(Physics) R Gupta's Popular Master Guide 2022
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Popular Master Guide
CUET-UG
Common University Entrance Test for
Under Graduate Courses/Programmes
DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT
PHYSICS
By
RPH Editorial Board
Published by
O.P. Gupta for Ramesh Publishing House
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Book Code: R-2721
ISBN: 978-93-5477-363-1
HSN Code: 49011010
EXAMINATION STRUCTURE
SECTION-II: DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECTS
No. of Questions Subject Time
40 Questions Input text can be used for
45 minutes for
to be MCQ Based Questions
each Domain
attempted out MCQs based on NCERT Class XII
Specific Subjects
of 50 Syllabus only
Mode of the Test : Computer Based Test (CBT)
Test Pattern : Objective type with Multiple Choice Questions
Medium of Exam : 13 Languages (Tam il, Telugu, Kannada,
Malayalam, Marathi, Gujarati, Odiya, Bengali,
Assamese, Punjabi, English, Hindi and Urdu)
(iii)
CONTENTS
SAMPLE PAPER
CUET (UG) – PHYSICS ........................................................................................................ 1-4
SECTION-II: DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT
PHYSICS
1. Electrostatics ............................................................................................... 3-22
2. Current Electricity ...................................................................................... 23-39
3. Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism ........................................... 40-56
4. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current .................................. 57-71
5. Electromagnetic Waves ............................................................................ 72-79
6. Optics ........................................................................................................ 80-99
7. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation ................................................... 100-109
8. Atoms & Nuclei ..................................................................................... 110-116
9. Electronic Device .................................................................................. 117-130
10. Communication Systems ...................................................................... 131-140
(iv)
SAMPLE PAPER (SOLVED) Sample Paper 1
CUET-UG
PHYSICS*
SECTION-II : DOMAIN SPECIFIC SUBJECT
1. A point positive charge is brought near an isolated Which of the following is a useful way?
conducting sphere as shown in the following figures. A. He should measure l1 more accurately
The electric field is best given by which figure? B. He should change S to 1000 and repeat the
experiment
(i) (ii) C. He sho uld chang e S to 3 and rep eat th e
experiment
D. He should give up hope of a more accurate
measurement with a meter bridge
(iii) (iv)
6. Which of the following characteristics of electrons
A. Fig. (i) B. Fig. (ii) determines the current in a conductor?
A. Drift velocity alone
C. Fig. (iii) D. Fig. (iv)
B. Thermal velocity alone
2. A positively charged particle is released from rest in C. Both drift velocity and thermal velocity
an uniform electric field. The electric potential energy D. Neither drift nor thermal velocity
of the charge:
7. Biot-Savart law indicates that the moving electrons
A. remains a constant because the electric field is uniform.
(velocity v) produce a magnetic field B such that:
B. increases because the charge moves along the
A. B v
electric field. B. B | | v
C. decreases because the charge moves along the C. it obeys inverse cube law
electric field. D. it is along the line joining the electron and point
D. decreases because the charge moves opposite to of observation
the electric field.
8. An electron is projected with uniform velocity along
3. The electrostatic potential on the surface of a charged the axis of a current carrying long solenoid. Which
conducting sphere is 100 V. Two statements are made of the following is true?
in this regard: A. The electron will be accelerated along the axis.
S 1 : At any point inside the sphere, electric intensity B. The electron path will be circular about the axis.
is zero. C. The electron will experience a force at 45° to the
S 2 : At any point inside the sphere, the electrostatic axis and hence execute a helical path.
potential is 100 V. D. The electron will continue to move with uniform
Which of the following is a correct statement? velocity along the axis of the solenoid.
A. S1 is true but S 2 is false 9. A circular current loop of magnetic moment M is in
B. Both S 1 & S 2 are false an arbitrary orientation in an external magnetic field
C. S1 is true, S2 is also true and S1 is the cause of S 2 B. The work done to rotate the loop by 30° about an
D. S1 is true, S 2 is also true but the statements are axis perpendicular to its plane is:
independant MB
A. M B B. 3
4. Equipotentials at a great distance from a collection of 2
MB
charges whose total sum is not zero are approximately: C. D. zero
A. spheres B. planes 2
C. paraboloids D. ellipsoids 10. In a permanent magnet at room temperature:
A. magnetic moment of each molecule is zero
5. A resistance R is to be measured using a meter bridge.
B. the individual molecules have non-zero magnetic
Student chooses the standard resistance S to be 100 .
moment which are all perfectly aligned
He finds the null point at l1 = 2.9 cm. He is told to
C. domains are partially aligned
attempt to improve the accuracy.
D. domains are all perfectly aligned
*40 Questions to be attempted out of 50 1
2 Sample Paper
11. A paramagnetic sample shows a net magnetisation of 18. Which of the following combinations should be
8 Am –1 when placed in an external magnetic field of selected for better tuning of an LCR circuit used for
0.6 T at a temperature of 4 K. When the same sample communication?
is placed in an external magnetic field of 0.2 T at a A. R = 20 , L = 1.5 H, C = 35 µF
temperature of 16 K, the magnetisation will be: B. R = 25 , L = 2.5 H, C = 45 µF
32 2 C. R = 15 , L = 3.5 H, C = 30 µF
A. Am–1 B. Am–1 D. R = 25 , L = 1.5 H, C = 45 µF
3 3
19. An inductor of reactance 1 and a resistor of 2
C. 6 Am –1 D. 2.4 Am –1 are connected in series to the terminals of a 6 V (rms)
12. A square of side L meters lies in the x-y plane in a a.c. source. The power dissipated in the circuit is:
region , wh ere the m ag netic field is given by A. 8 W B. 12 W
B B0 2iˆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ T , where B 0 is constant. The C. 14.4 W D. 18 W
20. One requires 11 eV of energy to dissociate a carbon
magnitude of flux passing through the square is:
monoxide molecule into carbon and oxygen atoms.
A. 2 B 0 L 2 Wb B. 3 B 0 L 2 Wb Th e minimu m frequ en cy o f the app ro priate
C. 4 B 0 L 2 Wb D. 2
29 B 0 L Wb electromagnetic radiation to achieve the dissociation
lies in:
13. A loop, made of straight edges has six corners at A. visible region B. infrared region
A (0, 0, 0), B (L, O, 0), C (L, L, 0), D (0, L, 0), E (0, L, L) C. ultraviolet region D. microwave region
and F (0, 0, L). A magnetic field B B0 iˆ kˆ T is 21. The electric field intensity produced by the radiations
present in the region. The flux passing through the coming from 100 W bulb at a 3 m distance is E. The
loop ABCDEFA (in that order) is: electric field intensity produced by the radiations
A. B 0 L 2 Wb B. 2 B 0 L 2 Wb coming from 50 W bulb at the same distance is:
C. 2 D. 4 B o L 2 Wb
2 B 0 L Wb E
14. Same as problem 4 except the coil A is made to rotate A. B. 2 E
2
about a vertical axis as shown in the following figure. E
No current flows in B if A is at rest. The current in C. D. 2E
coil A, when the current in B (at t = 0) is counter 2
22. The ratio of contributions made by the electric field
clockwise and the coil A is as shown at this instant,
and magnetic field components to the intensity of an
t = 0, is:
EM wave is:
A. c : 1 B. c2 : 1
C. 1 : 1 D. c :1
23. A short pulse of white light is incident from air to a
A. constant current clockwise glass slab at normal incidence. After travelling through
B. varying current clockwise the slab, the first colour to emerge is:
C. varying current counterclockwise A. blue B. green
D. constant current counterclockwise C. violet D. red
15. The self inductance L of a solenoid of length l and 24. A passenger in an aeroplane shall:
area of cross-section A, with a fixed number of turns A. never see a rainbow
N increases as B. may see a primary and a secondary rainbow as
A. l and A increase concentric circles
B. l decreases and A increases C. may see a primary and a secondary rainbow as
C. l increases and A decreases concentric arcs
D. both l and A decrease D. shall never see a secondary rainbow
16. If the rms current in a 50 Hz ac circuit is 5 A, the 25. Th e ph en om en a in vo lv ed in the reflectio n of
value of the current 1/300 seconds after its value radiowaves by ionosphere is similar to:
becomes zero is: A. reflection of light by a plane mirror
A. 5 2 A B. 5 3 / 2 A B. total internal reflection of light in air during a
mirage
C. 5/6 A D. 5 / 2 A C. dispersion of light by water molecules during the
17. To reduce the reasonant frequency in an LCR series formation of a rainbow
circuit with a generator: D. scattering of light by the particles of air
A. the generator frequency should be reduced 26. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the source is
B. another capacitor should be added in parallel to white light. One of the holes is covered by a red filter
the first and another by a blue filter. In this case:
C. the iron core of the inductor should be removed A. there shall be alternate interference patterns of
D. dielectric in the capacitor should be removed red and blue
2731 (SP)—1-II
Sample Paper 3
B. there shall be an interference pattern for red distinct 35. Heavy stable nuclei have more neutrons than protons.
from that for blue This is because of the fact that:
C. there shall be no interference fringes A. neutrons are heavier than protons
D. there shall be an interference pattern for red mixing B. electrostatic force between protons are repulsive
with one for blue C. neutrons decay into protons through beta decay
27. A particle is dropped from a height H. The de Broglie D. nuclear forces between neutrons are weaker than
wavelength of the particle as a function of height is that between protons
proportional to: 36. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
A. H B. H 1/2 increase in temperature because:
C. H 0 D. H –1/2 A. number density of free current carriers increases
28. The wavelength of a photon needed to remove a B. relaxation time increases
proton from a nucleus which is bound to the nucleus C. both number density of carriers and relaxation
with 1 MeV energy is nearly: time increase
A. 1.2 nm B. 1.2 × 10 –3 nm D. number density of current carriers increases,
C. 1.2 × 10 nm–6 D. 1.2 × 10 1 nm relaxation time decreases but effect of decrease in
relaxation time is much less than increase in
29. A proton, a neutron, an electron and an -particle number density
have same energy. Then their de Broglie wavelengths
compare as: 37. Hole is:
A. an anti-particle of electron
A. p = n > e > B. < p= n> e B. a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent
C. e < p = n > D. e = p = n = bond
30. Taking the Bohr radius as a0 = 53 pm, the radius of C. absence of free electrons
Li++ ion in its ground state, on the basis of Bohr’s D. an artifically created particle
model, will be about: 38. The output of the given circuit in Fig.
A. 53 pm B. 27 pm
C. 18 pm D. 13 pm
31. The simple Bohr model cannot be directly applied to
calculate the energy levels of an atom with many
electrons. This is because:
A. of the electrons not being subject to a central
force A. would be zero at all times
B. of the electrons colliding with each other B. would be like a half wave rectifier with positive
C. of screening effects cycles in output
D. the force between the nucleus and an electron C. would be like a half wave rectifier with negative
will no longer be given by Coulomb’s law cycles in output
32. O 2 molecule consists of two oxygen atoms. In the D. would be like that of a full wave rectifier
molecule, nuclear force between the nuclei of the two 39. A speech signal of 3 kHz is used to modulate a carrier
atoms: signal of frequency 1 MHz, using amplitude
A. is not important because nuclear forces are short- modulation. The frequencies of the side bands will be:
ranged A. 1.003 MHz and 0.997 MHz
B. is as important as electrostatic force for binding B. 3001 kHz and 2997 kHz
the two atoms C. 1003 kHz and 1000 kHz
C. cancels the repulsive electrostatic force between D. 1 MHz and 0.997 MHz
the nuclei 40. A message signal of frequency m is superposed on a
D. is not important because oxygen nucleus have carrier wave of frequency c to get an amplitude
equal number of neutrons and protons modulated wave (AM). The frequency of the AM wave
33. Two H atoms in the ground state collide inelastically. will be
The maximum amount by which their combined A. m B. c
kinetic energy is reduced is: c m c – m
A. 10.20 eV B. 20.40 eV C. D.
2 2
C. 13.6 eV D. 27.2 eV
41. A male voice after modulation-transmission sounds like
34. When a nucleus in an atom undergoes a radioactive that of a female to the receiver. The problem is due to:
decay, the electronic energy levels of the atom:
A. poor selection of modulation index (selected
A. do not change for any type of radioactivity
B. change for and radioactivity but not for 0 < m < 1)
-radioactivity B. poor bandwidth selection of amplifiers
C. change for -radioactivity but not for others C. poor selection of carrier frequency
D. change for -radioactivity but not for others D. loss of energy in transmission
4 Sample Paper
42. A basic communication system consists of: 48. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion
(a) transmitter (b) information source (A) and Reason (R):
(c) user of information (d) channel Assertion (A) : An electron has a high potential energy
(e) receiver when it is at a location associated with a more
Choose the correct sequence in which these are negative value of potential, and a low potential
arranged in a basic communication system: energy when at a location associated with a more
A. (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) B. (b), (a), (d), (e), (c) positive potential.
C. (b), (d), (a), (c), (e) D. (b), (e), (a), (d), (c) Reason (R) : Electrons move from a region of higher
potential to region of lower potential.
43. Which of the following is NOT the property of
Select the most appropriate answer from the options
equipotential surface?
given below:
A. They do not cross each other
A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
B. The rate of change of potential with distance on
explanation of (A)
them is zero
B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
C. For a uniform electric field they are concentric
correct explanation of (A).
spheres C. (A) is true, but (R) is false.
D. They can be imaginary spheres D. (A) is false and (R) is also false.
44. Three capacitors 2 µF, 3 µF and 6 µF are joined in 49. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion
series with each other. The equivalent capacitance is: (A) and Reason (R).
A. 1/2 µF B. 1 µF Assertion (A) : A magnetic needle free to rotate in a
C. 2 µF D. 11 µF vertical plane, orients itself (with its axis) vertical at
45. Which statement is true for Gauss law? the poles of the earth.
A. All the charges whether inside or outside the Reason (R) : At the poles of the earth the horizontal
gaussian surface contribute to the electric flux component of earth’s magnetic field will be zero.
B. Electric flux depends upon the geometry of the Select the most appropriate answer from the options
gaussian surface given below:
C. Gauss theorem can be applied to non-uniform A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
electric field explanation of (A)
D. The electric field over the gau ssian su rface B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
remains continuous and uniform at every point correct explanation of (A).
46. An electric cu rren t is passed throu gh a circu it C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
containing two wires of same material, connected in D. (A) is false and (R) is also false
parallel. If the lengths and radii of the wires are in the 50. Given below are two statements labelled as Assertion
ratio of 3 : 2 and 2 : 3, then the ratio of the current (A) and Reason (R).
passing through the wire will be: Assertion (A) : On increasing the current sensitivity
A. 2 : 3 B. 3 : 2 of a galvanometer by increasing the number of turns,
C. 8 : 27 D. 27 : 8 may not necessarily increase its voltage sensitivity.
47. We use alloys for making standard resistors because Reason (R) : The resistance of the coil of the galvano-
they have meter increases on increasing the number of turns.
A. low temperature coefficient of resistivity and high Select the most appropriate answer from the options
specific resistance given below:
B. high temperature coefficient of resistivity and low A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct
specific resistance explanation of (A)
C. low temperature coefficient of resistivity and low B. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not the
specific resistance correct explanation of (A)
D. high temperature coefficient of resistivity and high C. (A) is true, but (R) is false
specific resistance D. (A) is false and (R) is also false
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A C C A C A A D D C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C B A B B B C C C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D C D B B C D B B C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A A A B B D B C A B
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
B B C B D C A C A A
1
PHYSICS
2731 (Physics)—1
2
3
CHAPTER
1
ELECTROSTATICS
distance between them and its direction is along the line
INTRODUCTION
joining the two charges.
The branch of physics, which deals with the study of charges q1 q2
at rest, the forces between the static charges, fields and
potentials due to these charges is called electrostatics or r
static electricity. q1q2 1 q1q2 kq1q2
F 2 = 2
r 4 0 r 2 r
ELECTRIC CHARGE
where, k is constant and also written as 1/4 0
The addition property of electrons, which gives rise to
electric force between two electrons is called electric charge. where 0 = Permittivity of free space
The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C). = 8.854 × 10–12C2N–1m –2.
Charge on electron (e) = 1.6 × 10–19 C. Coulomb’s Law in Vector Space: In Vector form of
There are two types of electric charge positive and Coulomb’s Law
negative commonly carried by protons and electrons kq q
F12 = 12 2 rˆ21
respectively. Like charges repel each other and unlike r
charges attract each other. kq1q2
or, = r
r3
CONSERVATION OF CHARGE where,
It states that for an isolated system, the net charge always F = Force between charges q1 and q2
remains constant. In any physical process, the charge it F12 = Force on q1 because of q2,
may get transferred from one part of the system to another, r = Distance between q1 and q2,
but net charge will always remain same. It means charge
can be neither be created nor destroyed.
r̂21 = Unit vector in the direction from 2 to 1
k = Constant of proportionality
In mechanics, the total linear momentum of an isolated
system always remains constant, the electric charge also = 9 × 109 Nm 2C–2
obeys a similar law. It is called law of conservation of Coulomb’s Law in Some Medium
charge.
1 q1q2
F=
COULOMB’S LAW FORCES BETWEEN 4 r 2
TWO POINT CHARGES where, = Permittivity of the medium = 0 r
r = Relative Permittivity of the medium
It states that the force of attraction or repulsion between If the medium is some insulating medium, then r is
two point charges is directly proportional to the product of also written as capital K and, then, it is called “Dielectric
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the Constant” of the medium. The medium is called ‘dielectric’.
3
4
Notes:
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO
(i) This ‘K’ (Dielectric Constant) and the previous ‘k’.
(Constant of proportionality in the Coulomb’s Law)
A POINT CHARGE (q)
are different quantities. The first is capital K and the To find electric field at point P, place a vanishingly small
second is small k. positive test charge q0 at point p. According to Coulomb’s
(ii) Coulomb’s Law is a universal law, but it is applicable law, force on test charge q0 due to charge q0 is given by
only to point charges whether stationary or in motion.
Z
FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES
The force acting on a charge is directly proportional to the F
magnitude of the charge and inversely proportional to the q0
square of the distance between them. The force acting on p (x , y , z )
a point charge due to multiple charges is given by the r
+q
vector sum of all individual forces acting on the charges.
O Y
1 q1q2 ˆ q1q2 q1q2
i.e. Fin = 2 F12 2 rˆ13 ... 2 rˆln X
4 0 r12 r13 rln
q2 n
q1 1 q0
= r 2
rˆ1r F = 4 r 2 rˆ
4 0 j 2 1r
0
The magnitude of electric field at point p, is given by
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE AND 1 q
CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION E= 2
4 0 r
It states that when a number of charges are interacting the
total force an a given charge is the vector sum of the forces kq
E=
acted on it by all other charges. r2
F0 F01 F02 F03 .... F0 n kq
Continuous Charge Distribution: The continuous or, E = 3 r
r
charge distribution may be one-dimensional, two
dimensional or three dimentional. The charge distribution Near a Plane Sheet of Charge
called linear, surface and volume distributions respectively.
E=
20
ELECTRIC FIELD
i.e., it does not depend upon the distance of the
It is the space around a charge in which if a test charge is
point from the sheet of charge.
placed, experiences some force which it would not have
experienced otherwise. So be sure, ‘electric field’ is the Near a Conducting Charged Plate
space around the charge in which any other charge is acted
E=
upon by an electrostatic force. 0
Electric Field Strength (E) : The electric field strength q
at a point is the electric force per unit charge which a small = Surface charge density of the sheet =
A
positive test charge will experience if placed there. It applies
Total charge on the sheet
only to a point. =
Total area of the sheet
F
E = Lim At a Distance r from a Charged Metal Sphere
q 0 q0
When the point is on or outside the sphere
where, kq
E=
E = Electric Field Strength r2
F = Force experienced by the test charge When the point is inside the sphere:
q0 = test charge E= 0
The SI Unit of E is NC–1 Due to a Charged Non-metal Sphere
5
When the point is outside the sphere where,
kq r = distance of the point from the centre of the
E= 2
r dipole
When the point is inside the sphere: p = dipole moment
kqr 2l = length of the dipole
E=
R3 If l << r, then
where, R = radius of the sphere 2kp 1
E= or, E 3
r3 r
On Equatorial Line of a Dipole
kp
E =
(r l 2 )3 / 2
2
In the direction parallel to the axis of the dipole,
from positive towards negative poles.
If r >> l, then
kp
E=
r3
O R r At a point lying on a line making an angle
with the dipole axis
On the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Circular Ring
kqr (3cos2 1)
E= = p
( R 2 r 2 )3 / 2 4 0
where, Force on the Surface of a Charged Conductor
R = radius of the ring
In a charged conductor, charge resides on its surface. As
r = distance of the point from the centre of the same nature charges repel each other, so the entire charged
ring surface experiences an outward force (F) all the time.
E = 0, at the centre
2
R This force/unit surface area =
E is max. when r = ± 2 0
2
On the Axis of a Uniformly Charged Disc ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
r It is defined as the path straight or curved such that tangent
E=
20 1 2 2
(R r ) to it any point gives the direction of electric field intensity
at that point. Infact, it is the path along which a unit a
At a Point Due to an Infinitely Long Line of Charge positive charge actually moves in electric field, if free to
do so.
E=
2 0 r
E
where, Electric P
field line
= linear charge density i.e., charge per unit length.
r = perpendicular distance of the point
On the Axis of a Dipole ELECTRIC DIPOLE
2kpr
E= A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by
r 2 l 2 2 a certain distance is called an electric dipole.
6
Electric Dipole moment is defined as the product of 1 Q
the magnitude of either change and the length of the electric V=
4 0 r t1 r t2
dipole. 1 2
esu and emu units of electrical & magnetic quantities.
p q 2l
Dipole Placed in an Electric Field ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A DIPOLE
= torque on the dipole The direction of electric field due to an electric dipole at
a point on its axial line is same as that of the electric dipole
= pE
moment.
