioning, which will now be discussed: that some interventions ‘fit’ individuals more than others.
(a) targeting single, yet pivotal, elements; (b) leveraging From an SCM perspective, this fit can be understood as a
existing strengths; and (c) targeting mutually reinforcing greater likelihood that synergies will be created between
elements. the intervention changes and an individual’s existing traits
or strengths.
Several researchers have proposed synergies involving
Intervention strategy 1: Target pivotal elements
existing character strengths (such as compassion, forgive-
Certain elements of psycho-social functioning may be ness, hope, or courage). For example, Niemiec, Rashid,
more potent than others, whereby changing them may and Spinella (2012) proposed a ‘synergy of mutual bene-
trigger synergistic changes within other domains. Such fit’ between mindfulness (Attention and Awareness) and
8   R. D. RUSK ET AL.

character strengths that create an upwards spiral. They in isolation. For example, Flinchbaugh, Moore, Chang,
suggested that these possible synergistic effects deserve and May (2012) found that a PPI targeting both gratitude
empirical research. Similarly, Oman et al. (2008) proposed and stress management was more effective than either
that positive spirals may arise between character strengths, in isolation, and North, Pai, Hixon, and Holahan (2011)
coping, and relationships. showed that a combination of expressive writing with
Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) suggests cognitive reappraisal was more effective than either alone.
that new behaviours cultivated through a PPI are more These findings are consistent with the idea of cultivating
likely to be sustained if they are intrinsically motivating. synergies between several elements of psycho-social
Indeed, Sheldon et al. (2010) found that intrinsically moti- functioning.
vated (self-concordant) goals can participate in upward Support for the principle of synergistic change also
spirals of positive change. Signature strengths are more comes from the work on savouring by Quoidbach et al.
likely to be intrinsically motivating (Peterson & Seligman, (2010). Quoidbach et al. found that the wider the range
2004) and supported by existing values, goals and habits. of savouring strategies participants typically used, the
Hence, they provide an avenue for PPIs to engage with happier they reported being, independently of their total
existing values to make the desired changes in psycho-so- savouring score. Therefore, it was suggested that increased
cial functioning more intrinsically motivating. By engaging diversity may benefit PPI effectiveness. From an SCM per-
with existing strengths, PPIs can also support the need for spective, diverse savouring strategies that span multiple
autonomy, and research shows that autonomy-supportive DPF-5 domains may help to establish a self-reinforcing set
interventions are more successful in cultivating behaviour of changes.
change (e.g. Gardner & Lally, 2012; Rouse, Ntoumanis, Finally, the SCM suggests that synergistic interactions
Duda, Jolly, & Williams, 2011; Williams, Niemiec, Patrick, may be cultivated among common PPI target elements
Ryan, & Deci, 2009). (e.g. gratitude, optimism, or mindfulness) and elements
From an SCM perspective, character strengths and of behavioural change. Consequently, PPIs may be more
intrinsic motivations are likely to have become strengths effective if they target elements of psycho-social function-
and values because they mutually support each other. ing from the behaviour change literature (e.g. implemen-
Hence, interventions may be able to leverage existing tation intentions, self-efficacy) in addition to particular
character strengths and values to support the desired elements from the PP literature (e.g. gratitude, optimism,
change through synergistic interactions. Such an approach or mindfulness). The SCM suggests that incorporating fac-
suggests that PPIs on a given topic could be tailored to tors from existing behavioural change theories into PPIs
an individual’s character strength profile or value system. may help to improve their efficacy.

Intervention strategy 3: Target mutually reinforcing Implications and future directions

elements
The SCM offers several directions for measurement,
The SCM suggests that PPI-induced change within a analysis, experimental design, and theory when it comes to
given element of psycho-social functioning will be supporting the aim of the field of PP to sustainably increase
more successful when it is accompanied by supportive the well-being of individuals, groups, and organizations. The
changes across the other domains. Hence, PPIs could complex systems perspective suggests that interdependence
target multiple, mutually reinforcing elements to foster between psycho-social elements is fundamental to lasting
synergistic changes that ‘tip’ the system. For example, positive change in functioning. As such, it highlights a
perhaps greater attention to positive outcomes (Attention limitation of traditional reductionistic approaches taken
and Awareness) could be used to support a more optimistic by modern science. This approach has generated many
explanatory style (Comprehension and Coping), which insights, yet by isolating the elements of psycho-social
could, in turn, help the individual to notice further positive functioning, it overlooks their interdependence (King,
outcomes. This approach may be particularly suitable for 2016). Approaching change through a complex systems
non-pivotal elements of psycho-social functioning that lens presents challenges for psychological science, but the
may not be potent enough to initiate synergistic changes need to experimentally validate complex systems models
by themselves. Another advantage of this approach is that such as the SCM is essential.
it requires only one variant of a PPI, rather than creating Complex system models involve many variables. Hence,
a range of PPIs tailored to particular sets of character measurement is one of the key challenges for their experi-
strengths or values. mental validation, as noted by Vallacher, Geert, and Nowak
Some research suggests that interventions targeting (2015). There is a limit to the number of variables that can
two domains may be more effective than targeting either be measured in typical studies to prevent excessive burden
 THE JOURNAL OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY   9