Potential Energy of the dipole Electric field on axial line of the electric dipole: At
= pE the point at a distance r from the centre of the dipole,
1 2 pr
Note: The electric dipole moment p is directed from E=
negative charge to the positive charge. 4 0 (r 2 a2 )2
For dipole of small length (2a << r),
Work Done in Rotating a Dipole in a Uniform
Electric Field 1 2p
E=
If the dipole is rotated through an angle from its 4 0 r 3
equilibrium position in the field (which will be when the Electric field on equitorial line of the electric dipole:
axis of the dipole, i.e. the direction from its negative charge At the point at a distance r from the centre of the elecric
to its positive charge is the direction of the electric field), dipole,
then the total work done, W will be
1 p
E = 2
4 0 (r a2 )3 / 2
W= pE sin d For dipole of small lengh (2a << r)
0
= pE (1 – cos ) 1 p
E= .
where, p = dipole moment 2 0 r 3
E = Electric field strength
If the dipole is rotated through 90° i.e., it becomes TORQUE ON A DIPOLE IN A
perpendicular to the direction of field, then
UNIFORM ELECTRIC FIELD
W 90° = p.E
If it is rotated through 180°, then Consider a dipole with charges +q and –q forming a dipole
W 180° = 2p.E since they are a distance d away from each other. Let it be
placed in a uniform electric field of strength E such that the
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole Placed axis of the dipole forms and angle with the electric field.
in a Uniform Electric Field (U)
For an electric dipole of dipole moment p placed in
It is defined as the work done in bringing the dipole from
electric field E ,
infinity to inside the filed in the given orientation.
If dipole is parallel to the field, then, = pE
U = –p.E
If be the angle between the directions of p and E,
If it is at angle
the, = pE sin .
U0 = –p.E cos
If = 90°, ELECTRIC FLUX
U90° = 0
The electric flux through a small surface is defined as the
Electric field intensity and potential at a point (t1 + t2)
electric lines force passing through that area, when normally
distance away from a charge Q such that up to t1 distance
to the lines of force.
medium has a relative permittivity r1 and then in t 2
distance r2 . E ds = E ds cos is called the electric flux through
1 Q (or passing through or linked with or cutting across) the
E= surface ‘ds’, being the angle between ‘the normal to the
4 0 t t 2
r1 1 r2 2 surface ‘ds’, and ‘direction of electric field’.
7
The sign of these lines which are coming out of the
UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITE PLANE
closed surface is taken as (+) and of those going in as (–).
SHEET AND UNIFORMLY CHARGED
As far as counting, the number of lines is concerned,
q
THIN SPHERICAL SHELL
electric lines of the force are supposed to be emanating Electric Field due to an Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge:
0
from a charge q when placed in free space. Consider an infinite sheet thin plane sheet of positive
charge having a uniform surface charge density () on both
If there is no net charge placed within the closed sides of the sheet. By symmetry, it follows that the electric
surface, the total electric flux linked with the surface will
field is perpendicular to the plane sheet of charge and
be zero.
direction outward direction.
GAUSS’S LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS Then, electric field, E =
2 0
It states that the surface integral of the electric field along
The magnitude of the electric field at a point due to
any closed surface is proportional to the charge contained
an infinite plane sheet of charge is independent of its
by the closed surface, i.e.,
distance from the sheet of charge.
q
E ds 0 Electric Field due to two Infinite Plane Parallel Sheets
of Charge: In case of two infinite plane sheets of charge
Hence, Gauss’s theorem may be stated as below: having equal and opposite surface charge densities, the
If a closed surface encloses a charges, then surface field is non-zero only in the space between the two sheets
integral of the electric field (due to enclosed charge) over and it is constant i.e., uniforms Further, the field is in
1 dependent of the distance between the infinite plane sheets
the closed surface is equal to times the charged enclosed. of charge.
0
The electric field is given by
Applications of Gauss’s Law
E=
(i) The electric field E is resulting from all charge, 0
both inside and those outside the Gaussian surface. Electric Field due to a Uniformly Charged Spherical
Shell:
(ii) The electric in E.d A is complete electric field. It
may be partly due to charge with in the surface and (i) When point P lies outside the spherical shell: Draw
the gaussian surface through point P. It will be a
partly due to charge outside the surface. However, if
these is no charge enclosed in the Gaussian surface, spherical shell of radius r and centre O. Let E be the
then electric field at point P due to charge of on the
spherical shell.
E.d A = 0 E
(iii) If a closed body is placed in an electric field (either +q
P
uniform or non-uniform) total flux linked with it ds
will be zero. Rr
Charged
Electric Field due to Infinitely Long Uniformly O Spherical
Shell
Straight Wire
Let us consider an uniformly charged wire of infinite length
Gaussian
having a constant linear charge density (). A cylinder of Surface
length (l), radius (r) closed at each end by plane caps
normal to the axis is chosen as Gaussian surface. Consider Total electric flux through the gaussian surface,
a very small area ds on the Gaussian surface. By symmetry, = E . 4r2
the magnitude of the electric field will be the same at all Since the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface q,
points on the surface
of the cylinder and directed radially
then from Gauss’ law.
outward E and ds are along the same direction.
1 q
By Gauss’s law, the field due to infinitely long straight E= (for r > R) [ q = 4R2]
wire is, 4 0 r 2
R2
E= = 2 (for r > R)
2 0 r 0 r
8
(ii) When point P lies on the surface of spherical shell: (ii) On the axis of a dipole
According to Gauss’s theorem kp
V= 2
1 q r
E= 2 (for r = R) (iii) A point on the equatorial axis of the dipole
4 0 R
V = zero
Since q = 4R2
(iv) At a point on a line inclined at an angle with the
Then, electrical field, axis of a dipole and passing through the mid-point
of dipole.
E = (for r = R) kp cos
0 V=
(r l 2 cos )
2
(iii) When point P lies inside the spherical Shell: The where, 1 = half the length of dipole.
gaussian surface through point P will not enclose
If r >> l, then
any charge and hence according to Gauss’s theorem kp cos
0 V=
E × 4r2 = 2 r2
r (v) On the axis of a charged ring
E = 0. (for r < R) kq
V=
Thus, at a point inside the charged spherical shell, (R r 2 )1/ 2
2
electric field is zero. where,
R = radius of charged ring
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND ITS r = distance of the point from the centre of
CALCULATION FOR A POINT CHARGE charged ring
The electric potential at a point is an elecric field is defined q = total charge on ring
as the amount of work done per unit positive test charge k = Proportionally constant of Coulomb’s Law.
in moving the test charge from infinity to that point against (vi) Due to uniformly charged conducting sphere
the electrostatic force due to the field. (a) This sphere behaves like a point charge placed
1 q at its centre for all points lying on it’s surface
i.e., V= and outside
4 0 r
kq
It is a scalar quantity. It’s unit is volt (V) and dimensions V=
r
are [ML2T–3A–1].
(b) For all points within the sphere, potential is
Potential Gradient: Potential gradient between two same and is
points is the rate of change of potential as we go from one
kq
point to another V=
R
dV
E = – Electric Field at its centre = zero.
dr where, R is the radius of the sphere.
Electric Field Strength at a point is equal to negative (vii) Due to uniformly charged non-conducting sphere
of the potential gradient at that point.
(a) This sphere too behaves like a point charged
(–) sign indicates that the direction of E is opposite to placed at its centre for all points lying on its
the direction in which potential is increasing, i.e., the surface and outside
direction of field is towards the point having smaller kq
potential. V=
r
Potential at a Point Due to Different Charges (b) For points within the sphere
(i) Due to a point charge (q) at a point at distance r kq(3R 2 r 2 )
V=
kq 2R 3
V= Potential at its centre.
r
where, 3kq
V=
K = Proportionality constant in the equation of 2R
Coulomb’s law. where, R is the radius of the sphere.
9
The work done in bringing the two charges to their
ELECTRIC DIPOLE AND
respective positions in stored as the potential energy of the
SYSTEM OF CHARGES configuration of two charges i.e.,
A dipole is a pair of opposite charges with equal magnitudes 1 . q1q2
separated by a distance ‘d’. The electric potential due to a U = 4 r
0 12
point charge q at a distance of r from that charge is given by
P CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Conductors: The elements, in which the valence shell is
r filled less than half, are found to be good conductors. For
example, in metals such as copper, aluminium, silver etc.
N
the valence shell contains three or less electrons.
–q +q There is net flow of electrons through the metal. It is
A B found that as the strength of the applied electric field is
increased, more and more free electrons cross through a
M section of the metal. As such, the metals are termed as
a a
conductor for electricity.
1 p cos
V= Insulators: The materials which do not have free
4 0 (r 2 a 2 cos2 )
electrons in them are unable to conduct electricity and are
The electric potential due to the dipole in the following termed as insulators. An insulator may behave in the
two cases: following two ways.
(i) When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole: 1. It may not conduct electricity through it and as such
In this case, it is called insulator.
= 0° and cos = cos 0° = 1 2. It may not conduct electricity through it but on
1 p applying electric field, induced charges are produced
Vaxial = 2 (for a << r)
4 0 (r a 2 ) on its faces. Such an insulator is called dielectric.
1 p The dielectrics do not conduct electricity. On applying
= 2 electric field, induced charges of opposite kinds develop
4 0 r
on their opposite faces.
(ii) When point p lies on the equatorial line of the
dipole: In such case, DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRIC POLARIZATION
= 90° and cos = cos 90° = 0
Dielectrics: Dielectrics are insulating (non-conducting)
Vequi = 0.
materials which transmits electric effect without conducting.
These are two types
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
1. Polar dielectrics: A polar molecule has permanent
It is any surface on which potential is same everywhere.
Work done in moving a charge (any charge) from any point electric dipole moment ( P) is the absence of electric
to any point on the equipotential surface is zero. field. But polar dielectric has net dipole moment
Two equipotential surfaces never intersect each other. zero in the absence of electric field. In the presence
of the electric field polar molecules tends to line up
Electric lines of force, whether emanating from or
in the direction of electric field and the substance
entering into an equipotential surface, are always normal to
has finite dipole moment. CO2, NH3, HCl etc. are
the equipotential surface.
made of polar molecules.
Closer the two equipotential surfaces having the same
potential difference, more is the electric field between them. 2. Non-polar dielectric: In non-polar molecules, each
molecule has zero dipole moment in its normal state.
ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A Benzene, methane etc. are made of non-polar
molecules.
SYSTEM OF TWO POINT CHARGES IN
Electric Polarisation: Electric polarisation occurs,
AN ELECTROSTATIC FIELD when a non-polar substance placed between two parallel
The electrical potential energy of a system of point charges plates with an applied electric field. The electric field tends
is defined as the work required to be done to bring the to attract the negatively charged electron particles on clouds
charges constituting the system to their respective locations towards the positive plate and positive charge nucleus
from infinity. towards a negative plate.
2731 (Physics)—2
10
CAPACITOR (CAPACITANCES) q q
But C=
A capacitor is a combination of two conductors (with any V 1 q
geometry) isolated from each other so that they can be 4 0 R
given equal but opposite charge. The conductors of a = 40 R
capacitor are called plates. (Whether they are spherical,
cylindrical or even rolled sheets, the conductors are still Capacitance of Spherical Capacitor
called plates.) If the charge q is given to the inner spherical conductor it
A simple capacitor consists of a pair of parallel plates spreads over the outer surface of it and a charge –q appears
of area is separated by a small distance d. A capacitor is on the inner surface of the shell. The electric field is
represented by the symbol + – . produced only between the two. Here
The charge stored in a capacitor is given by q 1 1
Q = CV V=
4 0 a b
Where, V is the potential difference between two
plates. The constant C is called the capacitance of the q ab
or C= 4 0
capacitor. The capacitance depends on the particular V b a
geomerty of the two conductors consitituting the capacitor.
–q
Capacitance does not depend on the charge nor on the
potential difference V. +q
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F).
C a
1F = 1
V
Coulomb
Farad = b
Volt
In SI system, unit of capacitor is farad and its
dimensions is [A2T4M –1L–2]. COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS IN
SERIES AND PARALLEL
Capacitance of an Isolated Conductor
Series Combination of Capacitors: Let three capacitors
When a charge q is given to a conductor, it spreads over
are connected in series as shown in figure. Let their
the outer surface of the conductor. The whole conductor
capacitances be C1, C2 and C 3. The total potential difference
comes to the same potential.
across V between the point A and B is the potential
According to Coulomb’s law,
difference across each capacitor.
Potential charge
+Q –Q +Q –Q +Q –Q
1 A C1 C2 C3 B
or V q or V =
q
C
V1 V2 V3
Where C is a constant called capacitance of the
conductors. V
q The charge on each plate has same magnitude Q. A
q = CV or C =
V single equivalent capacitor that can be placed between
points A and B to maintain same potential difference would
Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor
have capacitance Ceq where,
When a charge q is given to a spherical conductor of radius
Q = Ceq. V
R, the potential on its is
+ +
+ V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 ...(i)
+
+
+
Q = C1V 1 = C2V 2 = C3V 3 = C4V 4.
+
+ + + +
+ + + +
So we substitute for V1, V2, V3 and V 4 and V into
equation (i), we get
R
+
Q Q Q Q Q
+
=
+
+ + + C eq . C1 C 2 C3 C 4
+ +
1 q
V=
4 0 R
11
1 1 1 1 1 +q –q
=
C eq . C1 C 2 C 3 C 4 + –
+ –
The equivalent capacitance Ceq. is smaller than the + –
smallest contributing capacitance. + Air –
Parallel Combination of Capacitors: Consider a + –
collection of three capacitors in parallel as shown in the
figure.
Q Q Q d
C1 = 1 , C 2 2 , C 3 3 B A
V V V
+Q 1 –Q 1
q 0 A
C1 C=
V d
If instead of air some other insulator of dielectric
+Q 2 –Q 2
A C2 B constant K is inserted between the plates then the
capacitance becomes K times that of air.
+Q 3 –Q 3 i.e., Cmedium = KCair
C3
Charges are not stored by a parallel plate capacitor but
V
only the electric energy is stored in the form of potential
The magnitude of charge on each plate of the
energy. The total charge in a capacitor is zero.
equivalent capacitor must be
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITOR
Ceq.V = C1V + C2V + C3V + C4V
Work has to be done in charging a conductor against the
Ceq. = C1 + C2 + C3+ C4 force of repulsion by already existing charge on it. The
The equivalent capacitance is the sum of the individual work is stored as potential energy in the electric field of the
capacitances. conductor. Let a conductor of capacity C is charged to a
potential V and let q be the charge on the conductor at this
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL instant.
PLATE CAPACITOR Hence, stored potential energy,
Let, A = Area of each plate, d = separation between plates, 1 1 q2 1
U = CV 2 qV
then its capacitance, 2 2 C 2
EXERCISE
1. n small drops of the same size are charged to V volt A. 80 units B. 100 units
each. If they coalesce to form a single large drop, C. 120 units D. 150 units
then its potential will be 4. An electric cell does 5 joule of work in carrying 10
V coulomb charge around the closed circuit. The
A. B. Vn electromotive force of the cell is
n
C. Vn 1/3 D. Vn 2/3 1
A. 2 volt B. volt
2. Two conducting spheres of radii r1 and r2 are equally 2
charged. The ratio of their potentials is C. 4 volt D. 1 volt
5. A tin nucleus has charge + 50 e. If the proton is at
r12 r22 10–12 m from the nucleus, then the potential at this
A. B.
r22 r12 position is (charge on proton is 1.6 × 10–19 C)
r1 r2 A. 14.4 × 104 V B. 7.2 × 104 V
C. r D. r C. 7.2 × 10 V8 D. 14.4 × 108 V
2 1
6. The electric potential at the surface of an atomic
3. If the electric field is given by 6iˆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ, determine nucleus (Z = 50) of radius 9.0 × 10–15 m is
the electric flux through a surface of area 20 units A. 80 volt B. 8 × 106 volt
lying in yz plane. C. 9 volt D. 9 × 105 volt
12
7. A proton has a mass of 1.67 × 10–27 kg and charge 16. The radius of a charged metal sphere R is 10 cm and
1.6 × 10–19 C. If the proton be accelerated through a its potential is 300 V. Find the charge density on the
potential difference of one million volts, then the KE surface of the sphere.
is: A. 2 × 10–3 cgs esu B. 4 × 10–3 cgs esu
A. 1.6 × 10–15 J B. 1.6 × 10–13 J –3
C. 6 × 10 cgs esu D. 8 × 10–3 cgs esu
C. 1.6 × 10 J–25 D. 3.2 × 10–13 J 17. If a glass rod is rubbed with silk, it acquires a positive
8. Electrons are caused to fall through a potential charge because
difference of 1500 volt. If they were initially at rest, A. protons are added to it
their final speed is: B. protons are removed from it
A. 4.6 × 107 ms–1 B. 2.3 × 107 ms–1 C. electrons are added to it
2
C. 0.23 × 10 ms –1 D. 5.1 × 1.9 ms–1 D. electrons are removed from it
9. If the force exerted by a small spherical charged object 18. What is the area of the plates of a 2F parallel capacitor,
on another charged object at 8.00 cm is 2.0 N. What given that the separation between the plates is 0.5
will be the force exerted when the second object is cm?
moved to 4.0 cm? A. 0.53 × 108 m 2 B. 1.01 × 108 m 2
C. 2.13 × 10 m8 2 D. 1.13 × 109 m 2
A. 4 N B. 8 N
C. 16 N D. 2 N 19. The following figure shows contours of potential
10. In bringing an electron towards another electron, the distribution. At which point out of P, Q and R is the
electrostatic potential energy of system: electric field strength is minimum?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Becomes zero D. Remains unchanged
11. A spherical droplet having a potential of 2.5 V is
obtained as a result of merging of 125 identical P Q R
droplets. Find the potential of constituent droplet.
A. 0.4 V B. 0.5 V
C. 0.2 V D. 0.1 V 10 V 20 V 30 V 40 V
A. P B. Q
12. A hollow metallic sphere of radius 12 cm has been
C. R D. cannot be determined
given a charge 8 × 10 –7 coulomb. The electric
potential at a point 9 cm from the centre of the sphere 20. Two metal balls of radii 5 cm and 4 cm are charged
is to the same potential, the surface densities of charge
8 10 7 8 10 7 on the two spheres are in the ratio
A. 9 10 9 V B. 9 10 9 V A. 4 : 5 B. 5 : 4
0.09 (0.09) 2
C. 16 : 25 D. 25 : 16
8 10 7 21. If an electron has an initial velocity in a direction
C. 9 10 9 V D. zero
0.12 different from that of an electric field, the path of the
13. The insulation property of air breaks down at intensity electron is
of electric field 3 × 106 V/m. The maximum charge A. a straight line B. a circle
that can be given to a sphere of diameter 5 m is C. an ellipse D. a parabola
A. 2 × 10–2 C B. 2 × 10–3 C 22. To move a unit positive charge from one point to
C. 2 × 10 C–4 D. 2 × 10–5 C another on an equipotential surface
14. 1 g of solid, there are 5 × 1021 atoms. If one electron A. work is done by the charge
is removed from every one atom of the solid, the B. work is done on the charge
charge gained by the solid in 1 mg is C. no work is done
A. 0.08 C B. 0.8 C D. work done is a constant
C. –0.08 C D. –0.8 C 23. As one penetrates a uniformly charged conducting
15. The potential difference between two points if 2J of sphere, the electric field strength E
work must be done to move a 4 mC charge from one A. increases
point to another is B. decreases
A. 50 V B. 500 V C. remains the same as at the surface
C. 5 V D. 5000 V D. is zero at all points
13
24. The surface density on a solid steel sphere of radius 32. Four charges are arranged P Q
at the corners of squares –q +iq
r is . What is the electric field strength on its surface?
PQRS, as shown in fig. The
A. k B. force on the positive
0 r 0
charge kept at centre O is
2 A. along the diagonal QS
C. D. –iq +q
0 r 0 B. along the diagonal PR S R
25. Two free protons are kept at a distance of 1Å. and C. perpendicular to side
released, then the K.E. of each proton when at infinite PQ
separation is D. Zero
A. 5.6 × 10–12 joule B. 11.5 × 10–19 joule 33. On moving a charge 20 C by 2 cm, 2J of work is
C. 23 × 10 –19 joule D. 46 × 10–19 joule done, then the potential difference between the points
is
26. A system has two charges q A = 2.5 × 10 –7C and
A. 0.3 V B. 0.1 V
qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C are located at a points A (0, 0,
C. 0.8 V D. 0.4 V
–15 cm) and B (0, 0, + 15 cm) respectively. The
electric dipole moment of the system is 34. If the force between the electron in the first Bohr orbit
A. 7.5 × 10–8 cm B. 3.5 × 10–7 cm and the nucleus (proton) in hydrogen atom is F, then
–8 the force between them, when the electron is in the
C. 1.5 × 10 cm D. 0.15 × 10–8 cm
second orbit is
27. An oil drop of 12 excess electrons is held stationary
under a constant electric field of 2.55 × 104 NC–1 in F F
A. B.
millikan’s oil drop experiment. The density of oil is 12 16
1.26 gcm –3. Find the radius of the drop F F
(Given g = 9.8 m/sec2, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C) C. D.
2 4
A. 3.57 × 10–7 m B. 9.81 × 10–7 m
–7 35. Two charges q and –3q are placed fixed on X-axis
C. 1.81 × 10 m D. 0.81 × 10–7 m
separated by distance ‘d’. Where should a third change
28. The potential difference applied on X-ray tube is 5kV zq be placed such that, it will not experience any
and connect through it is 3.2 mA. Then, the number force
of electrons striking the target per second is d
A. 1 × 1016 B. 4 × 1017 A. 1 3 to the left of q
16
2
C. 2 × 10 D. 3 × 1015
B. d 1 3 to the right of q
29. Two equal point charges are fixed at x = –a and
d
x = ±a on the x-axis. Another point charge Q is placed C. 1 3 to the right of q
at the origin. The change in electrical potential energy 4
d
of Q. When it is displaced by a small distance x-along D. 1 3 to the left of q
the x-axis is near proportional to 3
A. x –2 B. x 2 36. Two copper balls each weighing 10 g are kept in air
C. x D. x 1/2 10 cm apart. If one electron from every 10 6 atoms is
30. The ratio of the coulomb forces between two small transferred from one ball to the other ball, the coulomb
sphere carrying constant charge when placed at a force between them is (atomic wt. of copper is 63.5)
given distance (a) in air (b) in a medium of dielectric A. 2 × 106 N B. 2 × 108 N
C. 2 × 10 N7 D. 2 × 109 N
constant k
A. l : k2 B. k : 1 37. Three charges each of magnitude q are placed at the
C. 1 : k D. k2 : 1 corners of an equilateral triangle, the electrostatic
31. Under the influence of the coulomb field of charge force on the charge placed at the centroid is (each
+Q, a charge –q is moving around in it an elliptical side of triangle is L)
orbit. Find out the correct statement (s) 1 q2 1 2q 2
A. The linear momentum of charge –q is constant A. B.
4 0 L2 4 0 L2
B. The angular momentum of charge –q is constant
C. The linear speed of the charge –q is constant 1 2q 2
D. The angular velocity of the charge –q is constant C. D. Zero
6 0 2 L2
14
38. A particle ‘A’ having a charge of 2 × 10–8 C and a 46. The ratio of electrostatic and gravitational force acting
mass of 100 g is fixed at a bottom of smooth inclined between electron and proton separated by a distance
plane of inclination 30°. Where should another 5 × 10–11 m, will be charge one = 1.6 × 10–19 C, mass
particle , having same charge and mass be placed on of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, mass of p+ = 1.6 ×
the inclined so that it remains in equilibrium? 10–27 kg and G = 6.7 × 10–11 Nm 2/kg2
A. 27 cm B. 22 cm A. 1.37 × 1037 B. 1.76 × 1019
C. 26 cm D. 31 cm C. 2.98 × 10 22 D. 3.54 × 1016
39. Two identical conductors of Cu and Al are placed in 47. Four point charges –Q, –q, 2q and 2Q are placed, one
an identical electric field. The magnitude of induced of the each corner of square. The relation between Q
charge in the Al will be and q for which the potential at the centre of the
A. equal to Cu B. zero square is zero is
C. less than Cu D. greater than Cu
1 1
40. Two identical particles each of mass 10 g and carrying A. B.
a charge 2.0 × 10–4 C each are kept at a seperation of q q
10 cm and then released. What would be the speed C. q D. –q
of the particles, when separation becomes large? 48. A ball with charge –50 e is placed at the centre of
A. 500 m/s B. 300 m/s hollow spherical shell which carries a net charge of
C. 600 m/s D. 400 m/s –50 e. The charge on the shell in outer surface is
41. Two identical charges repel each other with a force A. –100 e B. –50 e
equal to 10 mg wt, when they are 0.6 m apart in air, C. +100 e D. 0
g = 10 m/sec2. The value of each charge is
49. A ring of radius r carries a charge Q uniformly
A. 3 µC B. 5 µC
distributed over its length. A charge q is placed at its
C. 2 µC D. 6 µC
centre will experience a force equal to
42. If a body gives out 109 electrons every second, how qQ
much time is required to get the total charge of 1 C A. 0 B.
4 0 r 2
from it?
A. 132.32 years B. 198.18 years 2 qQ qQ
C. D.
C. 215.05 years D. 98.34 years 3 0 r 2
6 0 r 2
43. Two point charges placed at a certain distance r in air 50. An infinite number of charge, each of charge 1µC are
exert a force F on each other. Then the distance r at placed on X-axis with co-ordinates x = 1, 2, ..... If
which these charges will exert the same force in a a charge of 1C is kept at the origin, then the net force
medium of dielectric constant k is given by acting on 1C charge is
r
A. r k B. A. 1 × 104 N B. 3.5 × 104 N
k 4
C. 1.2 × 10 N D. 4.0 × 104 N
r 51. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is formed to
C. r D.
k have a negative charge of –3 × 10–7 C. The number
44. Two particles of equal mass m and charge q are palced of electrons transferred from the wool to polythene is
at a distance of 16 cm. They do not experience any A. 1.8 × 1012 B. 1.9 × 1015
q C. 1.5 × 1013 D. 1.8 × 1010
force. The value of is
m 52. A copper ball 1 cm in diameter is immersed in oil
A. 4 0 G B. 2 0 G with a density 800 kgm –3. What is the charge of ball,
if the ball moves downwards with constant speed
C. 3 0 G D. 5 0 G with homogeneous electric field it is applied in oil?
45. Equal charges q are placed at each of A, B, C, and D The electric field is directed vertically upward and its
of a square of side length ‘a’. The magnitude of force intensity E = 36000 V/m and density of Cu = 8600
on the charge at B will be kgm –3.
A. 3.6 × 10–6C B. 3.2 × 10–7C
1 2 2 q2 1 q2 C. 2.1 × 10 C–9 D. 1.1 × 10–8C
A. B. 1
2 4 a2 2 4 0 a2
0 53. Two point charges repel each other with a force 100 N.
q 2
q 2 One of the charges increased by 10% and other is
C. 1 2 2
D. 2 2 reduced by 10%. The new force of repulsion at the
4 0 a 4 0 a2 same distance would be
15
A. 101 N B. 100 N K 2
C. 99 N D. 110 N A. zero B.
0 g
54. The two charges identical metal spheres A and B
2 2 (K 1)
repel each other with a force 3 × 10 –5N. Another C. K g D.
identical uncharged sphere C is touched with A and 0 K 0 g
then placed at the mid point A and B, Net force on 59. A capacitor of capacitance 1F withstands a maximum
C is voltage of 6 kV, w hile another capacitor of
A. 3 × 10–5 N B. 1 × 10–5 N capacitance 2 F, the maximum voltage 4 kV. If they
C. 2 × 10 N–5 D. 11.5 × 10–5 N are connected in series, the combination can with
55. Two point charges +3 µC and +8 µC repel each other stand a maximum of
with a force of 40 N. If a charge of –5 µC is added to A. 6 kV B. 4 kV
each of them, then the force between them will become C. 10 kV D. 9 kV
A. 20 N B. 15 N
60. The capacity of a parallel plate air capacitor is 10 F
C. 18 N D. 10 N
and is given a charge of 40 C. The electrical energy
56. A parallel plate capacitor is connected to a battery. stored in the capacitor (in erg) is
The plates are pulled apart with uniform speed. If x A. 500 B. 800
is the separation between the plates then rate of C. 900 D. 200
change of electrostatic energy of the capacitor is
61. An air capacitor is given a charge of 2 C raising its
proportional to
potential to 200 V. If on inserting a dieletric medium,
A. x 2 B. x
its potential falls to 50 V, what is the dielectric
1 1 constant of the medium?
C. D.
x x2 A. 1 B. 2
57. The charge on C1 capacitor and potential difference C. 3 D. 4
across points A and B is 62. An electric dipole is formed by + 6 C and –6 C
+ – 10 V charges at 5 mm distance. The dipole moment is
A. 2 × 10–7C m B. 3 × 10–8C m
–6
C. 2.5 × 10 C m D. 4 × 10–7C m
C2 = 4F
C1
63. An electric dipole of dipole moment 4 × 10–5C m is
A B
placed in a uniform electric field of 10–3 NC–1 making
5 F
an angle of 30° from the direction of electric field.
C3 = 6F Then, the torque exerted by the electric field on the
50 33 10 100 dipole is
A. C, V B. C, V A. 1.5 × 10–7 Nm B. 0.5 × 10–8 Nm
6 9 3 3
C. 2 × 10–8 Nm D. 2.8 × 10–7 Nm
C. 50C, 5V D. 0, 0
64. The electric potential at 0.1 m from a point charge is
58. A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and
50 V. What is the magnitude of the charge?
separation between the plates d, is submerged into a
non-conducting liquid of dielectric constant K, and 5 9 1 8
A. 10 C B. 10 C
density . If the capacitor plates get charges of charge 9 3
density , then for the idealized situation shown in 3 7 5 8
C. 10 C D. 10 C
figure, the height h of the level of liquid that rises in 7 9
the capacitor is: 65. A box encloses an electrical dipole consisting of
charge 5 C and –5 C and of length 10 cm. What
is the total electric flux through the box?
+ A. 0 B.
C. 10 D. 100
d
66. The electric flux through each face of a hollow cube
h of side 10 cm, if a charge of 8.854 C is placed at its
centre is
–
A. 2.13 × 105 Nm 2C–1 B. 1.67 × 105 Nm 2C–1
C. 0.13 × 106 Nm 2C–1 D. 3.05 × 104 Nm 2C–1
16
67. A capacitor charged from a 50 V dc supply is found
to have a charge of 10 C. What is energy stored in
a capacitor? E E
A. 1.2 × 10–4 J B. 2.0 × 10–3 J C. D.
–4
C. 2.5 × 10 J D. 4.0 × 10–3 J
68. The potential at a point 0.1 m from an isolated point R r Rr
charge is +100 V. What is the nature and magnitude
70. A uniformly charged this spherical shell of radius R
of the point charge?
carries uniform surface charge density of per unit
A. 1.11 × 10–9C (Positive)
area. It is made of two hemispherical shells, held
B. 2.11 × 10–9C (Negative)
C. 0.14 × 10–8C (Negative) together by pressing them with force (in fig.), F is
D. 2.51 × 10–9C (Positive) proportional to
69. In a uniformly charged sphere of total charge Q and
radius R, the electric field E is plotted as a function
of distance from the centre. The graph which would F F
correspond will be
E 1 1 2 2
E
A. R B. R
A. B. 0 0
1 1 2
C. R 2 D. 2
R R r 0 0 R
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D D C B B B B B B A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
D C B B B D D D B A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D C D B B A B C B B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B A B B A B D A A C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
C B B A A B D A A C
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A D C A D D A D D B
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
D B C A A B C A C B
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
4 4 q
1. As, n r 3 = R 3 , R = n1/ 3 r 2. As, V1 =
3 3 4 0 r1
q
V= ; q
4 0 r and V2 =
nq nq 4 0 r2
V = V1
40 R 40 n1/ 3r r
= 2
V2 r1
V = n2/3 V
17
11. We have, V.n2/3 = 2.5
3. Given, E = 6iˆ 3 ˆj 4 k̂
or, V.(125)2/3 = 2.5
The area vector denoted the surface of area 20 units
or, 25V = 2.5, or V = 0.1 V
is yz plane.
12. We have, Vinside = Von
S = 20 iˆ
1 q 8 10 7
Electric flux, = E . S = = 9 × 109 × V
4 0 r 0.12
= 6iˆ 3 ˆj 4 kˆ .20 iˆ
13. As, E=
Q
= 120 units. 4 0 R 2
4. We have, W = QV Q 9 10 9 Q
3 × 106 = = 2
1 4 0 R 2 5
5 = 10 × V V = volt
2 2
25 3 10 6
1 Q Q= = 2 × 10–3 C
5. Potential = 4 9 10 9
4 0 r
14. As, Q = ne = 5 × 1021 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 10–3C = 0.8 C
9 10 9 50 1.6 10 19 15. As, dW = qdV
= V
10 12 2 = 4 × 10–3dV
= 7.2 × 104 V 2
dV = 10 3 500 V
4
Q
6. As, V= 16. We have, 300 V = 1 stat volt
4 0 r
Q Q
Ze = =1 { K = 1 in CGS esu}
= R 10
4 0 r Q = 10 stat coulomb
Q 10
As, =
9 10 9 50 1.6 10 19 4 R 2
4 (10)2
= V
9 10 15 1
= 8 × 10–3 c.g.s. esu.
= 8 × 106 V 40
1 2 17. When electrons are removed from metal plate, it
7. As, KE = mv = eV becomes deficit of electrons and hence positively
2
charged Q must be negative.
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 106
= 1.6 × 10–13 J. 18. Given, C = 2F, d = 0.5 cm = 0.5 × 10–2 m
0 A
1 2 As, C=
8. Use eV = mv d
2
Cd 2 0.5 10 2
or A= =
2eV 0 8.854 10 12
v=
m = 1.13 × 109 m 2
19. The electric field lines are perpendicular to
2 1.6 10 19 1500 equipotential surfaces. Hence, one of them will be
= m/s
9 10 31 somewhat as shown by dotted line. Further,
= 2.3 × 107 ms–1.
9. Distance changes from 8 cm to 4 cm, i.e., distance is
halved force becomes 4 times, hence new force is A B C D
8 N. P R
Q
10. Work has to be done agaist the force as repulsion in
bringing an electron towards another electron. This
increases the electrostatic potential energy of system. 10 V 20 V 30 V 40 V
2731 (Physics)—3
18
dV Electric dipole moment
E= P = Charge × AB
dr
10 = 2.5 × 10–7 × (30 × 10–2) = 7.5 × 10–8 m.
EP =
AB 27. Given, n = 12, E = 2.55 × 1014 V/m
10 = 1.26 gcm –3 = 1.26 × 103 kg/m 3
EQ =
BC As the drop is stationary
10 Weight of droplet = force due to electric field
ER =
CD 4
As BC > AB as well as CD, = Ene
3r 3g
EQ is minimum.
3 E ne 3 2.55 10 4 12 1.6 10 19
q1 q q1 5 r3 = =
20. As, = 2 = 4g 4 3.14 1.26 10 3 9.8
5 4 q2 4
r = 9.8 × 10–7 m.
1 q1 q2
= q ne i t 3.2 10 3
2 4 (5)2 4 (4)2 28. As, i = n= = 2 × 1016.
t t e 1.6 10 19
q1 42 5 42 4 16
= 2 2 = Q
q2 5 4 5 5 25 29. q q initial position
x = –a x = +a
21. Uniform motion in one direction and uniformly
Q
accelerated motion at right angles to it gives a q q
parabola. x = –a x x = +a
22. dW = qdV Final position x = –a
V = constant, dV = 0 2Qq
PE at Q, Ui = ...(i)
dW = 0 4 0 a
23. Electric intensity at a point distant d from a dipole is Final PE of Q is
inversely proportional to the cube of the distance. Qq 1 1
Uf =
kQ 1 4 r 2
4 0 a x a x
24. As, E = = =
r2 4 0 r2 0 Qq a x a x
=
25. P.E. of protons at 1Å = K.E. of 2 protons at . 4 0 a 2 x 2
(e)(e) 2Qqa
= (K.E. of each proton) × 2 Uf = ...(ii)
4 0 r 4 0 (a2 x 2 )
9 10 9 (1.6 10 19 ) 2 2Qq a 1
K.E. of each proton = Now, U = Uf – Ui =
2 1 10 10 4 0 a 2 x 2 a
= 11.5 × 10–19 joule.
2Qq a 2 a 2 x 2
26. Two charges q A and q B are located at point =
4 0 a( a 2 x 2 )
A(0, 0, –15) and (0, 0, 15) on z-axis shown in Fig.
z 2Qq x2
= ,
4 0 a(a x 2 )
2
B (0, 0, 15)
2Qqx 2
–qB U =
4 0 a3
x
U x 2
+qA q1 q2
y 30. Given, Fa = ...(i)
A (0, 0, –15) 4 0 r 2
q1q2
q = qA + qB Fb = ...(ii)
= 2.5 × 10–7 – 2.5 × 10–7 cm = 0 k 4 0 r 2
= AB = 15 + 15 = 30 cm = 30 × 10–2 m From (i) & (ii), we get Fa : Fb = k : 1
2731 (Physics)—3-II
19
31. A torque about Q of charge –q is zero, then angular Q = 9.48 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 0.015C
momentum of charge –q is constant but distance Force of attraction between the two balls
between charges is changing, so force is changing.
(0.015) 2
Therefore, the velocity and speed are also changing. F = 9 × 109 × 2 108 N.
(0.1) 2
32. There is positive charge at O. The resultant force due
to the charges placed at P and Q is zero and resultant 37. From the figure, we see F FB FC and are
force due charge at Q and S is towards S along the
equally inclined with each other. Thus, the resultant
diagonal QS.
force will be zero.
33. The potential difference between two points in an
Aq
W
electric field is VA – VB =
q0
Where, W is work done by moving charge q0 from the
FB FC
point A to B.
Given, W = 2J, q0 = 20 C q
B C
VA – VB = = 0.1 V FA
20
38. The forces acting on charge B are shown in fig.
1 q1q2 1 q1q2 Resolving perpendicular and parallel to the inclined
34. As, F= and F1 =
4 0 r12 4 0 r22 plane,
Where, r2 is the radius of 2nd orbit N
Fe B q
rn2 n 2
r2 = 4r1
mg sin 30°
1 q1q2 F
F1 =
4 0 (4r1 )2 16
mg cos 30° 30° q
A
35. On the charge 2q placed at p.
N = mg cos 30° ...(i)
Force due to q is to the left and that due to –3q is to Fe = mg sin 30° ...(ii)
the right From (i) and (ii)
2q 2 6q 2 kq 2 mg
2
= 2 =
4 0 x 4 0 ( d x ) x 2 2
(d + x) = 3x 2
2
Using the given value and solving, we get
2q p q d
–3 q 2kq 2
d x= = 27 cm.
mg
2x2 – 2dx – d2 = 0 39. Since Cu and Al are both metals, equal amount of
d 3d d charge will be induced on them.
x= = (1 3) to left of q.
2 2 2 40. When the separation of particles becomes large, the
entire PE is converted into KE.
10
36. No. of atoms in given mass = 6.02 10 23 q1q2
63.5 1
2 mv 2 =
= 6.48 × 1022 2 4 0 r
e
–
9 10 9 (2 10 4 ) 2
10–2v2 = = 3600
10 1
+A B– 3600
v2 = = 36 × 104
10 10 2
v = 600 m/sec.
Transfer of electrons between balls
9.48 10 22 1 q1q2
= = 9.48 × 1016 41. As, F=
10 6 4 0 r 2
Magnitude of charge gained by each ball. q1 = q2 = q
20
46. Electrostatic force
9 10 9 q 2
(10 × 10–3) × 10 = 1 e2
(0.6)2 9 10 9 (1.6 10 19 )2
Fe = 2 =
q2 = 4 × 10–12 4 0 r (5 10 11 )2
q = 2 × 10–6 C = 2 µC. = 9.22 × 10–8 N
and gravitational force.
42. Given, n = 109 electrons/sec Gme m p
q = ne = 109 × 1.6 × 10–19C FG =
r2
= 1.6 × 10–10C
6.7 10 11 9.1 10 31 1.6 10 27
Since total charge = 1C FG =
(5 10 11 )2
Q 1 = 5.24 × 10–27 N
Time required = s
q 1.6 10 10 Fe 9.22 10 8
= = 1.76 × 1019
= 6.25 × 109s FG 5.24 10 27
47. Consider the side of square b ‘a’, then potential at
6.25 10 9
= year centre O is
3600 24 365
–Q –q
= 198.18 years.
43. F = F
Q1 Q 2 Q1Q 2 O
=
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2 k
2Q 2q
r
r = k ( Q) k ( q) k (2q) k (2Q)
k V= =0
a a a a
44. Here, when Fa Fe 2 2 2 2
G m2 1 q2 –Q – q + 2q + 2Q = 0 Q + q = 0 Q = –q.
=
(16 10 2 ) 2 4 0 (16 10 2 ) 2 48. From Fig, total charge on outer surface
= –50e – 50e = –100e
q
= 4 0 G ++++++
m ++
++
++
++++++
+++
45. FC
++++++
FD –50e
+++
+q +q F AC
–50e
++
++
A FA ++
B ++++++
Induced charge on inner surface of shell = +50e
Induced charge on outer surface of shell = –50e
D C 49. The electric field at the centre of the circular charged
+q +q
ring of radius R is zero.
kq 2 kq 2 Force = qE = 0
FA = FC = and FD =
a a 2 2 50. The distribution of charges on X-axis shown in fig.
1µc 1µc 1µc 1µc 1µc
2 kq 2 kq2
Fnet = x=1 x=2 x=4 x=8
a2 2a2
Total force acting on 1C charge is given as
kq 2 1 1
= 2 2 F=
a 2 4 0
q2
2 2 1 1 10 6 1 1 10 6 1 10 6 1 1 10 6
= 1
2 = 2
2
2
2
....
4 0 a 2 (1) (2) (4) (8)
21
10 6 1 1 54. There is same charge q on the sphere A and B
= 1 ... 1 q2
4 0 4 16 F= = 3 × 10–5 N
4 0 r 2
1
= 9 × 109 × 10–6 1
Now, on touching the sphere A and C
1 q
4 Final charges on these spheres qA = qC =
c
4 FB FA
= 9 × 109 × 10–6 ×
3 A B
C
4
= 9 10 3 = 1.2 × 104 N. Net force on C, F = FA FB
3
q q q
51. Total charge q = –3 × 10–7 C 1 2 2 1 q
2
Charge on the electron = –1.6 × 10–19C F= 2 2
4 0 r 4 0 r
As, q = ne
2 2
q 3 10 7
or, n= 1 q
e 1.6 10 19 = 2 3 10 5 N
4 0 r
= 1.8 × 1012.
4 3 55. Given F = 40
52. Here, mass of Cu ball, m = r
3 k (3)(8) 24 k
F= 2
...(i)
F B = qE F B = m g / r r2
k (3 5)(8 5)
6 k
F = 2 ...(ii)
r2 r
From equation (i) & (ii), we get
F 6 k r 2 1
= 2
F r 24 k 4
F 40
mg F = = –10 N (attractive)
4 4
The ball is immersed in oil and a uniform electric
field exists in the upwards direction. 1 1 0 AV 2
56. As, U= qV
Here, three forces acts on the ball. 2 2 x
For the equilibrium of Cu ball dU 1 1 dx
2
mg = FE + FB = qE + mg = 0 AV 2
dt 2 x dt
mg
q= 1 1 1
E = 0 AV 2 v 2
2 x
r 3g dU 1
= 1
3 E
dt
2
x
4 (0.5 10 2 )3 (8600 9.8) 800 57. The effective capacitance of the parallel combination
= 1 of C2 and C3 is 10F and that of the entire combination
3×36000 100 8600
= 1.1 × 10–8C. 50
C 1, C 2 , C 3 is F. Thus the charge on the
1 q1 q2 15
53. As, F = equivalent capacitor is
4 0 r 2
110 90 50 100
For the new force q1 q2 q1 q2 Q = CV 10 C
100 100 15 3
99
Thus, new force F is times of F The same charge appears on C1 capacitor,
100
99 Q 100 10 6 10
× 100 = 99 N. Now, VAB = V
100 C AB 3 10 10 6 3
22
58. Surface charge on liquid surface 65. Since, net charge enclosed by the box is zero, electric
1 flux through the box is also zero.
= A 1
K 66. Total electric flux through each face of the cube
The upward force of attraction q 8.854 10 6
1 = = = 10 Nm 2C–1
= E A 1 0 8.854 10 12
K Electric flux through each face of the cube.
with E= 1 1
K 0 = 10 6
6 6
This is balanced by mg = Ahg = 1.67 × 105 Nm 2C–1
2 1 2 q 10
59. Here, C= F 67. As, C= 0.2F
2 1 3 V 50
As, Q = CV 1
Energy stored, U = CV 2
2 2
Q= E
3 1
Q 2
= 0.2 10 6 (50) 2
V1 = E 6 kV 2
C1 3 = 2.5 × 10–4 J
3 1 q
or E< 6 68. As, V= .