on participants. To overcome this measurement challenge, ground to integrate the factors of behavioural change
a collaborative analytic approach may be required. As theories with PP concepts. Consider the Goals and Habits
research in the field of PP uses more standardised meas- domain, for example. Many PPIs involve routinely engag-
ures and procedures, it will allow results to be increasingly ing in new behaviours (e.g. gratitude journalling, mindful-
integrated. One way to support this is through open access ness practice), which is the primary concern of behavioural
science data made available to researchers for the purpose change theories. In the Comprehension and Coping
of collaborative analysis. Individual studies may be able domain, PP literature on optimism highlights the impor-
to test particular interactions proposed by the SCM and tance of expectations for well-being, but several behav-
the results could be combined within the SCM framework. ioural theories posit that expectations also play a role in
Houben, Van Den Noortgate, and Kuppens (2015) have change (e.g. Ajzen, 1991). In the Attention and Awareness
demonstrated the potential of this approach through a domain, mindfulness PPIs cultivate greater awareness, and
meta-analysis of emotion dynamics. Prochaska and DiClemente (1982) identified increasing
Complex systems approaches to positive functioning awareness as a process linked with behavioural change.
not only challenge what needs to be measured, they also The SCM provides a bridge between PP literature and
challenge the kinds of analyses that are required (Vallacher behavioural change literature to explore the roles that
et al., 2015). If psycho-social functioning is indeed funda- common PP concepts may play in making and sustaining
mentally complex as this paper has argued, new analytical increases in well-being.
techniques may be needed. Some work has already been
done in this area within developmental psychology, and Conclusions
several suitable mathematical and statistical approaches
have recently been developed (for an overview of several, The current paper has aimed to help PP researchers answer
see Molenaar & Newell, 2010). Complex system approaches a key question: ‘What is it that makes an effort to increase
are also being used in specialist areas such as the learning and sustain well-being successful?’ It has proposed a new
of language (Dörnyei, Henry, & MacIntyre, 2015). Positive complex dynamic systems model of positive psychological
psychology researchers could build on such existing work. change, the SCM, which is based on the five major domains
The SCM opens the door for PP researchers to use of positive functioning present in the PP literature. A key
dynamic mathematical modelling and network modelling principle of the SCM is that lasting well-being will be more
(see van Geert & van Dijk, 2015). Predictions from math- likely when synergistic changes occur within and between
ematical SCM models could then be compared against most or all domains of psycho-social functioning. The SCM
empirical time-series data, as done by Roppolo, Kunnen, van provides pathways forward for the field of PP in terms of
Geert, Mulasso, and Rabaglietti (2015) for a complex systems theory, research methods and analytical approaches. In
model. Time-series data could also be used in state-space addition, the model leads to three practical intervention
analyses to identify dynamically stable (or unstable) patterns strategies that can be used to design PPIs in ways that
of functioning (‘attractors’). Such time-series data are often create synergy, thus enhancing intervention effectiveness
intensive (Molenaar, Lerner, & Newell, 2014b). However, as and increasing the likelihood of sustained changes in
Hofmann, Curtiss, and McNally (2016) have noted, meth- well-being: (a) targeting single, yet pivotal, elements;
odologies enabled by new technologies such as ecological (b) leveraging existing strengths; and (c) targeting mutually
momentary assessment (Stone & Shiffman, 1994) could facil- reinforcing elements.
itate analyses of complex dynamic system models. If positive psychology is to truly achieve its aim of lift-
The model proposed here also has implications for ing and sustaining flourishing states in individuals, groups,
experimental design. It suggests that experiments could and organisations, a complex and dynamic understanding
be devised to test the predictions of dynamic models. of how change occurs needs to be more fully embraced
Factorial designs are also appropriate, since they are by the field. We hope that this paper is a contribution in
more efficient than traditional control-group designs for this direction and that the SCM inspires future research.
testing many variables simultaneously (Collins, Dziak, &
Li, 2009; Collins, MacKinnon, & Reeve, 2013). They would Disclosure statement
allow first-order and higher-order interactions between
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
domains to be tested efficiently.
Finally, the SCM can assist in bringing the wealth of
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