2 4 0 r
i.e., E < 9kV
0.1 100
Q 2 (40 10 6 )2 or q = 40rV =
60. As, Energy = 9 10 9
2C 2 10 10 6 = 1.11 × 10–9 (Positive)
40 40 10 12 69. For uniform charge sphere
= J
2 10 10 6 kqr
= 80 × 10–6 × 107 erg E= (r R)
R3
= 800 erg
kq kq
61. The potential between the plates of the capacitor = 3 (r R) = 3 (r R)
R r
decreases by a factor equal to dielectric constant
V 200
k= 4.
V 50
62. Given, q = + 6C = ± 6 × 10–6 C R
2a = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m Hence graph is, E
1
r2
Electric dipole moment x r
P = q(2a) = 6 × 10–6 × 5 × 10–3
= 3 × 10–8C m. R r
63. As = P E sin 70. Since equilibrium of hemispherical shell,
= 4 × 10–8 × 10–3 sin 30°
2
= 2 × 10–8 Nm. we have, F= R 2
2 0
1 q
64. As V= 2 2
4 0 r F = 2 R
0
q = 40 Vr
2 R2
1 5 F
= 9
50 0.1 = 10 9 C. 0
9 10 9
_______________
23
CHAPTER
2
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
on them) and constitute current. If there is not net (i.e.,
ELECTRIC CURRENT (I)
external) field acting on these free or conduction electrons,
Electric current is rate of flow of charge. Charge carriers then they do move in irregular random motion, striking
can be electrons, ions, holes (as in semi-conductors), etc. If other electrons/atoms/molecules in the process. Then their
dq be the net charge transported at a section of the conductor speed is given by:
in time dt, then, current,
3kT
dq vrms =
I= m
dt
10+5 m/s.
where q = charge
Here
t = time
vrms = Root mean square velocity
Electric Current Density (J): It is the current flowing
per unit area of cross-section of the conductor. k = Boltzmann constant and
I T = Absolute temperature
J=
A
DRIFT VELOCITY
For irregular shapes of cross-sections,
When some electric field is applied between the ends of a
I = J dA conductor, its free electrons start drifting in a direction
according to the direction of the applied field, though they
Although I, J and A are all scalar quantities, they can still keep on colliding with their neighbouring fundamental
be so defined as to be represented as vector quantities for particles, Order of the drift speed is only 10–4 m/s.
the limited purpose under consideration.
eV eE
Free Electrons: Valence shell and conduction shell in vd = or
the atoms of conductors, overlap. Thus, the electrons in the ml m
valence shell can also be considered as of conduction where,
shell. Now, the electrostatic-cum-gravitational pull of the vd = Drift speed
nucleus on the electrons is felt only upto the conduction
E = External field applied to the conductor
shell. As soon as an electron comes in the conduction shell
level (which is the shell next and outer to the valence e = Charge on electron
shell), it becomes free of the nucleus pull of any particular V = Potential difference applied between the two
atom. Hence, it becomes free to travel from one atom to ends of the conductor
another within the body of the conductor. It is then called l = Length of the conductor
a free electron. m = Mass of an electron
In almost all cases, these free electrons flow from one The electric current (I) will be:
direction to another (because of some electric field acting I = neAv d
23
24
where, (iv) Ohm’s law is not followed under following
A = Area of cross-section conditions:
n = No. of electrons per unit volume 1. At very high temperatures
2. At very low temperatures
Distribution of Electrons as per their Velocities 3. At very high potential differences
(v) V-I Curves
Nv I I
–V V –V V
O v
–I –I
where,
v = velocity For Semi-conductors For Diode Junction
Nv = No. of electrons, having a particular velocity V.
I
OHM’S LAW
It states that the physical conditions (temperature) –V O V
mechanical strain etc. remain same, then current (I) flowing –I
through the conductor is proportional to the potential
difference (V) applied between its ends.”
For Thyrister
I V
V
or = a constant, R
I I
The constant ‘R’ is called the resistance of the
1 O V
conductor. It’s reciprocal is called Conductance (G).
R
From the Ohm’s law the variation of potential difference
(V) and current (I) through a conductor is straight line.
For Vacuum Tube
I
A
I
O V
Validity of OHM’s Law
For Semi-conductor Diode
(i) Ohm’s Law is not a universal law.
(ii) Ohm’s Law is followed by ohmic conductors (metals) ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
only under normal working conditions.
It is defined as the ratio of the potential difference applied
(iii) The following materials/devices do not follow Ohm’s across the conductor to the current through it.
Law
V
1. Vacuum Tubes i.e., R=
I
2. Crystal Rectifiers The SI unit of electrical resistance is ohm. It is denoted
3. Thermisters, Thyristors by .
4. Transistors 1 volt
1 (ohm) = = 1VA–1
5. Super-conductors 1 amp
25
The electrical resistance of a conductor is said to be Non-ohmic Conductors: The conductors which do not
1 , if 1 A of current flows through it, when a p.d. of 1V obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic conductors. The
is applied across it. resistance such conductors is not constant even at a given
temperature, rather it is current dependent. It may be
RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS following types.
These are classified into three parts. (i) The straight line V-I graph does not pass through the
1. Conductor: The materials which conductor electric origin.
current fairly well are called conductors. Metals are good (ii) V-I relationship is non-linear.
conductors. They have low resistivities in the range of
(iii) V-I relationship depends upon the sigh of V for same
10–8 to 10–6 . Copper (Cu) and aluminium (Al) have
absolute value of V.
lowest resistivities while nicrome has a resistivity of about
60 times that of copper. (iv) V-I relationship is non-unique.
2. Insulators: The materials which do not conduct V Non-ohmic
electric current are called insulators. They have high behaviour
resistivity more than 104 m. Insulators like glass, mica,
bakelite and hard rubber have very high resistivities in the
range of 104 m to 106 m. I
3. Semiconductor: Those materials whose resistivities Non-Ohmic conductor
lies between conductors and insulators i.e., between
10 –6 m to 10 4 m. Germanium and silicon are The V-I characteristics of non ohmic conductor is given
semiconductors. alongside.
V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF OHMIC AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER
NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS Electrical Energy: Electrical energy is the total work done
by an electric current in a given time. It is equal to the total
Ohmic Conductors: The conductors which obeys Ohm’s energy consumed in an electric current in a given time. The
law are called Ohmic conductors. For these conductors, the SI unit of electrical energy is joule (J). The commercial unit
linear relationship between voltage and current (V I) of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh) or Board of
V Trade Unit (BTU).
holds good. The resistance R = is independent of the
I One kilowatt-hour is the amount of electrical energy
current I through conductor. The V – characteristics graph consumed, when an electrical appliances having a power
for VI ohmic conductors is a straight line passing the rating of 1 kW is used for 1 hours.
origin. The metallic conductor of small currents and 1 kWh = 1 kilowatt × hours
electrolyte like CuSO 4 solution with copper electrodes are = 3.6 × 106 watts
Ohmic conductors.
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J
I
Pure Electrical Power: The rate at which electrical energy
metal
dissipated into other forms of energy is called electrical
power i.e.,
–V +V
W V2
O P= Vi i 2 R
t R
It’s SI unit is joule/s or watt (W) watt is a small unit,
so some bigger units are used. In domestic or commercial
+I purposes kilowatt unit is used
CuSO4 solution
with Cu 1 kW = 1000 W
electrodes In Mechanics, the unit of power is often written in
horse power (HP)
–V +V
O 1 HP = 746 W
If work is done, an equal amount of energy is consumed.
When an electrical appliance consumes electrical energy at
–I the rate of 1 joule/sec, its power is said to be 1 watt.
2731 (Physics)—4
26
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY l2 l2
R2 = = from eq (1)
The resistance of a conductor depends upon the following: r22 l1r12
l2
(i) It is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor l22
i.e., R l ...(i) = ...(3)
r12 l1
(ii) It is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section
Dividing (3) by (2), we get,
of the conductor i.e.,
2
R
l
...(ii)
R2 l22 l2
A R1 = l12 or R2 = R1
l1
Combining (i) & (ii), we get
or as r12 l1 = r22 l2
l
R
A l2 2
r1
l1 = r2
l
R= (where is constant)
A
4
r
where is called electrical resistivity or specific R 2 = 1 R1
resistance. Its SI unit is ohm m (–m) r2
Electrical conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity If l2 = 2l1, then R2 = 4R1
() is called electrical conductivity.
1 COLOUR CODE FOR RESISTANCES
R = The value of resistances used in electric and electronic
A
circuits vary over a very wide range. Such high resistances
where, are marked on them according to colour code.
R = Resistance (unit: ohm, )
= Resistivity (unit: ohm meter, m) Colour Code for Carbon Resistors
l = Length of the conductor The colour code is used to indicate the resistance value of
A = Area of cross-section of conductor a carbon resistor and its percentage accuracy. The colour
code is given in table.
1 1
G= = Co lo ur Letter as an Figure Multiplier
R old to memory
where, G = Conductance Black B 0 100
[unit mho which is ohm written in reverse order); also Brown B 1 101
siemens, s] Red R 2 102
= Conductivity (unit mho–1 m –1) Orange O 3 103
Yellow Y 4 104
Stretching of a conductor wire and change in its Green G 5 105
resistance Blue B 6 106
Violet V 7 107
If a conductor wire of length l1, radius r1 and resistance R1
Grey G 8 108
is stretched to length l2, then its new resistance R2 can be
White W 9 109
calculated as below:
To read the value of carbon resistance:
As volume remains same, B B R O Y Great Britain Ve r y Good Wife
r12 l1 = r22 l2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
l1 The systems of marking the colour codes:
or r2 = r1 × l ...(1)
A set of coloured coaxial rings or bands is printed on
2
the resistor which reveals the following facts:
l1 1. The first band (A) indicates—the first significant
Now, as R1 = ... (2)
r12 figure.
27
2. The second band (B) indicates— the second If two resistances are parallel, then,
significant figure. R1 R 2
Req =
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9 R1 R 2
3. The third band (C) indicates—the power of ten with
which the above two significant figures. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE
i.e., 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109. OF RESISTANCE
4. The fourth band (D) indicates— the tolerance The variation of resistance of a conductor, an alloy, a
variation in per cent of the indicated value. In case, semiconductor or an insulator with increase in temperature
there is no fourth band, then its tolerance value is is not same in the all case.
20%.
D
A
Resistance
B
A B C D
C
Consider the carbon resistance, for which the bands
Temp.
A, B, and C are colours brown, green and orange
respectively and fourth band (D) is silver colour. RT = R0 [1 + (T – T0)]
The corresponding to colours bands A and B, which where,
are brown or green, the fig. are 1 and 5. The RT = Resistance at temperature T
corresponding to third band of orange colour, the R0 = Resistance at temperature T0
multiplier is 10 3. Therefore, resistance is of the = Temperature Coefficient of Resistance. (It is a
15 × 103 . Since silver colour of the fourth band constant for a given metal).
corresponds to a tolerance of 10%, the value of = (+) for metals,
given resistance, R = 15 × 103 ± 10%. = (+) but very small for alloys like manganin,
nichrome, constantan, eureka;
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION = (–) for semiconductors and insulators.
OF RESISTORS A = For conductors
(i) Resistances in series B = For alloys, e.g., manganin
The such type combination, same current passes C = For semiconductors and electrolytes
through all the resistances. D = Insulators
V This means that when temperature is increased then,
i i i
A B S.No. In case of Resistance Conductivity
R1 R2 R3 1. Metals Increases Decreases
RAB = R1 + R2 + R3 2. Insulators Decreases Increases
slightly slightly
(ii) Resistance in parallel
3. Semi- Decreases Increases
In this type of combination, potential difference across conductors appreciably appreciably
each resistance is the same and is equal to the potential 4. Alloys like Increases but Decreases but
difference between connecting point A and B. constantan, negligibly negligibly
R1 manganin,
eureka etc.
i1 i 5. Super- Increases Decreases
2
Conductors abruptly at abruptly at
i A i3 R2 B i transition or transition or
critical temp. critical temp.
R3
v Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity ()
1 1 1 1 For conductors:
=
R AB R1 R 2 R 3 r = 0 [1 + (T – T0)]
28
For Insulators: E
Eg The internal resistance, r = 1 R.
T = 0 e kT V
where, Cells provide e.m.f. to the circuit. Combination of
Eg = Energy gap between conduction and valance cells is called a battery.
bands EMF (Electromotive Force) of Cell: The potential
difference (P.d.) between the two poles of the cell in an
open circuit. (when no current is drawn from the cell) is
called the emf of the cell.
P
It is concerned with the energy required to move charge
Meals carries around the circuit again and again. It’s definition is
‘energy required to move I unit of charge around the circuit
T
once.’ There are other definitions as well e.g., “potential
difference between the terminals of a cell in open circuit”.
e.m.f. = electromotive force, but emf is not a force.
P
This ‘energy’ to move the charge carriers (generally
Alloys Like Maganin
electrons) is always supplied by some external agency
which converts some other form of energy into electrical
T energy and supplies it to the circuit. For instance, electro-
chemical cells (the ordinary cells), photo cells, generators,
dynamos etc.
P
Simplest Electric Circuit
Super-Conductors R
0 2 4 6 8
T I I
Insulators
+ –
, r
P Carbon, Semiconductors,
Electrolytes
e = emf of the cell
r = Internal resistance of the cell
R = External resistance
T The guiding formula is:
k = Boltzmann constant Total e.m.f. applied to the circuit
T = Absolute temperature Circuit current =
Total resistance of the circuit
Here R and r are connected in series, therefore
ELECTRICAL CELL AND ITS equivalent resistance is (R + r)
INTERNAL RESISTANCE Total emf applied to the circuit =
Electrical Cell: The device which converts chemical energy
Circurt current, I =
into electrical energy is called electric cell. Electric cell is (R r )
a source of constant emf but not constant current. A battery
is one or more cells, connected. This cell is also known as POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE AND
electrochemical cell. Electrical cell has two terminals, which EMF (E) OF A CELL
are made up of metal, one terminal is positive, while other Potential Difference: The voltage across the terminal of a
one is negative. It two terminals are connected to an cell, when it is supplying current to external resistance is
electrical device, electric current flows through it. called potential difference. The potential difference (pd) is
Internal Resistance of a cell (r): When cell is connected equal to the product of current and resistance. i.e. V = iR.
in a circuit, it drives the charge in the circuit. The rate of
flow of charge is termed as current. If the current flows COMBINATION OF CELLS
through the cell, its electrolyte offers resistance to the flow IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
of current. The resistance offered by the electrolyte of the (i) Cells in Series
cell, if the electric current flows through it, is known as Let n cells each of emf () and internal resistance (r)
internal resistance of the cell. It is denoted by r. are connected in series as shown in Fig.
29
.r It is based on the principle of conservation of electric
n cells charge. It says, “the sum of all the currents entering any
junction point is equal to the sum of all the currents leaving
that point.”
I2
R I1
Total emf = n
Total resistance = nr + R
n
Circuit current, I =
nr R I3
n I5
If R >> r, then I = = n times the current which a
R I4
single cell will give. So, it is good.
Sum of currents entering = I1 + I3
n and Sum of current leaving = I2 + I4 + I5
If R << r then I = = the current which a single
nr r I1 + I3 = I2 + I4 + I5
cell alone can provide. (of no use)
(ii) Cells in parallel Kirchhoff’s Second Law (Loop Law)
Let n cells of emf () and internal resistance (r) are connected It is based on the law of conservation of energy. It states
in parallel as shown in Fig. that, “The algebraic sum of changes in potential around
any closed loop must be zero.”
. r
i.e., IR = 0
Note: IR is the potential drop across the resistance R
through which current I is flowing.
Important Points in Applying Second Law
Different authors use different methods and conventions.
R
They are all correct but thoroughly confusing in the sense
that they clash with each others notations. Hence, be
Circuit emf = forwarded, use the following method and conventions which
r r nR are most rational and can be applied even mechanically.
Circuit resistance = R =
n n
n Closed Circuit
Circuit current, I = It means, when current flows through the circuit.
r nR
n
If R >> r, then I = Open Circuit
nR R
When no current flows through the circuit.
n
and If R << r, then I = = n times the current which can Kirchhoff’s rules apply only to closed circuits.
r
be provided by a single cell. Therefore, How to apply 2nd rule?
* Series combination is used, when R (external (i) Assume any direction of flow of current in the closed
resistance) is much greater than r or nr (total internal loop.
resistance).
(ii) Now travel along this loop once completely, i.e.,
* Parallel combination is used, when r (internal start from any point of the loop and come back
resistance) is much greater than R (external there, either moving in clock-wise or in anti-
resistance). clockwise direction as per your desire.
(iii) Sign Convention For ‘IR’ Products
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS When you are crossing over some resistance (R)
through which you have assumed that some current
Kirchhoff’s First Law (Junction Law) (I) is flowing, then if your direction of traverse (i.e.,
The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in travel) is same as the assumed direction of flow of
a closed circuit is zero. i.e., i = 0 current, then this ‘IR’ is (–), otherwise (+).
30
This must be applied to all the internal resistances Charging and Discharging Cells
of cells and armature resistances of motors also in (i) When a cell is supplying current to the circuit, we
the same way. say that it is being discharged because its chemical
(iv) Sign Convention of energy is being used up. In this stage, the current
Note: While dealing with the assumed or actual flows through the cell as given below:
direction of flow of current does not matter at all. Only
your direction of travel matters.
+ –
If you are moving from negative terminal to the positive
terminal, then take sign of (emf) of that cell as (+); and A ,r B
vice-versa. Here, PA – PB = – Ir.
All other devices like electric motors should be treated where p stands for the potential.
as ‘emf eating devices’ i.e., having ‘negative emf’ if your
(ii) When a cell is being charged then following happens
direction of travel is same as the assumed direction of flow
of current through that device. Otherwise, (+).
How to calculate this emf of these devices? + –
Motors are generally given with their ‘HP’ (horse-power) or A ,r B
‘wattage’ or ‘kilowattage’ rating.
Note the direction of flow of current.
We know,
Here, PA – PB = + Ir
1 HP = 746 W
and 1 W = 1 volt × 1 amp. Important: Thus, in either case, potential of positive
or wattage = voltage × amperage terminal is higher than the potential of the negative terminal.
Wattage How to use Kirchhoff’s Rules to find out potential
Voltage = difference between two points in any branch of a Circuit.
Amperage
R1
Thus, emf of the motor C
I1
D
R3
[Power of the motor in watts right] R2 H
A B E
=
Its current rating in amperes or current G F
I I2
I
flowing through it in amps + –
Consider all electric motors as equivalent to cells which
,r
are put in the circuit so as to try to obstruct the flow of
current, whose emf = x/I and internal resistance = resistance Suppose R1, R2, R3, and r are given and we want to find
of their armature, where, out p.d. (i.e., potential difference) between any two points
of the circuit.
x = Power of the motor in watts
I = Current through the motor in amps. Let we want to find out p.d. between B and H.
Example: Solution:
If V = potential difference between P and Q. We can solve it any of the following three ways.
1st way: Proceed from B to H in clockwise direction
MOTOR through the branch CD. Then,
P Ia B
a Q PB – I1R1 – IR3 = PH
Ra or PB – PH = I1R1 + IR3 ...(1)
= emf drop 2nd way: Proceed from B to H in clockwise direction
Ra = Armature resistance, then through the branch GF. Then,
Ia (Armature current) = ? PB – I2R2 – IR3 = PH
Applying Kirchhoff’s rule from P to Q: or PB – PH = I2 R2 + IR3 ...(2)
Pp – Ia· Ra – a = PQ 3rd way: Proceed from B to H in anti-clockwise
(Pp – PQ) – a = Ia· Ra direction through the cell. Then,
or V – a = I a · Ra PB – + Ir = PH
V a or PB – PH = – Ir ... (3)
or Ia =
Ra Equations (1), (2) or (3) will give the same result.
31
Applications of Kirchhoff’s Law WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Let us traverse the closed loop starting from A in clockwise
A wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measured
direction. an unknown resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
R circuit one leg of which includes unknown component.
B
I P Q
+ –
A B A C
G
,r
–IR – Ir + = 0 R S
or = IR + Ir D
+ –
or I= ... (1)
Rr
Now, suppose we want to find out potential difference Principle
V, between A and B, i.e., potential difference between the Wheatstone bridge principle states that the four resistances
terminals of the cell in closed circuit (In open circuit, it
P R
will be, ). P, Q, R and S are connected as shown, are such that ,
Q S
Let P = Potential
then potential drop between A and B is same as between
We can find it out either by going from A to B via R, A and D. Points B and D are at the same potential. Hence,
or via the cell. in these circumstances, no current will pass through the
1st way: galvanometer G.
PA – IR = PB This configuration of resistances is called Wheatstone
or PA – PB = IR P R
Bridge, and in this state when , it is called balanced
i.e., V = IR ... (2)
Q S
Wheatstone Bridge. Thus, if 3 resistance of the 4 : P, Q, R
2nd way:
and S are known, the 4th unknown resistance can be
PA – + Ir = PB calculated from the relation
PA – PB = – Ir
P R
or V = – Ir .
Q S
Accordingly, we can say that: Example:
It total energy supplied by cell = , then of this , IR is used If the bridge is balanced, what will be the change in the
up in the external circuit and Ir within the cell. deflection of the galvanometer needle when the key ‘k’ is
And also, I can be written in the following 3 ways: pressed?
B
I= P Q
Rr
V A C
I= R G
r
D
V + –
I=
R Answer:
Hence, if , V and R are known, the r can be calculated Because the bridge is balanced, points B and D are at the
as below same potential. Therefore, no current will flow between B
V and D on pressing the key. Hence, no re-distribution of
r= from 2nd relation
I currents will take place. Thus, the reading of G will remain
V the same.
r= from 3rd relation
V/R METRE BRIDGE
( V)R A metre bridge is also known as slide wire bridge. It can
or, r=
V be used to measure an unknown resistance to compare the
32
values of two unknown resistance. When bridge is balanced, 2 l2 l
then 2 = 2 1
1 l1 l1
P R + – e
Q X + – RB
X e
R B
D J1 J2
+
Battery
A D C –
l 100 – l1
K
Metre Scale
B
Rh
V K
In order to set the null point on the potentiometer wire,
POTENTIOMETER PRINCIPLE it is necessary that emf. of auxiliary battery must be
greater than both 1 and 2.
AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Internal resistance of a primary cell by potentiometer
The device is used to measure emf of a cell, internal
resistance of a cell and potential difference between any We have, = kl 1 ...(i)
two points of a circuit. and V = kl 2 ...(ii)
Potentiometer is used mainly to compare emfs of two From (i) and (ii), we get
cells. Or, if one of these two emfs is known, to calculate the l
emf of the other cell. = 1
V l2
+ – Now from Ohm’s law, we get
RB
P2 P1
A J B K2 G
1 + –
G
2
AB is a long resistance wire of length l with uniform J
cross-section. If p.d. = is applied across it, then potential +
drop per unit length along AB will be Battery
–
= ... (1)
l
Suppose is to be measured, just slide jockey (J)1 K
along the length AB and find out the balance length AP1,
i.e., if the key of the jockey is pressed on the wire AB at
Rh
P1, there is no deflection in the galvanometer G.
If AP1 = l1, then 1 = l1 ×
l
= I(R + r) and V = IR
1 l1
So will be = l R r l1
2 2 =
V R l2
Applications of Potentiometer
r l r l l
Comparison of emfs of two primary cells: From Fig. we 1 = 1 = 1 2
R l2 R l2
see that, the comparing emfs of two cells are given below.
Let emf of two primary cells are 1 and 2. l l
Internal resistance r = R 1 2 .
We have 1 = kl1 and 2 = kl2 l2
33
EXERCISE
1. The resistance across two opposite faces of a cube of 9. Two resistors of 15 and 30 are connected in
side 2 cm is 2 × 10–6 ohm. The specific resistance of parallel. What should be the value of R to be
its material in ohm cm is connected in series with the other two so that the net
A. 10 –6 B. 2 × 10–6 resistance will be 20
1 A. 5 B. 10
C. 4 × 10–6 D. × 10–6 C. 15 D. 20
2
10. What is the number of equal parts into which a
2. A piece of wire of resistance 4 ohm is bent through
conductor having a resistance R0 = 100 should be
180° at its mid point and the two halves are twisted
cut to obtain the resistance R = 1 , if the parts are
together. Then the resistance is connected in parallel
A. 8 ohm B. 1 ohm A. 5 B. 10
C. 2 ohm D. 5 ohm C. 20 D. 2
3. The current flowing through a wire depends on time 11. When a resistor of 4 is connected across a cell the
as I = 3t2 + 2t + 5. The charge flowing through the potential difference across the resistor in 8V, but this
cross-section of wire in time from t = 0 to t = 2 second falls to 6V when a second 4 resistor is connected
is in parallel with the first. Calculate the e.m.f. and
A. 12 C B. 15 C internal resistance of the cell.
C. 20 C D. 22 C A. 6V, 4 B. 12V, 4
C. 12V, 2 D. 6V, 2
4. The internal resistance of a cell of e.m.f. 2.0 volts is
0.1 . It is connected to a resistance of 3.9 . The 12. Two conductors when connected in series give 27
voltage across the cell will be (in volts) and in parallel 6 . The two resistance are
A. 0.5 B. 1.9 A. 21 , 6 B. 9 ,18
C. 1.95 D. 2.0 C. 24 , 3 D. 15 , 12
5. When a piece of aluminium wire of finite length is 13. A metal wire is subjected to a constant potential
drawn through a series of dyes to reduce its diameter difference. When the temperature of the metal wire
increases, the drift velocity of the electrons is
to half its original value, its resistance will become
A. Increases, thermal velocity of the electrons increases
A. two times B. four times
B. Decreases, thermal velocity of the electrons increases
C. eight times D. sixteen times
C. Increases, thermal velocity of the electrons decreases
6. The resistance of 20 cm long wire is 5 . The wire is D. Decreases, thermal velocity of the electrons decreases
stretched to a uniform wire of 40 cm length. The 14. A primary cell has e.m.f. 2 volt. When short circuited
resistance now will be (in ohms) it gives a current of 4 amp. What is its terminal p.d.?
A. 5 B. 10 A. 0 B.
C. 20 D. 200 C. 2V D. 5V
7. The e.m.f. of a source which is equivalent to two 15. A primary cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 volt. When short
batteries connected in parallel, whose e.m.f.’s are equal circuited it gives a current of 3 ampere. The internal
to 8V and 6V having internal resistance of 1.4 and resistance of the cell is
0.6 respectively. A. 4.5 ohm B. 2 ohm
A. 7 volt B. 14 volt C. 0.5 ohm D. 1/4.5 ohm
C. 6.6 volt D. 2 volt. 16. Four wires of equal length and of resistance 10
8. In the figure below the effective resistance of the each are connected in the form of a square. The
network is equivalent resistance between two opposite corners
R R R of the square is
A. 10 B. 40
R C. 20 D. 10/4
R R R 17. Three 2 ohm resistors are connected to form a triangle.
The resistance between any two corners is
A. 2R B. 4R A. 6 B. 2
C. 10R D. 5R/2 C. 3/4 D. 4/3
2731 (Physics)—5
34
18. A piece of wire is cut into four equal parts and the power delivered to the resistor is maximum if R is
pieces are bundled together side by side to form a equal to
thick wire. Compared with that of original wire, the A. r/2 B. r
resistance of the bundle is C. 2 r D. 0
A. The same B. 1/4 24. A current of 4.8 ampere is flowing in a conductor.
C. 1/8 D. 1/16 The number of electrons flowing per second through
19. Five resistance have been connected as shown in the the conductor will be
circuit diagram. The equivalent resistance between A. 3 × 1019 electrons per sec
the points X and Y will be equal to B. 76.8 × 1020 electrons per sec
10
C. 7.68 × 1020 electrons per sec
D. 3 × 1020 electrons per sec
10 25. In the following network of resistance, the effective
X Y
10 20 resistance between A and B is
10 R R
A. 10 B. 20 R
C. 22 D. 50 A R B
20. The current I in the given circuit is R R
R R
5 5
2V I
A. 5/3 R B. 8/3 R
C. 5 R D. 8 R
5
A. 1/45 amp B. 1/15 amp 26. If 2% of the main current is to be passed through the
C. 1/10 amp D. 3/5 amp galvanometer of resistance G, the resistance of shunt
required is
21. Determine the resistance R measured with a A. G/49 B. 49 G
Wheatstone bridge as show n in figure, if at C. G/50 D. 50 G
R1 = 1.5 , l1 = 20 cm, l2 = 80 cm there is no current
through the galvanometer 27. The resistance between points x and y of the following
circuit shown
7.5
X
R1 R
G 5 7.5
5
7.5 5
l1 l2 Y
7.5
A. 3 B. 6
10
C. 9 D. 12 A. B. 7
3
22. Three 10 , 2W resistors are connected as in figure.
25 50
Find the maximum possible voltage between points C. D.
a and b without exceeding the power dissipation 3 3
limits of any of the resistors. 28. In the figure, when an ideal voltameter is connected
R across 4000 ohm resistance, it reads 30 volt. If the
voltmeter is connected across 3000 ohms resistance,
R it will read
a b Evolt
+ – r
R
4000 3000
A. 5 3 V B. 3 5 V
C. 15 V D. 5/3 V G
23. Two cells each of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r, A. 20 volt B. 22.5 volt
are connected in parallel across a resistor R. The C. 35 volt D. 40 volt
2731 (Physics)—5-II
35
29. When the current (i) is flowing through conductor, 38. The resistance of wire uniform diameter d and length
the drift velocity is v. If 2i current is flowed through L is R. The resistance of another wire of the same
the same metal but having double the area of cross material but diameter 2d and length 4L will be
section, then the drift velocity will be
R R
A. v B. 2v A. B.
v 4 2
C. D. 3v C. R D. 2R
2
30. Every atom makes one free electron in Cu. If 1.1 A 39. A metal wire of specific resistance of 64 × 10–6 m,
current is flowing in the wire of Cu having 1 mm and length 198 cm has a resistance of 7, then, the
diameter, then the drift velocity will be (density of radius of the wire will be
Cu = 9 × 103 kg/m 3 and atomic weight = 63) A. 0.024 cm B. 0.011 cm
A. 0.2 mm/sec B. 0.1 mm/sec C. 0.033 cm D. 0.02 cm
C. 0.3 mm/sec D. 0.4 mm/sec 40. The emf of two cells is equal but their internal
31. The specific resistance of manganin is 50 × 10–8 m. resistances are r1 and r2. The cells are connected as
The resistance of a cube of length 50 cm will be shown in Fig. If the reading of the voltmeter is zero,
A. 10–4 B. 10–6 then relation among R, r1 and r2 is
C. 10–8 D. 10–5
V
32. The resistance of a wire is 20 . It is so stretched that
the length become three times, then the new resistance + – + –
of the wire will be r1 r2
A. 180 B. 220
C. 250 D. 132 R
33. A wire of a certain material is stretched slowly by ten
per cent. Its new resistance and specification resistance
r1 r2 r1 r2
A. R = B. R =
become respectively 2 2
A. 1.21 times, same B. 2.21 times, same C. R = r1 + r2 D. R = r1 – r2
C. 3.21 times, same D. 1.1 times, same 41. A carbon resistor has coloured steps as shown in Fig.
34. Two conductors are made of the same material and what is its resistance.
have the same length. Conductor A is a solid wire of Yellow Brown
diameter 1 mm. Conductor B is a hollow tube of
outer diameter 2 mm and inner diameter 1 mm. Then,
the ratio of resistance RA to RB is Violet Gold
A. 1 : 3 B. 3 : 1 A. 470 ± 5% B. 350 ± 3%
C. 1 : 2 D. 2 : 1 C. 120 ± 10% D. 250 ± 5%
35. When a piece of aluminium wire of finite length is 42. A potentiometer consists of a wire of length 4 m and
drawn through a series of dies to reduce its diameter resistance 10 . It is connected to a cell of emf 2V.
to half its original value, its resistance will became. The potential difference per unit length of the wire
A. eighteen times B. sixteen times will be
C. three times D. five times A. 0.25 Vm –1 B. 0.5 Vm –1
36. In hydrogen atom, the electron makes 6.6 × 10 15 C. 1.5 Vm –1 D. 2 Vm –1
revolutions per second around the nucleus in an orbit 43. In the circuit shown P R, the reading of the
of radius 0.5 × 10–10 m. It is equivalent to current galvanometer is same with switch s open or closed.
nearly Then
A. 1 mA B. 2 mA
C. 0.1 mA D. 0.5 mA P Q
37. A metallic block has no potential different applied S
across it, then the mean velocity of free electrons is
(T = absolute temperature of the block)
G
R
A. proportional to T
B. proportional to T
C. finite but in dependent of temperature V
D. zero
36
A. IR = IG B. IP = IG 48. Resistances of 6 each one connected in the manner
C. IQ = IG D. IQ = IR shown in adjoining Fig. with the current 0.5 A as
shown in Fig., the p.d. VP – VQ is
44. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 100 is
6 6 6
used as an ammeter using a resistance 0.1 . The
maximum deflection current in the galvanometer is 6 Q
1002 A. Find the minimum current in the circuit so 0.5A 6 6
that the ammeter shows maximum deflection
A. 1.01 mA B. 100.1 mA A. 6.0 V B. 7.2 V
C. 105.5 mA D. 0.99 mA C. 3.6 V D. 3.0 V
45. A set of n identical resistors each of resistance R, 49. The equivalent resistance of the arrangement of
when connected in series have an effective resistance resistances shown in adjoining Fig. between the points
of x and when the resistors are connected in A and B is
parallel, the effective resistance is y . Then the 8
relation between R, x and y is
16 20
A. R = (xy)3/2 B. R = xy
xy 16
C. R xy D. R
2 A B
46. If an ammeter is connected in parallel to a circuit, it 9
is likely to be damaged due to excess 6
A. voltage B. current 18
C. resistance D. power
A. 24 B. 10
47. If the ammeter in the given circuit reads 2A, the
C. 6 D. 8
resistance R is
R
50. Three resistances P, Q, R each of 2 and an unknown
3
resistance S from the four arm S of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit where resistance of 60 is connected
6
in parallel to S the bridge gets balanced. What is the
6V
A value of S?
A. 1 B. 2 A. 1 B. 6
C. 3 D. 4 C. 2 D. 3
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B D C D C C D B B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B B A C A D D A D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B B A A A A C B A B
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B A A B B A A C A D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A B A B C B A D D D
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
l 22
1. As, R= 2. We have, R= = 1 .
A 22
2 cm 3. Given, I = 3t2 + 2t + 5
2 × 10–6 =
2 cm 2 cm dq
= 4 × 10–6 cm. I= = 3t2 + 2t + 5
dt
37
dq = (3t2 + 2t + 5)dt E
2 E– r = 6 ...(ii)
3t 3
2t 2
44
= 5t r
44
3 2 0
From equations (i) and (ii), we get
2
= t 3 t 2 5t E(4)
0
= 8 + 4 + 10 = 22 C 4r = 8
E2 6
4. As, V = E – Ir
2r
E
= E – r On solving r = 2
Rr E = 12 V.
2 0.1 12. We have, r1 + r2 = 27
= 2 = 1.95 V.
3.9 0.1
r1r2
5. Diameter is reduced to half, length increases 4 times = 6
as mass of material remains the same. r1 r2
l 1 r1r2 = 6 × 27 = 162
R = 4 2
A D On solving r1 = 9, r2 = 18.
4 4l 13. If the temperature increases, resistance increases. As
R = 2
= 16 R.
D the emf applied is the same, the current density
decreases. But the rms velocity of electrons due to
2
thermal motion is proportional to T. The thermal
6. Length is doubled. Area is reduced to half velocity increases.
l (2l)
R = , R = 4R E
a a 14. = I (on short circuiting)
r
2
2 2
= 4 × 5 = 20 . 4, r 0.5
r 4
E1r2 E 2 r1 V = E – Ir = 2 – 4 × 0.5 = 2 – 2 = 0.
7. As, E=
r1 r2
E 1.5 1
8 0.6 6 1.4 15. We have, I 3, r 0.5 .
= = 0.6 V. r r 2
1.4 0.6
3R 3R
20 20
5R 16. Req = 10 .
8. As, Reft = R + = . 20 20
3R 3R 2
15 30 1 1 1 3 4
9. We have, X = 20 X = 10 . 17. We have, R .
15 30 R 4 2 4 3
R0 1 R R
10. Let n parts be made thin, each part has resistance 18. As, R = =
n 4 4 16
Connecting them parallel gives
R 1
R0 1 = .
R 16
n n
19. It is balanced Wheatstone bridge, so 20 resistance
R0 100 is superfluous, effective resistance = 10
= =l
n2 n2 20. Total resistance of the circuit is
n = 10.
5 10 50 10
=
E 5 10 15 3
11. Use E – r = V
Rr 2 23 3
Current, I = A.
E 10
10 5
E– r = 8 ...(i)
4r 3
38
21. For balance Wheatstone bridge, 30
I × 3000 = 3000
R1 rl1 l1 1.5 20 1 4000
, R = 6 . 90
R rl2 l2 R 80 4 = = 22.5 V.
4
22. Total resistance of circuit is = 15
J
V 29. As, vd = vd J (current density)
Current through R = ne
15 i 2i i
2 J1 = and J2 = J1
V A 2A A
Power = 10 2 (vd)1 = (vd)2 = v.
15
V = 45 3 5 volt. 30. The density of Cu = 9 × 103 kgm –3
23. Power is maximum if external resistance R is equal to 6 × 1023 atom has a mass = 63 × 10–3 kg
r 6 10 23
total internal resistance which is for two cells in No. of electrons per m 3 are = 9 10 3
2 63 10 3
parallels. = 8.5 × 1028
r i
R= for a maximum power. Now, drift velocity vd =
2 neA
1.1
n =
24. As, e = I, 8.5 10 28
1.6 10 19 10.5 10 32
second
n I 4.8 vd = 0.1 × 10–3 m/sec.
=
second e 1.6 10 19 l 50 10 12
31. As, R = 50 10 8 = 10–6
= 3 × 1019. A (50 10 2 )2
25. Resistance R is in series with a balanced Wheatstone 32. In case of stretching of wire, R l2.
bridge in parallel with a series combination of two If length becomes 3 times so, resistance becomes 9
resistors of resistance R each. times
R 2R 5R R = 9 × 20 = 180
R
R 2R 3 R1 l1
2
33. In stretching wire, R l2
S R 2 l2
26. As, Ig = I
S G 2
R1 100
Ig 2 S If l1 = 100, then l2 = 110 =
= R2 110
I 100 S G R2 = 1.21 R1
1 S G Resistivity does it change with stretching.
= S= .
50 SG 49
l
27. Given, r = 5 34. We have, RA = 3
...(i)
( 0.5) 2
R = 15
l
and RB = ...(ii)
R r [(10 3 ) 2 (0.5 10 3 ) 2 ]
From equation (i) & (ii), we get
X r Y
RA (10 3 )2 (0.5 10 3 )2
r
= = 3 : 1.
R RB (10.5 10 3 )2
In such a case, please remember, 1
r (3R r ) 35. In stretching of wire, R
RXY = d4
3r R Where, d = diameter of wire
5(3 15 5) 5 50 25 R = (2)4 = 16 times.
= = .
3 5 15 3 3 36. As, i = qv
28. Let I be current in the circuit then I × 4000 = 30 volt = 1.6 × 10–19 × 6.6 × 1015
Voltmeter is put across 3000 = 10.56 × 10–4A = 1 mA.
39
37. In the absence of external field, mean velocity of free 44. We have, Ig × G = (I – IG)S
electron (vrms) is given by G
3kT I = 1 I G I = 100.1 mA.
S
vrms = vrms T .
m 45. When n resistors, each of resistance R connected in
2
series, then
l 1 R l d x = nR ...(i)
38. We have, R 1 1 2
A d2 R 2 l2 d1 R
y= ...(ii)
2 n
L 2d
= 1 Multiplying equations (i) and (ii) we get,
4L d
R 2
R2 = R1 = R. xy = nR R R = xy
n
l 46. If the ammeter is connected in parallel to the circuit,
39. As, R=
A net resistance of the circuit decreases. Then, more
current is drawn from the battery, which can damage
64 10 6 198 the ammeter.
7=
21 2
r V 6 6
7 47. As i= 2=
R 63 2R
r = 0.024 cm. R
63
40. The current passing through the circuit be iA (say) R = 1
Evidently potential drop in the first cell will be ir1
6 12 6
Therefore, V = E – ir1 = 0 (given) 48. We have, VP – V Q = (0.5)
3 12 6
E = (2 + 4)0.5 = 6 × 0.5V = 3V.
or = i ...(i)
r1
8
Applying Ohm’s law, for the complete circuit, 49.
16 20
2E E
i= (from eqn. (i))
R r1 r2 r1 16
A B
2r1 = R + r1 + r2 9
or R = r1 – r2 . 6
41. Corresponding the first two colour bands of yellow 18
and violet colours, the figures are 4 & 7 corresponding
20
to the third band of brown colour, the multiplier is
10 i.e., 10.
A B
Hence, the given carbon resistor is of the value
47 × 10 i.e., 470 6 6
Since the band showing the tolerance is golden, the
24 12
value of resistor, R = 470 ±5%. RAB = = 8
24 12
42. Since potential difference of full length of wire = 2V
2 P R 2 2
P.D. for unit wire = = 0.5 Vm –1. 50. As,
4 Q S 2 6S
43. The reading of galvanometer remains constant whether 6S
switch S is open/closed then, no current will flow 2(6 S)
through the switch i.e., R and G will be in series and 1= 6S = 12 + 2S
6S
same current will flow through them i.e., IR = IG. S = 3
40
CHAPTER
3
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
AND MAGNETISM
INTRODUCTION
The electronic current in a conductor is due to the charges
in motion, such charges produced magnetic interaction.
dl
The magnetic field produced due to current through the
conductor interacts with – magnetic needle and deflects it. P
db
Magnetic Field: It is the region in which a magnetic
r
force can be observed; i.e., a small magnet or a small loop
of wire carrying current will experience a torque.
It is used as synonym of ‘Magnetic Flux Density’
whose other name is ‘Magnetic Induction’ also.
or in vector form as
Magnetic Field Strength (H) : If refers to a physical
quantity that is used as one of the basic measures of the 0 I dl r
intensity of magnetic field. Its Unit is A/m. dB = 4
r3
Its is given as where,
B 0 H dl = Current element whose direction is same as
that of current passing through it.
where µ0 is called ‘Permeability’ of free space.
r = Position vector of P with respect to origin at
the mid point of dl
BIOT-SAVART LAW AND ITS APPLICATION
TO CURRENT CARRYING CIRCULAR LOOP = Angle between dl and r and
I = Current flowing through dl .
Biot-Savart Law: A current carrying conductor produces
a magnetic field around it. The magnitude and direction of The direction of (dB) is given by the Right Hand
this field at a point can be expressed by means of a law Screw rule when direction of dl (i.e., of I) is rotated towards
determined experimentally by Biot and Savart as Biot- the direction of r through the angle . In the figure shown,
Savart Law. it is perpendicular to the plane of the paper, going inside
the paper.
Magnetic field (dB) due to a current carrying element
dl at a point P is given by: Application of Current Carrying Circular Loop
0 I dl sin According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field at a point
dB = due to the current loop is given by
4 r2
40
41
B=
0 2 I
B dl = B × 2r
4 a
0 I 0 2F
B=
If circular loop has n turns, then, 2r 4 r
0 2 n I Its gives the strength of the magnetic field due to an
B=
4 a infinitely long current carrying wire at a point at
distance r from it.
When the current flows through a circular loop (Fig)
Its direction can be
T
in the direction of magnetic field. The face of the loop in
REN
which the current appears to flow anticlockwise Fig. (a) found out by the Right
CUR
acts as magnetic north pole. While if the current appears to Hand Screw Rule as
flow through the face of the loop in clockwise direction already explained, but
Fig. (b), then the face acts as magnetic south pole. In the easiest is to use Right
both cases, the magnetic field at the centre of loop is Hand Thumb Rule. LINES OF
FORCES
directed along the normal to the plane of the loop. If you hold the current
carrying wire in your
right hand so that your right hand thumb indicates
the direction of current, then your right hand fingers
(which are now surrounding the wire) give the
direction of magnetic lines of force.
(ii) Magnetic Field (B) due to an infinitely long wire
carrying current I, whose one end is right in front
(a) (b) of you while the other at infinity
Vector Representation of vectors having direction
perpendicular to the plane of the paper
represents a vector perpendicular to the plane of
paper, coming out of the paper towards you. µ0
B= I
represents a vector perpendicular to the plane of 4r
paper, going into the paper.
S.I. unit of Magnetic Field (B) P
r
It is tesla (T), named after Nikola Tesla (1870-1943)
(iii) Magnetic Field due to two long wires carrying
µ0 = 4 × 10–7 TmA–1 (in S.I. system) current placed at right angles to each other
= 1 (in CGS emu system)
Circular loops shown indicate the directions of
magnetic field lines due to the two wires X OX and
AMPERE’S LAW Y OY. From this we see that the directions of these
It states that for any closed loop path, the sum of the length field lines are , in
elements times the magnetic field in the direction of the
length element is equal to the permeability times the electric Y
current enclosed in the loop. I
II I
B dl 0 I
(i) Magnetic Field due to an Infinitely long Current X' X
O
Carrying Straight Wire
The line integral of magnetic field along the circular
III IV
path = B dl
Y' I
Since B dl = µ0I I-quadrant, , , in II-quadrant, , in III-quadrant
But dl = 2r and , in IV-quadrant. Hence, these 2 fields will
2731 (Physics)—6
42
cancel each other out on the dashed line shown. The
equation of this dashed line obviously is N S
y=x
(iv) Magnetic Field B due to straight wire of finite I I
length
I
B = 0 (sin sin ) If you look at the face of any end from outside and
4 r the current’s direction is anti-clockwise, then that
face acts as a North pole as shown and vice-versa.
2l
P FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE IN UNIFORM
I MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS
r
Force (F) on a Moving Charge (q) in a Magnetic
Field (B)
(v) Magnetic field (B) due to circular current carrying
The force acting an a charged particle q moving with
loop having N turns
velocity v in magnetic field B making an angle with the
NI Wb direction of field is
(I) At Centre B = 0
2 a m2
F = a( v B)
where a = radius of the circular loop.
| F | = qvB sin
1
So B at centre where, v = Velocity of the charge
radius of coil
= Angle between v and B
(II) On its axis at a distance r Hence, force does not depend upon the mass of the
0 NIa2 charged particle.
B=
2( r 2 a2 ) 3 / 2 If the particle moves parallel to the magnetic field,
then = 0; hence F becomes zero.
(vi) Magnetic field (B) due to a half circle coil having
N turns Magnetic field B is said to be 1 tesla if a charge of
1 C moving with a speed of 1 m/s at right angles to the
magnetic field experiences a force of 1 N.
I P Force on Moving Charge in a Uniform Electric Field
When the charged particle having charge q is at rest moving
in the direction of electric field E , it experience a force qE
NI in the direction of E and hence the particle is accelerated
B= 0
4a in the direction of E . When the charged particle moves
(vii) Magnetic Field due to a long Current Carrying perpendicular to electric field E, it describes a parabolic
Straight Solenoid path in the electric field.
A solenoid consists of an insulated long wire closely
wound in the form of a helix. Its length is very large CYCLOTRON
as compared to its diameter. The basic principle of cyclotron operation is a process
B = µ0nI called resonance acceleration. In this process, the particle
where n = number of turns per unit length. can be accelerated to acquire high engines of several million
electron volts.
It does not matter whether the solenoid is toroidal or
straight. Cyclotron Frequency: In a cyclotron the frequency of
applied alternating electric field is equal to frequency of
Magnetic Moment of a Circular Coil Having
oscillation of the positive ion and this frequency is called
N Turns ( m) : It is defined as m NI A cyclotron frequency. It is given by
Accordingly it behaves like a magnet having one of
Bq
its faces acting like a North pole, while, the other as =
a South pole. 2 m
43
Lorentz Force: It is the force experienced by a charge
FORCE (F) ON A STRAIGHT
moving in free space where both electric and magnetic
CURRENT (I) CARRYING CONDUCTOR fields exit.
IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD (B)
Lorentz Force, F q(E v B).
Force on a current carrying conductor uniform in a magnetic
force on a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic qE is called Lorentz electric force and q (v B) is called
field is Lorentz magnetic force.
F = i( l B) or F = ilB sin Relative magnitudes of electric & magnetic forces
When B and l are parallel, then = 0 and F = 0 when 1
l and B are mutually perpendicular, then = 90° and µ 00 =
C2
F = Bil = Fmax
where, µ0 = Permeability of free space
where,
0 = Permittivity of free space
l = length of current carrying conductor. Its direction C= Velocity of light in free space
being taken as the direction of current flowing = 3 × 108 m/s.
through it.
Fe
= 10 27
FORCE BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL Fm
CURRENT CARRYING CONDUCTOR where, Fe = Lorentz electric force
AND DEFINITION OF AMPERE Fm = Lorentz magnetic force
When two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying So, Fm is 1027 times smaller than Fe.
currents I1 and I2 are flowing though conductors then,
0 I1 I 2 TORQUE EXPERIENCED BY A
F= CURRENT LOOP IN UNIFORM
2 r
where, MAGNETIC FIELD
F = force per unit length The torque on the whole coil is given by
I1 & I2 = current in wire 1 & 2 = NIAB sin
r = distance between wires
If I1 = I2 = I, then this formula becomes In vector form, = Pm B
0 I2 Torque on a Rectangular Current Loop Placed in a
F= Magnetic Field. We have,
2 r
= NIAB sin
Direction of F : Attractive if directions of I1 and I2 are
same and repulsive if directions of I1 and I2 are opposite or = N( m B)
to each other. where, = torque, N = No. of turns, I = Current,
Definition Ampere: “One ampere is the strength of A = Area of the loop, B = Magnetic Field, = Angle
that steady current which, when flowing in two parallel between m i.e., perpendicular to the loop and B
infinitely long conductors of negligible cross-section placed
Hence, if a coil is placed in a magnetic field, and is rotated
in vacuum at a distance of 1m from each other, produces
by some external agency, then emf will be produced in it.
between the two conductors a force of 2 × 10–7 Newton per
This is the principle of AC generator. However, if a current
metre length.”
carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, then it experience
Force between two Electron or Proton Beams Running a torque alone.
Parallel in Space
This is different than two long wires carrying current, in the MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
sense that current carrying wires do not produce any ITS CURRENT SENSITIVITY AND
electrostatic field while these beams do. This additional CONVERSION TO AMMETER TO
electrostatic force between these beams will be roughly
10 27 times larger than the magnetic force. This means VOLTMETER
magnetic force will become negligible now. Hence, whether It is an instrument used for the detection and measurement
these beams are running in the same direction or opposite, of current. Its action is based on the torque acting on the
the net force between them will be repulsive. current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field.
44
K If S =
Shunt Resistance
We have, I=
NBA sin G =
Resistance of the galvanometer
In case of radial magnetic field, = 90° I =
Total current which is to be measured.
K Ig =
Galvanometer current i.e., that value of
I= current which will cause the galvanometer
NBA
needle give full deflection.
Higher the sensitivity of the galvanometer, higher will Is = Current which would flow through shunt
be the value of for the same I. resistance then,
1 Ig S
Hence, Sensitivity S = G or Ig = I
K I Ig (S G)
N, B and A
Note: Ideal ammeter will have zero resistance.
Here, I= Current flowing through galvanometer
K= Torque required to produce unit angular (iii) Voltmeter: To convert a galvanometer into a
twist in the suspension strip voltmeter, a high resistance R is connected in series with
N = No. of turns the galvanometer. The value is the high resistance for the
voltmeter to have range 0 to V volts is given by
B = Magnetic field
A = Area of coil V
R= G.
= Angle between ‘perpendicular to the face Ig
of the galvanometer coil’ and B where, V = Max. p.d. to be measured.
K Ig = Galvanometer current, i.e., that current which
is written as C and is called the galvanometer will give full-scale deflection to the
NBA
constant. galvanometer needle.
G= Galvanometer resistance.
Current Sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection
R= Resistance which should be connected to
produced in the galvanometer, when a unit current flow
the galvanometer in series.
through it. If d be the deflection in the galvanometer, when
NBA CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE
current I is passed through it, then, Is = .
I K AND MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT
Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter and The magnetic dipole moment of the current loop (M) is
Voltmeter directly proportional to strength of current (I) through the
(i) Galvanometer: It is an instrument with two loop and (ii) area (A) enclosed by the loop.
terminals. If current passes through it, it’s needle gets i.e., M I or M A
deflected from it’s zero position which is at the centre of n̂
M = KIA
the scale. The direction of deflection will depend upon the M Upper face
where K is constant of (N)
direction of flow of current through it. The amount of
deflection is proportional to the value of the current. Even proportionality.
commercially available galvanometers are very sensitive. When we define unit of
They respond to as small currents as may be a few micro magnetic dipole moment as
amperes. that of small one turn loop of
Galvanometers can easily be converted into ammeters unit area carrying unit
(to measure currents) or voltmeters (to measure potential current.
Lower face
differences). As, M = IA (S)
(ii) Ammeter: A galvanometer can be converted into M = NIA
an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in parallel with In vector form, M = NIAnˆ
the galvanometer. This resistance is called shunt resistance Magnetic Dipole Moment: It is the product of strength
of either pole (m) and the magnetic length (2 l ) of the
I Ig
G
I magnet. It is represented by M.
Magnetic dipole moment = strength of either pole ×
magnetic length
IS S M = m (2 l )
45
Potential due to a Magnetic Dipole Comparison of Magnetic Moments of two Magnets:
(i) At a point in end-side on position We have,
M M1 K1 T22
V= 0 2 2 (Substitution method)
4 (r l ) M 2 K 2 T12
For a very short magnet M1 T12 T22
P (Sum and difference method)
l2 << r2 ,
hence 2l M 2 T22 T12
0 M
V=
4 r 2 BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID
(ii) At a point in the broad side on position V = 0 A system composed of two poles, equal in magnitude but
Terrestrial Magnetism opposite in polarity, placed at a small distance is known
as bar magnet.
Be = H 2 V2 Earth’s magnetic field The magnetic field lines for a bar magnet and the
current carrying solenoid resemble very closely. So that bar
H = B e cos Horizontal component of earth’s magnet can be thought of as a large number of circulating
magnetic field currents in analogy with a soil.
V = Be sin Vertical component of earth’s magnetic To demonstrate the similarity of a current carrying
field solenoid to a bar magnet.
V Field due to a small bar magnet
tan =
H (i) In end on position
V
1 0 2Mr
= tan Angle of dip.
H B=
4 (r 2 l 2 )2
Vibration Magnetometer: We have, 2l
O B A
MH –m +m
= S N p
K
Angular displacement of the magnet from the r
magnetic meridian. For a small magnet r2 >> l2
Angular acceleration 0 2M
B=
K moment of inertia of the magnet about its axis 4 r 3
of vibration. (ii) Broad side on position
M Magnetic moment of the magnet. 2 ml
H Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field, B = 0 2 2 3/2
4 (r l ) A
in the direction of magnetic meridian.
D
2
0 M
l
= C
+
2
MH 4 (r l 2 )3 / 2
2
r
= . r
K
Angular frequency of vibrating magnet. when r2 >> l2 –m N O S –m
K 0 M
T = 2 B = M M agnetic dipole moment
MH 4 r 3
T Time period. Direction of B is parallel to the axis from N pole to S-pole.
Comparison of two Magnetic Fields: We have Couple on a Bar Magnet in a Magnetic Field
B1 (T T12 )T 2
2 = MB sin Scalar form
B2 (T 2 T22 )T12 = M B vector form
work done in rotating a magnetic dipole in a magnetic
T time-period of the magnetometer under the
field
influence of the earth’s magnetic field above. 2
T 1 time period of the magnet which vibrates in the
resultant magnetic field (H + B1).
W= d
1
T 2 time period of the magnet which vibrates in the when 1 = 0 & 2 =
resultant magnetic field (H + B2). W = MB [1 – cos ]
46
Potential energy of a magnetic dipole placed in a
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
magnetic field
= –MB (cos 2 – cos 1) According to Faraday, magnetic line is an imaginary curve,
when 1 = 90° and 2 = the tangent to which at any point gives us the direction of
U = –MB(cos – cos 90°) magnetic field B at that point.
or U = –MB cos Magnetic field lines are closed curves i.e., they appear
In vector notation U = M B to converge or diverge at poles.
Couple Between Two Small Magnets
EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD AND
Case I The magnet being in the end-on position MAGNETIC ELEMENTS
2MM
Couple = 0 Out earth behaves as powerful magnet within it, whose
4 r3 south pole is towards the earth’s north pole and the north
Case II The magnet being in the Broad side-on
pole is towards the earth’s south pole.
position (two magnets are at right angle)
0 2MM Elements of the Earth’s Magnetism
Couple =
4 r 3 Angle of Declination: The acute angle between magnetic
Force Between Two Small Magnets: meridian and the geographical meridian at any place is
called as the angle of declination.
(i) The magnet being in the End-on position with respect
to the deflecting magnet. Angle Dip: The angle of dip at a place is the angle
X between the direction of earth’s magnetic field and the
horizontal. Angle of dip at poles is 90°, while at the equator
is 0°.
0 6MM Apparent Dip: The angle made by needle with
F = , in rationalized MKS system
4 x 4 horizontal is called apparent dip.
(ii) The magnet being in the broad side Horizontal component of Earth’s Magnetic Field: It
on position with respect to the is the component of total intensity of earth’s magnetic field
deflating magnet y
in the horizontal direction in magnetic meridian.
3MM
F = 0 4 , in rationalized PARA, DIA AND FERRO-MAGNETIC
4 y
MKS system SUBSTANCES
Magnetic Potential: We have, Paramagnetic Substances: Those substances, when placed
V = Bdx in a magnetic field are feebly magnetised in the direction
of the field. These substances, when brought near the poles
Magnetic potential due to a point pole, at a distance
of strong magnet, show weak attraction. For example,
r from the pole of strength m
bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, gold etc.
m Joule
V= 0 Diamagnetic Substances: Those substances, when
4 r Weber
placed in the magnetic field are feebly magnetised in a
Corresponding values of pole strength and
direction opposite to that of the field. Those substances,
magnetic moments
when brought near the poles of strong magnet, show weak
Magnet Pole Effective Magnetic repulsion. Examples of diamagnetic substances are copper,
strength Length Moment zinc, bismuth, silver, gold etc.
after cutting Ferromagnetic Substances: Those substances, which
when placed in a magnetic field are strongly magnetised in
N S
m 2l M = 2ml the direction of the magnetising field, are called
2l ferromagnetic substances. The ferromagnetic behaviour of
S1 m m M a substance becomes temperature dependent above certain
x x 2l M = 2l ml
2 2 2 temperature, which is characteristic of that substance. It is
called curie temperature. For example, the ferromagnetic
N S
M
m l M = ml = materials are nickel, cobalt, alnico etc.
Y Y1 2
Magnetisation (I): It defined as the magnetic moment
x
N S
x1
m ml M developed per unit volume, when a magnetic specimen is
l M =
Y
1
2 2 4 subjected to magnetising field. It is given by
47
M Magnetic moment ELECTROMAGNETS AND
I=
V Volume PARMANENT MAGNETS
m Magnetic pole strength
= Magnets: The phenomenon of attraction of small bits, iron,
A Area of cross section steel, cobalt, nickel etc. towards the ores are called
Relative permeability of a medium magnetism. The iron ore showing this effect is called a
B natural magnet.
µr =
B0 Electromagnets: The core electromagnets are made or
ferromagnetic material which have high permeability and
B the magnetic flux density in a material medium.
law retentively. Soft iron is a suitable material for this
and B0 the magnetic flux density in a vacuum.
purpose when soft iron rod is placed in a solenoid and
current is passed through the solenoid, magnetism of the
MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
solenoid is increased by a thousand fold. Electric bells,
AND PERMEABILITY loudspeakers, cranes etc. are electromagnets.
Magnetic Susceptibility: Magnetic susceptibility is
Permanent Magnets: Permanent Magnets are materials
measured by the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation (I)
which retain at room temperature, the ferromagnetic
of a substance to the magnetising force (H).
properties for the long time.
I
m = The inverse square law in magnetism
H
The susceptibility is greater for soft iron than for steel. In rationalised MKS system
Magnetisation I H (H Magnetic field intensity). m1 m2
F= 0 newtons
4 r 2
or, I m H
0 m1 m2
m magnetic susceptibility. In C.G.S. system F = dynes
r2
If m is +ve and small, material is paramagnetic
µµ0 = µa absolute permeability
If m is –ve, material is diamagnetic
In air (or strictly speaking in vacuum) µ = 1
If m is +ve and very large, material is ferromagnetic
in C.G.S. system equation reduces to
Relation between B and HI:
H mH
B
= µ (Permeability)
H
Relation between µ and
mF
µr = 1 + 21
F
B
and µr = also =
0 B0 mF O
Magnetic Permeability: Magnetic permeability is the
mH
conducting power of a medium for magnetic lines of force
as compared to that for air and is measured by the ratio of m1 m2
the number of lines of force passing normally through a F=
r2
unit area placed within the substance.
Intensity of magnetic field
HYSTERESIS 0 m
H=
The area of the hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material 4 r 2
is equal to the energy loss per cycle of magnetisation and Tangent Law: If a small magnet pivoted at its centre
demagnetisation per unit volume. is acted upon by 2 magnetic fields F and H perpendicular
Energy loss in material = Volume of material × area of to each other, it rotates and stabilises itself making an
hysteresis curve × frequency × time. angle , say, with H. Then,
Hysteresis loss per cycle per unit volume is equal to
F
the area of I – H loop. F = H tan or tan =
H
48
EXERCISE
1. A helium nucleus makes a full rotation in a circle of 8. The strength of the magnetic field at a point distance
radius 0.8 metre in two seconds. The value of the r near a long straight current carrying wire is B. The
magnetic field B at the centre of the circle will be r
field at a distance will be
10 19 2
A. B. 10 –19 µ 0 B B
0 A. B.
2 4
2 10 19 C. 2B D. 4B
C. 2 × 10–19 µ0 D.
0 9. The number of turns and radius of cross section of the
2. Two thin long parallel wires separated by a distance coil of a tangent galvanometer are doubled, its
reduction factor is K. The new reduction factor K
‘b’ are carrying a current i ampere each. The
will be
magnitude of the force per unit length exerted by one
A. K B. 2K
wire on the other is
K
0i2 0i2 C. 4K D.
A. B. 4
b2 2 b 10. A long wire carries a current of 20 A along the axis
0i 0i of a solenoid. The field due to the solenoid is 4 mT.
C. D.
2 b 2 b 2 The resultant field at a point 3 mm from the solenoid
3. A solenoid of 1.5 metre length and 0.4 cm diameter axis is
possesses 10 turns per cm. A current of 5 ampere is A. 1.33 mT B. 4.2 mT
flowing through it. The magnetic induction at axis C. 5.33 mT D. 2.87 mT
inside the solenoid is 11. P, Q and R are long parallel straight wires in air,
A. 2 × 10–3 tesla B. 2 × 10–5 tesla carrying currents as shown below. What is the direction
–2
C. 2 × 10 gauss D. 2 × 10–5 gauss of the resultant force on Q?
4. A uniform magnetic field acts at right angles to the P Q R
direction of motion of electrons. As a result, the
2A 4A 6A
electrons moves in a circular path of radius 2 cm. If
the speed of the electron is doubled the radius of the d d
circular path will be
A. 2.0 cm B. 0.5 cm A. To the left
C. 4.0 cm D. 1.0 cm B. To the right
C. The same as that of current in Q
5. If a long copper rod carries a direct current, the
D. Perpendicular to this page
magnetic field associated with the current will be
A. only inside the rod 12. Suppose that a proton travelling in vacuum with
B. only outside the rod velocity V 1 at right angles to a uniform magnetic
C. both inside and outside the rod field experiences twice the force that an -particle
D. neither inside nor outside the rod. experience when it is travelling along into same path
V
6. A wire of length Lm carrying a current i ampere is with velocity V2· The ratio 1 is
bent in the form of a circle. The magnitude of V2
magnetic moment is A. 0.5 B. 1
C. 2 D. 4
iL2 iL2
A. B. 13. A particle carrying a charge equal to 100 times the
4 2
charge of the electrons is rotating per second in a
C. 42L2i D. L2i
circular path of radius 0.8 m. The value of magnetic
7. An electric current of 30 A is flowing in each of two field produced at the centre will be (µ0 = permeability
parallel conducting wires placed 5 cm apart. The for vacuum)
force acting per unit length on either of the wires will
10 7
be: A. B. 10–6 µ 0
A. 1.5 × 10–5 N/m B. 2.4 × 10–3 N/m 0
–3
C. 3.6 × 10 N/m D. 4.8 × 10–4 N/m C. 10 –17 µ 0 D. 10–7 µ 0
49
14. In hydrogen atom the electron moves in an orbit of 22. If the magnet is suspended at an angle 30° to the
radius 0.5 Å making 1016 revolutions per second. The magnetic meridian the dip needle makes an angle at
magnetic moment associated with the orbital motion 60° with the horizontal. The true value of dip is
of the electron in A – m2 is 2 3
A. tan 1 B. tan 1
A. 1.25 × 10–18 B. 1.25 × 10–23 3 2
C. 25 × 10 –23 D. 25 × 10–38 C. tan–1 (3) D. tan–1 (2)
15. In hydrogen atom, the electron is making 23. A steady current I goes through a wire loop ABC
6.6 × 10 15 rev/sec around the nucleus of radius having shape of right angle with AB = 3x, AC = 4x
0.53 Å. The magnetic field produced at the centre of and BC = 5x. If the magnitude of the magnetic field
the orbit is nearly I
A. 0.14 Wb/m 2 B. 1.4 Wb/m 2 at A due to this loop is k 0 . Find the value
2
48x
C. 14 Wb/m D. 140 Wb/m 2
of k.
16. The magnetic field at a distance r from a long wire A. 7 B. 5
carrying current ‘i’ is 0.4 tesla. The magnetic field at C. 4 D. 3
a distance ‘2r’ is 24. A current of 4 × 10–3 A is flowing in a long straight
A. 0.2 tesla B. 0.8 tesla conductor. The value of the internal of magnetic field
C. 0.1 tesla D. 1.6 tesla around the closed path enclosing the straight
17. A circular current carrying coil has a radius R. The conductor will be
distance from the centre of the coil on the axis where A. 1.2 × 10–9 Wb/m 2 B. 1.6 × 10–9 Wb/m 2
1 C. 2.4 × 10–8 Wb/m 2 D. 1.6 × 10–9 Wb/m 2
the magnetic induction will be th of its value at the
8 25. A current i amp flows in a
centre of the coil is circular arc of wire whose radius R
is R, which subtends an angle
R /2
A. B. R 3
O
3 radian at its centre. The
2
2 magnetic induction B at the
C. 2R 3 D. R
3 centre is
18. A conducting circular loop of radius (r) carries a 0 ni
constant A. B. µ 0 niR
current (i).It is placed in uniform magnetic R
field B , such that B is perpendicular to the plane of 3 0 i 2 0 ni
the loop. The magnetic force acting on the loop is C. D.
8R 8R
A. ri B B. ir B 26. The magnetic field B within a solenoid having n
turns per metre length and carrying a current of i amp
C. zero D. 2 ir B
is given by
19. What is the force on each single electron assuming
0 ni
that each electron experiences the same force A. B. µ 0 ni
A. 7.5 × 10–11 N B. 8 × 10–13 N R
–15
C. 7.25 × 10 N D. 2.5 × 10–17 N C. 2µ 0 ni D. 4µ 0 ni
20. A period of oscillation of a magnet in a vibration 27. The strength of the magnetic field at a point r near
magnetometer is 2 seconds. The period of oscillation a long straight current carrying wire is B. The field
r
of a magnet whose magnetic moment is four times at a distance will be
2
that of the first magnet is A. 2 B B. B
A. 1 sec B. 4 sec B
C. D. 3 B
C. 8 sec D. 0.5 sec 2
21. At a certain place, horizontal component of earth’s 28. In the Fig. the magnetic induction at the centre of the
area due to current in portion AB will be
magnetic field is 3 times the vertical component.
The angle of dip at the place is r
A. 75° B. 60° O
C. 45° D. 30° A B C D
2731 (Physics)—7
50
0i 2 0 i of steel is 7.9 × 103 kg m –3. Then, the intensity of
A. B. magnetisation of the magnet is
r r
0i A. 2.0 × 104 Am –1 B. 2.5 × 10–5 Am –1
C. Zero D. 6 –1
3r C. 3.0 × 10 Am D. 3.5 × 10–7 Am –1
29. Magnet of magnetic moment m and pole strength M 37. A magnet 10 cm long and having a pole strength
is divided in two parts, then magnetic moment of 2Am is deflected through 30° from the magnetic
each part will be meridian. The horizontal component of earth’s
M induction is 0.32 × 10–4T. The value of the deflecting
A. B. m couple is
2
m A. 12 × 10–7 Nm B. 32 × 10–7 Nm
C. D. 2 M C. 42 × 10–6 Nm D. 64 × 10–7 Nm
2
30. A galvonometer has a resistance of 50 . A resistance 38. A circular coil of 200 turns has a radius of 5 cm and
of 5 is connected across its terminals. What part of carries a current of 5A. The magnetic field at the
total current will flow through the galvonometer? centre of the coil is
A. 1.26 × 10–2 T B. 1.32 × 10–3 T
1 1 –2
A. B. C. 1.57 × 10 T D. 1.83 × 10–2 T
9 10
39. The magnetic field applied in a cyclotron is 0.7T and
1 1 radius is 1.8 m. The energy of emergent deuterons
C. D.
11 15 will be
31. Ratio of magnetic intensities for an axial point and A. 12 MeV B. 38 MeV
a point on broad side on position at equal distance C. 102 MeV D. 118 MeV
d from the centre of magnet. The magnetic field at a 40. A galvanometer gives full scale deflection when a
distance d from a short bar magnet in longitudinal current of 2 mA flows through it and the potential
and transverse positions are in the ratio. difference across its terminals is 4 mV. Which of the
A. 2 : 1 B. 3 : 2 following would be most suitable to convert, it to
C. 1 : 1 D. 2 : 3 give a full scale deflection for a current of 1A?
32. The magnetic field at a point x on the axis of a small A. 0.002 in series B. 0.002 in parallel
bar magnet is equal to the field at point y on the C. 0.004 in series D. 0.006 in parallel
equator of the same magnet. The ratio of the distance 41. A long straight wire carrying current of 25 A rests on
of x and y from the centre of the magnet is a table as shown in Fig. Another wire AB of length
A. 2 3 B. 2 –1/3 1 m, mass 2.5 g carries the same current but in the
C. 2 –3 D. 2 1/3 opposite direction. The wire AB is free to slide up
33. The magnetic field due to short magnet at a point on and down. To what height will AB rise?
its axis at distance x cm from the middle point of the
magnet is 200 gauss. The magnetic field at a point
from the middle of the magnet is
A. 50 gauss B. 200 gauss h
C. 100 gauss D. 400 gauss
34. A beam of ions with velocity 2 × 105 ms–1 enters A. 0.21 cm B. 0.31 cm
nearly into a uniform magnetic field of 4 × 10 –2T. If C. 0.41 cm D. 0.51 cm
the specific charge of the ion is 5 × 107 C/kg, then
42. A wire placed along north-south direction carries a
the radius of the circular path described will be
current of 10 A from south to north. Find the magnetic
A. 0.25 m B. 0.10 m
field due to a 1 cm piece of wire at a point 200 cm
C. 0.16 m D. 0.20 m
north east from the piece.
35. The vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field A. 1.8 × 10–9 T B. 2.5 × 10–8 T
at a place is 0.16 3 oersted. Calculate the value of C. 3.1 × 10 T–9 D. 2.9 × 10–7 T
BH, if the dip at the place is 30°. 43. A closely wound solenoid, 80 cm long has 5 layers
A. 0.48 oersted B. 0.32 oersted of windings of 400 turns each. The diameter of the
C. 0.52 oersted D. 0.60 oersted
solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current carried in 8.0 A,
36. A bar magnet made of steel has magnetic moment of
estimate the magnitude of B inside the solenoid near
2.5 Am 2 and a mass of 6.6 × 10–3 kg. If the density its centre.
2731 (Physics)—7-II
51
A. 1.2 × 10–3 T B. 2.5 × 10–2 T 51. If the magnetic dipole moment of an atom of a
C. 2.3 × 10–3 T D. 4.5 × 10–2 T diamagnetic material and ferromagnetic material are
denoted by µd, µp & µf respectively. Then,
44. A 60 cm long wire (mass 10 gm) is hanged by two
flexible wires in a magnetic field of 0.40 Wbm –2. A. µd = 0 and µp µf B. µd 0 and µp = 0
Find the magnitude and direction of current required C. µp = 0 and µf 0 D. µd 0 and µf 0
to be flown by neutralize the tension of the hanging 52. A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30° with
wires. (Take g = 10 ms–2) a uniform external magnetic field of 0.25 T
A. 0.315 A B. 0.405 A experiences a torque of magnitude equal to
C. 0.416 A D. 0.215 A 4.5 × 10–2 J. The magnetic moment of the magnet is
45. A cyclotron has an oscillatory frequency of A. 0.36 JT–1 B. 0.12 JT–1
C. 0.48 JT –1 D. 0.28 JT–1
12 × 106 Hz and dee of radius 50 cm. The magnetic
induction required to accelerate neutron of mass 53. A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical plane
3.3 × 10–27 kg and charge 1.6 × 10–19 C is parallel to the magnetic meridian has its north tip
A. 1.6 T B. 3.2 T pointing down at 22° with the horizontal. The
C. 4.0 T D. 4.5 T horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at
46. By mistake, a voltmeter is connected in series and an the place is known to be 0.35 G. The magnitude of
ammeter is connected in parallel with a resistance in earth’s magnetic field at the place is
an electrical circuit. What will happen to the A. 0.48 G B. 0.55 G
instruments? C. 0.38 G D. 0.28 G
A. Voltmeter is damaged 54. A closely wound solenoid of 2000 turns and area of
B. Ammeter is damaged cross section 1.6 × 10–4 m 2, carrying a current of 4A
C. Both are damaged is suspended through its centre allowing it to turn in
D. None is damaged a horizontal plane. What is the magnetic moment
associated with the solenoid?
47. A bar magnet is placed in a magnetic meridian with
A. 1.28 Am 2 B. 0.28 Am 2
its N pole pointing towards geographical north. Two 2
neutral points are obtained on the equatorial line of C. 2.28 Am D. 1.92 Am 2
the magnet. Given length of magnet = 8 cm, distance 55. A closely wound solenoid of 800 turns and area of
between neutral points = 6 cm and horizontal cross-section 2.5 × 10–4 m 2 carry a current of 3A.
component of earth’s magnetic field = 0.32 gauss. What is associated magnetic moment?
The pole strength of the magnet is A. 0.60 JT–1 B. 0.50 JT–1
A. 5 abA cm B. 7 abA cm C. 0.55 JT –1 D. 0.45 JT–1
C. 9 abA cm D. 11 abA cm
56. A short bar magnet has a magnetic moment of
48. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 200 Am 2 is 0.48 JT–1. Find the direction and magnitude of the
suspended in a magnetic field intensity 0.25 N/Am. magnetic field produced by the magnet at a distance
The couple required to deflect it through 30° is of 10 cm from the centre of the magnet on the axis
A. 15 Nm B. 20 Nm of the magnet?
C. 25 Nm D. 50 Nm A. 0.56 G along S-N direction
49. The work done in turning a magnetic moment M by B. 0.96 G along S-N direction
an angle of 90° from the meridian is n times the C. 0.90 G along S-N direction
corresponding work done to turn through an angle of D. 0.54 G along S-N direction
60°, the value of n is 57. A long straight horizontal cable carries a current of
2.5 A in the direction 10° south of west of 10° north
1
A. 1 B. of east. The magnetic meridian of the place happens
2 to be 10° west of the geographic meridian. The earth’s
C. 4 D. 2 magnetic field at the location is 0.33G, and the angle
50. A short bar magnet of magnetic moment 0.4 JT–1 is of dip is zero. Locate the natural points.
placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.16 T. The A. 1.0 cm B. 0.9 cm
magnet is in stable equilibrium, when the potential C. 2.1 cm D. 1.5 cm
energy is 58. A long straight wire carries a current of 35 A. What
A. –0.64 J B. 0
is the magnitude of the field B at a point 20 cm from
C. –0.082 J D. 0.064 J the wire?
52
A. 3.5 × 10–5 T B. 5.4 × 10–6 T 60. A suspended magnet oscillates with the periodic time
C. 4.2 × 10–3 T D. 8.5 × 10–4 T T in the earth’s horizontal field. When a bar magnet
59. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 12 and is brought near it, the periodic time is found to have
metre shows full deflection for a current of 3 mA. T
How will you convert the metre into a voltmeter of been decreased to . Find the ratio of the field of
2
range 0 to 18 V? magnet to earth’s horizontal field.
A. 4852 B. 5988 A. 1 : 3 B. 3 : 1
C. 6432 D. 2163 C. 1 : 2 D. 2 : 1
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B B A C C A C C A B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A D C B C A B B B A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
D B A B C B A C C D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A D C B A C B A B C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
D A B C A D A C D D
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A A C A A B D A B B
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
0 2 I 0 2 eV 0 I1I 2
1. As, B = 7. As, F=
4 r 2 0.8 2 r
19
1.6 10 4 10 7 30 30
= 0 0 10 19 =
0.8 2 2 5 10 2
0 2(i i) 0 i 2 = 3.6 × 10–3 N/m
2. As, F =
4 b 2 b 0 2I 1
8. As, B= or B
10 4r r
3. As, B = µ0n I = 4 × 10–7 × 5
1 /100 2
= 2 × 10–3 T r , B 2B
r
2
mv
4. As, F = evB = 2rH
r 9. Reduction factor K =
mv 0 n
r= , V 2v, r 2r 2 2r H
eB K = = K.
Hence, radius becomes 4 cm. 0 (2 n)
5. Inside as well as outside as B dl 0 I 10. Field due to wire,
B is non zero inside as well as outside. 0 2I
Bw = Bwire =
4 4
6. Magnetic moment, pm = IA = Ir2
L 10 7 2 20
where 2r = L r = = = 1.33 × 10–3
2 3 10 3
2
L IL2 4
pm = I T= mT
2 4 3
53
Field due to solenoid Bs = 4 mT Bcentre
17. As, Bx =
8
Net magnetic field = B2w B2s
0 2 IR 2 1 0 2 I
=
2
4 4 (R 2 x 2 )1/ 2 8 4 R
2
= (4) mT = 4.2 mT
3 8R3 = (R2 + x2)3/2
11. Unlike parallel currents repel, Force that P exerts on (2R)3 = (R2 + x2)3/2
I P IQ 2R = (R2 + x2)1/2
Q is = 0 4R2 = (R2 + x2) or x2 = 3R2
4 d
24 x= 3 R.
= 10–7 × N towards right
18. Net force on a current carrying closed loop is always
d
zero, when it is placed in a uniform magnetic field.
46
Force that R exerts on Q is 10–7 × N towards 19. As, F = evB = 1.6 × 10–19 × 5 × 105 × 10 N
d
left. = 8 × 10–13 N
Net force is towards left. I
20. As, T = 2
12. As, F = qvB MH
For proton : Fp = eV1B I
For particle : F = 2eV2B 2 = 2 ...(i)
MH
Fp = 2F
I
eV1B = 2 × 2eV2B T = 2 ...(ii)
MH
V1 4 (ii)
=
1 Divide by , we get T = 1 , T = 1
V2 (i) 2 2
0 2 I 21. As, H= 3V
13. As, B=
4 r
V 1
100 1.6 10 19 tan = = 30°
= 0 2 H 3
4 0.8
0 100 1.6 10 19 V
22. As, tan = tan 60 3
= = µ0 × 10–17. H cos 30
2 0.8
14. As, Pm = IA = evA V 3 3
tan = 3
= evr2 H 2 2
= 1.6 × 10–19 × 1016 × (.5 × 10–10)2Am 2
1 3
= 1.25 × 10–23Am 2 tan = tan
2
0 2 I 23. Magnetic field at point A due to AC and AB is zero,
15. As, B=
4A r then the magnetic field at A due to BC.
2 eV 4x
= 10–7 × A B
r
12 x 5
7 2 1.6 10 19 6.6 1015 x
= 10 10
T
0.53 10
= 14 W b/m 2
3x D
0 2I
16. As, B=
4 r
0 2I 2I 0.4
0.4 = B = 0 0.2T
4 r 4 2r 2 C
54
0 I 2M
B= (sin sin )
4 AD B1 3
= d 2 :1
0 I 3 4 B2 M
where, B=
4 12 x 5 5 d3
5
2M M
0 I 7 0 I 32. We have, B1 = and B2 =
B= 7 = x3 y3
4 12x 48x
k= 7 2M M x3
As, B1 = B2 or 2
x3 y3 y3
24. As, B dl = 0 i
x
= 2 1/3
= 4 × 10–7 × 4 × 10–3 y
= 1.6 × 10–9 Wb/m 2 2M
33. Axis along the magnet Ba = = 200 gauss
x3
0 (2 ) 0 2 /2 3 0 i
25. As, B = i M
4 R 4 R 8R Therefore, Ba = = 100 gauss
x3
26. Magnetic field inside the solenoid, Bin = µ0ni.
mv U
B1 r2 B r /2 34. As, r=
1 Bq ( g / m)B
27. As, B =
r B2 r1 B2 r
2 10 5
B2 = 2B = = 0.10 m
5 10 7 4 10 2
28. The magnetic induction at centre (O) due to the
electric current in part AB, will be zero, because 35. As, Bv = B sin
centre (O) lies on AB, when it extended. Here, Bv = 0.16 3, = 30°
29. When cut along the axis of magnet of length l, then 0.16 3 = B sin 30°
m
new pole strength m = and new length l = l B
2 or 0.16 3 =
m ml m 2
New magnetic moment M = l
2 2 2 B = 0.32 3 oersted
Also, BH2 + Bv2 = B 2
S N S N
or BH = (B2 B2v )
When cut to the axis of magnet, so that the new
l
pole strength m = m and new length’s l =
2
= (0.32 3) (0.16 3)2
l ml m =
New magnetic moment m = m 0.2304 = 0.48 oersted
2 2 2
36. The volume of the bar magnet,
I gG S Ig
30. As, S= or mass 6.6 10 3
I Ig I GS V= = 8.3 × 10–7 m 3
density 7.9 10 3
Here, G = 50 and S = 5
Intensity of magnetisation,
Ig 5 1
= M 2.5
I 50 5 11 I= = 3.0 × 106 Am –1
V 8.3 10 7
2M
31. We have, B1 = ...(i) 37. As, = MB sin
d3
M 10
and B2 = 3
....(ii) = × 2 × 0.32 × 10–4 sin 30°
d 100
Dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get = 32 × 10–7 N-m
55
38. Magnetic field at the centre of the coil, 43. Given l = 80 cm = 0.8 m, N = 5 × 400 = 2000,
0 Ni i = 8.0 A, D = 1.8 cm
B= 0 Ni 4 10 7 2000 80
2R
As, B = =
Given, N = 200, R = 5 cm = 0.05 m, i = 5A l 0.80
= 8 × 10–3T = 2.5 × 10–2 T
4 10 7 200 5
B= T 44. The tension in the wires vanishes, if the downward
2 0.05
force due to the weight of the conductor is annulled
= 1.26 × 10–2 T by the magnetic force. Hence, the magnetic conductor
q 2 B2 r 2 should act vertically upwards. The direction of current
39. Required energy = given by Flemming’s left hand rule and is from left
2m to right.
(1.6 10 19 ) (0.7) 2 (1.8) 2
= 1Bl = mg
2 (2 1.67 10 27 ) 1.6 10 13
= 38 MeV. mg 10 10 3 10
or i=
Bl 0.4 0.6
4 10 3 = 0.416A
40. As, G= = 2
2 10 3
45. Given, v = 12 × 106 Hz, r = 0.5 m, B = ?
GI g
As, S= m = 3.3 × 10–27 kg, q = 1.6 × 10–19 C
I Ig
q
As, v=
2 2 10 3 4 10 3 2 m
=
(1 2) 10 3 (1 0.002) 2mv
= 0.004 or B=
q
41. As, F = BIl sin = BIl
2 3.14 3.3 10 27 12 10 6
I =
or B= 0 1.6 10 19
2 h = 1.6 T
I2 l 46. Due to high resistance of voltmeter connected in
F = mg = 0
2 h series, the effective resistance of circuit will increase
0 I2 l and hence, the current in the circuit will decrease,
or h= due to which the ammeter and voltmeter will not be
2mg
damaged.
4 10 7 250 25 1 M
= 47. As, = 0.32
2 2.5 10 3 9.8 (r 2 l 2 ) 3 / 2
h = 0.51 cm.
p8
42. The situation is shown in fig. The magnetic field due = 0.32
(9 16)3 / 2
to a small current element of length dl is given by
p8
Biot-Savart law as = 0.32
125
p
0.32 125
45° N p= = 5 abAcm
8
dl W E
48. As, torque, = MB sin
S = 200 × 0.25 × sin 30°
i
1
= 200 × 0.25 × = 25 Nm.
0 idl sin 2
As, dB =
4 r2 49. As, W = MB(1 – cos )
7 2
10 10 10 sin 45 For = 90°
= 2
2 W1 = MB (1 – cos 90°) = MB ...(i)
= 1.8 × 10–9 T. For = 60°
56
MB 57. Sm Ng
W 2 = MB (1 – cos 60°) = ...(ii)
2
10°
From (i) and (ii), we get 0.33G
W1
Since, n=
W2
W1 2.5A
= n
W2 10°
W E
MB
= n
MB
2
n= 2 Magnetic
Meridian
50. For unstable equilibrium
U = –MB Sg Nm
U = –(0.4) × (0.16) = – 0.064 J Let the neutral point lies at a distance r from the
51. The magnetic dipole moment of diamagnetic material cable. Then, at the neutral point,
is zero as each of its pair of electrons have opposite 0 I
spins i.e., µd = 0 = BH
2 r
Paramagnetic substances have dipole moment > 0 i.e.,
µd 0 0 I 4 10 7 2.5
or, r=
2 BH 2 0.33 10 4
Ferromagnetic substances are very strong magnetic
moment i.e., µf 0. = 1.5 × 10–2 m = 1.5 cm
52. Given, = 30°, B = 0.25 T, = 4.5 × 10–2 J, m = ? As the direction of the magnetic field of the cable is
As, = mB sin opposite to that of BH at points above the cable, so
4.5 10 2 the line of neutral points lies parallel to the above the
m=
Bsin 0.25 sin 30 cable at the distance of 1.5 cm from it.
= 0.36 JT–1 58. Given, I = 35 A, r = 20 cm = 0.20 m
53. Given, = 22°, BH = 0.35 G µ = 4 × 10–7 TmA–1
BH
As, B= 0 I 4 10 7 35
cos As, B=
2 r 2 0.20
0.35 G 0.35 G
= = 0.38G
cos 22 0.9272 = 3.5 × 10–5 T
54. Given, N = 2000, A = 1.6 × 10–4 m 2, I = 4A 59. Given, Rg = 12 , Ig = 3 mA = 3 × 10–3 A, V = 18 V
Magnetic moment of solenoid turns N, area of cross V 18
section A and carrying current I is As, R= Rg = 12
Ig 3 10 3
m = NIA = 2000 × 0.4 × 4.6 × 10–4 Am 2
= 1.28 Am 2 = 6000 – 12 = 5988
This magnetic moment acts along the axis of the
solenoid in the direction related to the sense of current I
60. As, T = 2 ...(i)
via right-handed screw rule. MH
55. Given, N = 800, A = 2.5 × 10–4 m 2 , I = 3 A T I
As, m = NIA = 800 × 3 × 2.5 × 10–4 = 0.60 JT–1 and = 2 ...(ii)
2 M(H B)
56. Given, m = 0.48 JT–1, r = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Squaring and dividing equation (i) by (ii), we get
For a short magnet,
HB
0 2m
3 =
4 10 7 2 0.48 4=
Baxial = H
4 r 4 (0.10)3
–4
= 0.96 × 10 T = 0.96 G B
or = 3 B : H = 3 : 1.
This field acts along S-N direction. H
_______________
57
CHAPTER
4
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND
ALTERNATING CURRENT
If the coil has N turns
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
(N)
The phenomena of generating current emf by changing = –N
t t
magnetic fields is called electromagnetic induction. Where, N is called the number of ‘flux linkage’ in the
coil. If the coil is closed and the total resistance of its
FARADAY’S LAW, INDUCED circuit be R, then the induced current in the circuit will be
emf AND CURRENT N
i= =
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction R R t
The charge flowed through the circuit in time interval
1. Whenever there is a change in magnetic lines of
t.
force in an electrical circuit, an emf is induced in the
N N
circuit. If the circuit is closed, a current called q = it = t
R t R
induced current flows through the circuit.
2. The induced emf around a closed path is equal to
N
the negative of the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the same path.
number of turns × change in mag. flux
=
2 1 resistance
Rate of change of magnetic flux = =
t2 t1 t
LENZ’S LAW
INDUCED EMF Lenz’s rule is a convenient method to determine the
direction of induced current produced in a circuit. It is
When a closed conducting loop is placed (at rest) in a related to the principle of conservation of energy.
changing magnetic field, then an electric field is induced It states that “the direction of an induced current is
in the loop, which is called induced electric field E . If e such as to oppose the cause producing it.”
be the developed induced emf in the loop, then e = dl
E EDDY CURRENT
d Eddy currents are the current induced in the bulk pieces of
or E dl =
dt
(Faraday’s law) conductors, when the amount of magnetic flux linked with
the conductor changes. These currents are called Foucalt
d d
= , t 0 or currents. The magnitude of eddy currents, i = .
t dt dt
57 2731 (Physics)—8
58
SELF AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCE i1
2 = M
Self Inductance: It is defined as the induction of voltage t
in a current carrying wire, when the current in the wire 2 induced emf in secondary coil.
itself is changing. In case of self inductance, the magnetic 2
field created by a changing current in the circuit itself M =
i1 / t
induced a voltage in the same circuit.
i1
Coefficient of self inductance (L): We have, If = 1, then
t
N
L= M = 2, Co-efficient of mutual induction between
i
two coils.
where, N Number of turns in the coil
Mutual Inductance Between Two Plane Coils:
Flux linked with each turn
We have,
and i The current flowing through the coil.
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic 0 N1i1
B=
induction 2R1
(N ) (L i)
= 0 N1i1
t t 2 = R 22
2R1
i
or = L
t 0 N1 N 2 R 22
L of a plane coil M=
2R1
L = 0 N 2 R In an iron rod be placed inside the coil
2
If a rod of ferromagnetic material be placed inside the
r 0 N1 N 2 R 22
coil. M=
2R1
0 r N 2 R
L= where,
2
B = magnetic field at the centre of the
where primary coil
µr = relative permeability of ferromagnetic
R1 and R2 = radii of primary and secondary coils
material
N1 and N2 = Num ber of turns in prim ary and
R = radius of plane coil
secondary coils
Coefficient of self inductance of a solenoid: We have,
A = R 22 , area of secondary coil
2
0 N A
L= 2 = magnetic flux linked with secondary
l
coil
where, l Length and A Area = r2
µr = Relative Permeability of iron, if an iron
Mutual Inductance: Mutual inductance is the property rod is placed as a core
of two coils by virtue of which each opposes any changes
The co-efficient of coupling (K) between two coils
in the strength of current flowing through the other by
having self-induction L1 and L2 and co-efficient of mutual
developing an induced emf.
inductance = M, then
Co-efficient of mutual induction (M): We have,
N 2 2 M
M= K=
i1 L1 L 2
N2 number of turns in the secondary coil Energy stored in a self-inductance coil.
2 magnetic flux linked with each turn of the i0
secondary coil. Li02
W= Lidi 2
i1 current flowing in the primary coil. 0
59
ALTERNATING CURRENTS I0
Also, Ivirtual = I rms
An alternating current is that which changes continuously 2
in magnitude and periodically in direction. It can be E0
represented by a sine curve or a cosine curve, i.e., I = I0 sin and Evirtual = E rms
t or I = I0 cos t. 2
where, I instantaneous value of the current at
time t. REACTANCE AND IMPEDENCE
and I0 peak value (maximum) value of the Reactance (X): The opposition offered by the coil or
current. condenser or both to flow of AC through it is defined as
reactance (X).
Mean Value of Alternating Current : We have
E E 0 E rms
1
T/2 X=
I I0 I rms
Imean =
T/2 I dt
0
(Inductive reactance XL and
/
2I 0 Inductive capacitance XC)
=
I 0 sin t dt
Impedance (Z): The opposition offered by the
0
condenser, inductor and conductor to the flow of AC
PEAK AND RMS VALUES OF through it is called as impedance.
ALTERNATING CURRENT/VOLTAGE Circuit Containing Inductance (L): Instantaneous
voltage across L
Peak Value of Alternating current/voltage: The sum
dI
of maximum value of AC in positive half cycle and E= L
maximum value in negative half cycle is defined as the dt
peak value of AC. E0
or dI = sin t dt
L
Ip = 2 2 Irms = 2.828 Irms
E0
RMS (Root mean square) value of alternating I= sin t
L 2
current/voltage: The steady current, when passed through
a resistance for a given time will produce the same amount E0
of heat as the alternating current does in the same resistance I= sin t
XL 2
and in the same time is called rms value of alternating
current. where, 2f L = L = XL inductive reactance
I0 [It has the unit of resistance]
Irms = = 0.71 I0 Peak value of alternating current
2
Similarly, root-mean-square value of the alternating E0
I0 =
valtage. XL
E0 The inductive reactance is zero for D.C.
Erms = = 0.71 E0
2
Accordingly Circuit Containing a Capacitor (C):
We have, q = CE0 sin t
E0 I0 E0 I0
RMS = I = CE0 (cos t)()
2 2 2
E0
1 I= sin t
= (Peak power) 1/C 2
2
When an alternating current I = I0 sin t passes through E0
a resistance R, the instantaneous rate of heating is I2 R. I0 =
1/C
Average rate of heating during a cycle The peak value of alternating current
T
1 2 I2 R E
= I R dt 0 (I rms )2 R I0 = 0
T0 2 Xc
60
The capacitive reactance: Ev The r.m.s. value of alternating e.m.f. of the source.
1 1 VR and V C r.m.s. values of voltage across R and C
X c C 2 f C . It is infinite for D.C. respectively.
VR = Iv R and V C = Iv × C
LCR SERIES CIRCUIT Iv r.m.s value of current
L-R Series Circuit: We have 1
XC = is reactance due to capacitor C.
Ev = VR2 VL2 C
R L Ev = I v (R 2 X 2C )
Ev
=
[R 2 (1 / 2 C2 )]
~
E 0 sin wt For phase
where, Ev an A.C. source of e.m.f. X C 1 / C
tan =
VR R.M.S. values of voltage across resistance R R
VL R.M.S. values of voltage across inductance.
Impedence, Z = (R 2 X 2C )
Ev = I v (V2 X 2L )
Ev 2 1
drv =
= R 2 2
C
(R 2 X 2L )
Thus, the equation of current becomes
E0
and I0 = E0
(R 2 2 L2 ) i= sin( t ).
2 1
VL X L L R 2 2
tan = = C
VR R R
L-C Circuit: In the given circuit,
VL 2 E 0 sin t
VL
2 +
VL
L C
VR
If Z is the effective resistance offered by L and R to
A.C., then Ev = (V L – V C)
Ev VL Potential difference across inductance
Iv =
Z
VC Potential drop across the capacitor
Z= (R 2 X 2L ) = (R 2 2 L2 )
1
Z = (X L – X C) = L –
The effective resistance Z offered by L and R to A.C. C
is called the impedance of L - R circuit. Equation of current, when emf Ev leads the current Iv
E 0 sin( t )
The eqn. of current I = by an angle .
X 2L R 2 2
C-R Series Circuit: Let an alternating soure of e.m.f. E0
I= sin t
of r.m.s. value Ev connected to a series combination of a X L XC 2
capacitor or capacitance C and a resistance R.
If V C < VL
Ev = (VR2 VC2 ) Impedence of the circuit (XC – XL)
E0 sin t
The equation of circuit
E0
C
R I= sin t .
XC X L 2
61
Reasonance in L-C Circuit: In series L-C circuit, the 1
resonance takes place when the impedence of the circuit is When L < e.m.f. leads behind the current.
C
minimum or the current is maximum.
1
1 1 When L = current and e.m.f. are in plane with
XL = XC or L0 = , 20 C
C 0 LC each other.
1 RESONANCE IN SERIES LCR CIRCUIT
or 0 =
LC
When the frequency of ac supply is such that the inductive
1 1 reactance and capacitive reactance become equal (X L = XC),
2f0 = ; f0 = the impedence of the series LCR circuit is merely equal to
LC 2 LC
the ohmic resistance in the circuit. As such, the current in
E0 the circuit becomes maximum. Such a series LCR circuit is
At resonance I0 = called resonant series LCR circuit.
Z
LCR Series Circuit: The R R
R We know that cos =
three components L, C and R are Z R (X L X C )2
2
connected in series as shown in E C
Fig. An alternating emf E is If X L = X C, cos = 1 and Z = R
L
applied to the circuit. Using The average power delivered to the resistor in circuit
Kirchhoff’s law, we get is a maximum and impedance of LCR circuit is minimum.
I = Imax sin (t – ) 1
L =
XL XC L
where =
R 1
W resonance =
E E max LC
Imax = max
Z (X L X C )2 R 2 At resonance, amplitude of current,
1 L
Emax = VR + VL + VC XL – XC = L – ( 2 res )2
C
= VR2 (VL VC )2
E 2 R 2
=
R 2 2 L2 ( 2 2res )
= Imax × R 2 (X L X C )2
= Imax Z. QUALITY FACTOR OR Q-FACTOR
VL VC The quality factor of series resonant circuit is defined as
For phase angle , tan = the ratio of the voltage developed across the inductance or
VR
capacitance at resonance due to the impressed voltage,
1 which voltage applied across R,
L
X L XC C
= 1 L
R R Q=
R C
Ev Voltage Magnification: We have
Iv =
Z
E0
Z= R 2 (X L X C )2 i0 =
R
2
E 0 LE 0
2 1 VL = XL i0 = L = QE0
= R L R R
C
Q quality factor.
1 The chief characteristic of the series resonant circuit
When L > e.m.f. leads the current. “voltage magnification”.
C
62
e = e0 sin t.
POWER OF AN AC CIRCUIT
AC generator should be better to call it as convertor.
It is defined as the rate at which work is being done in the
circuit. In AC circuit, the current and emf are not necessarily Transformer: Transformer is a device used for
in the same phase, hence, we can write, converting low alternating voltage at high current into
V0 I 0 high voltage at low current and vice-versa. There are two
Pav = cos types of transformer:
2 2
Pt = EI = E0 sin t. I0 sin ( ± ) Step up Transformer: The transformer used to change
low voltage alternating emf to high voltage alternating emf
E0 I0
Pt = [cos – cos [2t ± )] is called a step-up transformer. The current value in output
2 is less than that in input.
T
1 Step Down Transformer: The transformer used to
T 0
P= EI dt
change high voltage alternating emf to low voltage
alternating emf is called a step-down transformer. The current
E0 I0
= cos in output is more than that in input.
2
i
or P = Erms.Irms cos P S
where cos is called the power factor and Primary Secondary
R
cos = P S
2
1
R 2 L (a) Step up transformer
C
P S
Wattless Current: The current which consumes no
power for the maintenance in the circuit is called wattless
current. P S
i.e., P = Ev Iv cos . (b) Step down transformer
AC GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER If N p and N s are number of turns in primary and
secondary coils and p and s are magnetic flux linked with
AC Generator: A simple generator of alternating current is
them, then
a coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig,
where the unit vector n̂ normal to the plane of the coil s N
= s
makes an angle with a uniform magnetic field B. The p Np
magnetic flux through the coil is
Ns
or s = p
Np
h
If ep and es induced e.m.f. produced in primary and
secondary coils at any time, then
N
es = s e p
B Np
Ns
= K transformation ratio.
Np
If there are no energy losses.
Instantaneous output power = Instantaneous input
B = NBA cos power
Let be the angular velocity e s is = e p i p
Then, = t es i
= s
B = NBA cos t ep ip
d Efficiency of the transformer
e= – B
dt output power
= 100 .
= NBA sin t [sin t = 1] input power
63
EXERCISE
1. A rectangular coil of 100 turns and size 0.1 m × 0.05 m A. 3.1 V B. 0.31 V
is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field of C. 6.2 V D. 0.62 V
0.1 T. If the field drops to 0.05 T in 0.05 s, the 9. A current of 2A flowing through a coil of 100 turns
magnitude of the emf induced in the coil is gives rise to a magnetic flux of 5 × 10–5 Wb per turn.
A. 0.5 V B. 0.75 V The magnetic energy associated with the coil is
C. 1.0 V D. 1.5 V A. 5 J B. 0.5 J
2. A coil of area 10 cm 2, 10 turns and resistance 20 C. 0.05 J D. 0.005 J
is placed in a magnetic field directed perpendicular 10. A coil having 500 square loops, each of side 10 cm
to the plane of the coil and changing at the rate of is placed normal to a magnetic field which increases
108 gauss/second. The induced current in the coil at the rate of 1.0 T/s. The induced emf in volts is
will be A. 0.1 B. 0.5
A. 5 A B. 0.5 A C. 1.0 D. 5.0
C. 0.05 A D. 50 A
11. A capacitor of 1 µF initially charged to 10 V is
3. A coil of cross-sectional area 400 cm 2 having 30 connected across an ideal inductor of 0.1 mH. The
turns is making 1800 rev/min in a magnetic field of maximum current in the circuit is
1T. The peak value of the induced emf is A. 0.5 A B. 1 A
A. 36 V B. 226 V C. 1.5 A D. 2 A
C. 339 V D. 452 V
12. A thin circular ring of area A is held perpendicular to
4. A magnetic field of flux density 1.0 Wb m –2 acts a uniform magnetic field of induction B. a small cut
normal to a 80 turn coil of 0.01 m 2 area. The induced is made in the ring and a galvanometer is connected
emf in it, if this coil removed from magnetic field in across the ends such that the total resistance of the
1 second is circuit is R. When the ring is suddenly squeezed to
A. 4 V B. 8 V zero area, the charge flowing through the galvanometer
C. 10 V D. 12 V is
5. An ideal transformer is used to step up an alternating BR AB
A. B.
emf of 220 V to 4.4 kV to transmit 6.6 kW of power. A R
The current rating of the secondary is B2 A
A. 30 A B. 3 A C. ABR D.
R2
C. 1.5 A D. 1 A
13. A toroidal solenoid has a mean radius of 0.12 m and
6. An ideal transformer steps down 220 V to 22 V in a cross sectional area of 2 × 10–3 m 2. When a current
order to operate a device with an impedence of 220 . of 20A flows through it, the energy stored is 0.1 J.
The current in the primary is Find the number of turns in the solenoid.
A. 0.01 A B. 0.1 A A. 347 B. 218
C. 0.5 A D. 1.0 A C. 378 D. 387
7. A toroidal solenoid with an air core has an average 14. In a car spark coil, emf of 40,000 V is induced in the
radius of 15 cm, area of cross-section 12 cm 2 and secondary when the primary current changes from
1200 turns. Ignoring the field variation across the 4 A to zero in 10 µs. The mutual inductance between
cross-section of the toroid, the self inductance of the the primary and secondary windings of this spark coil
toroid is is
A. 4.6 mH B. 6.9 mH A. 0.01 H B. 0.1 H
C. 2.3 mH D. 9.2 mH C. 0.001 H D. 0.0001 H
8. A jet plane having a wing span of 25 m is travelling 15. The current in a coil of self inductance 2.0 henry is
increasing according to I = 2 sin t2 ampere. Find the
horizontally towards the east with a speed of
amount of energy spent during the peiod when the
1800 km/h. If the earth’s magnetic field at the location
current changes from 0 to 2 ampere.
is 5 × 10–10 T and the angle of dip is 30° then the
A. 3 J B. 8 J
potential difference between the ends of the wing is C. 4 J D. 10 J
64
16. A steady p.d. of 10 V produces heat at a rate x in a A. 2.5 pF B. 5.0 pF
resistor. The peak value of the alternating voltage C. 25 pF D. 50 pF
x
which will produce heat at a rate in the same 24. The impedance of a circuit consist of 3 resistance
2 and 4 reactance. The power factor of the circuit is
resistor is A. 0.4 B. 0.6
A. 5 V B. 5 2 V C. 0.8 D. 1.0
C. 10 V D. 10 2 V 25. An LCR series circuit containing a resistance of
17. An inductive coil has a resistance of 100 . When an 120 has angular resonance frequency 4 × 10 5 rad
AC signal of frequency 1000 Hz is applied to the s–1. At resonance the voltage across resistance and
coil, the voltage leads the current by 45°. The inductance are 60 V and 40 V. The values of L & C
inductance of the coil is are
1 1 1 1
A. B. A. 0.2 mH, F B. 0.4 mH, F
10 20 32 16
1 1
C. D. 1 1
40 60 C. 0.2 mH, F D. 0.4 mH, F
16 32
18. An inductor of 1 henry is connected across a 220 V,
50 Hz supply. The peak value of the current is approx 26. An LCR series circuit with 100 resistance is
A. 0.5 A B. 0.7 A connected to an AC source of 200 V and angular
C. 1 A D. 1.4 A frequency 300 rad/s. When only the capacitance is
removed the current lags behind the voltage by 60°.
19. An LCR series circuit consist of a resistance of 10 , When only the inductance is removed, the current
a capacitance of reactance 60 and an inductor coil, leads the voltage by 60°. The power dissipated in
The circuit is found to resonate when put across a LCR circuit is
300 V, 100 Hz supply. The inductance of the coil is A. 300 W B. 800 W
(take = 3) C. 400 W D. 100 W
A. 0.1 H B. 0.01 H
C. 0.2 H D. 0.02 H 27. An alternating emf given by V = V 0 sin t has peak
value of 10 V and frequency 50 Hz. The instantaneous
20. When 100 V DC is applied across a coil, a current
of 1 A flows through it. When 100 V AC of 50 Hz 1
emf at t = s is
is applied across the same coil, only 0.5 A flows. 600
The resistance and inductance of the coil are A. 10 V B. 5 3 V
(take 2 = 10) C. 5 V D. 1 V
A. 50 , 0.3 H B. 50 , 0.3 H 28. A 100 V AC source of frequency 500 Hz is connected
to an LCR circuit with L = 8.1 millihenry, C = 12.5
C. 100 , 0.3 H D. 100 , 0.3 H microfarad and R = 10 , all connected in series. The
21. In an AC circuit V = 100 sin (100 t) volt and I = 100 potential difference across the resistance is
sin (100 t + /3) mA. The power dissipated in the A. 100 V B. 120 V
circuit is C. 300 V D. 200 V
A. 104 W B. 10 W 29. The average emf during the positive half cycle of an
C. 2.5 W D. 5 W AC supply of peak value E0 is
22. An electric bulb which runs at 80 V DC and consume E0 E0
10 A current is connected across a 100 V, 50Hz AC A. B.
2
supply. The inductance of the choke required is
[takes = 3] E0 2E 0
C. D.
A. 0.01 H B. 0.02 H 2 2
C. 0.04 H D. 0.08 H
30. An ac generator consists of a coil of 2000 turns each
23. The tuning circuit of a radio receiver has a resistance of the area 80 cm 2 and rotating at an angular speed
of 50 , an inductor of 10 mH and a variable capacitor. of 200 rpm in a uniform magnetic field of 4.8 × 10–2 T.
A 1 MHz radio wave produces a potential difference Find the peak value of emf induced in the coil.
of 0.1 mV. The value of the capacitor to produce A. 16.085 V B. 21.025 V
resonance is (take 2 = 10) C. 25.075 V D. 30.058 V
65
31. How much current is drawn by the primary of a A. 1 V B. 5 V
transformer connected to 220 V supply, when it C. 0.5 V D. 0.1 V
delivers power to a 110 V and 550 W refrigerator? 39. A coil of area 100 cm 2 has 500 turns. Magnetic field
A. 1.5 A B. 2.5 A of 0.1 Wb/m 2 is perpendicular to the coil. The field
C. 3.5 A D. 4.0 A is reduced to zero in 0.1 s. The induced emf in the
32. A 20 volt A.C. is applied to a circuit consisting of a coil is
resistance and a coil with a negligible resistance (in A. 0 B. 1 V
series). It the voltage across the resistance is 12 volt, C. 5 V D. 50 V
the voltage across the coil is 40. A coil having an area 2 m 2 is placed in magnetic field
A. 16 volt B. 10 volt which changes from 1 Wb m –2 to 4 W m –2 in an
C. 8 volt D. 6 volt interval of 2 second. The emf induced in the coil will
33. In an AC circuit, the instantaneous values of emf be
and current are E = 200 sin 314 t volt and A. 3 V B. 2 V
C. 1.5 V D. 4 V
i = sin 314t ampere. The average power
3 41. The magnetic field in the coil of 100 turns and
consumed in watt is 40 sq cm area is increased from 1T to 6T in 2 second.
A. 200 B. 100 The magnetic field is perpendicular to the coil. The
C. 50 D. 25 emf generated in it is
A. 1 V B. 10–2 V
34. An AC source is 120 V – 60 Hz. The value of voltage
C. 104 V D. 1.2 V
1
after sec from start will be 42. A wire of length 50 cm moves with a velocity of
720 300 m/min perpendicular to magnetic field. If the emf
A. 20.2 V B. 42.4 V induced in the wire is 2V, the magnitude of the field
C. 84.8 V D. 106.8 V in tesla is
35. A metallic ring is attached with the wall of the room. A. 2.5 B. 0.8
When the north pole of magnet is brought near to it, C. 5 D. 2
the induced current in the ring will be 43. In a circuit with a coil of resistance 2 , the magnetic
S
flux change from 2.0 Wb to 10 Wb in 0.2 s. The
a charge that flow in the coil during that time is
N
A. 4 C B. 5 C
C. 8 C D. 7 C
A. In anticlockwise direction 44. The magnetic flux threading a coil changes from
B. In clockwise direction 12 × 10–3 Wb to 6 × 10–3 Wb in 0.1 s. The induced
C. First clockwise then anticlockwise emf is
D. First anticlockwise then clockwise A. 0.6 V B. 0.5 V
36. A coil having an area A 0 is placed in a magnetic coil C. 0.3 V D. 0.4 V
field, which changes from B0 to 4 B0 in a time interval 45. The armature of an eight polar dynamo rotates making
t. The emf induced in the coil will be 750 revolutions per minute. The frequency of
4B0 3B0 alternating current produced is
A. A t B. A t A. 8 Hz B. 4 Hz
0 0
C. 12.5 Hz D. 50 Hz
3A 0 B0 4A 0 B0
C. D. 46. The magnetic flux through a stationary loop with
t t
resistance R varies during interval of time T as = at
37. A square coil of 10–2 m 2 area is placed perpendicular (T – t). The heat generated during this time neglecting
to the uniform magnetic field of intensity 103 Wb m–2. the inductance of loop will be
The magnetic flux through the coil is
A. 105 Wb B. 100 Wb a2 T3 a2 T 2
C. 106 Wb D. 10 Wb A. B.
3R 3R
38. A coil having 500 sq. loops each of side 10 cm is
placed normal to magnetic flux which increases at a2 T a3 T 2
C. D.
the rate of 1 tesla/sec. The induced emf in volts is 3R 3R
2731 (Physics)—9
66
47. In the circuit shown here, R is pure resistance, L is an 52. Two pure inductanes, each of value L are connected
inductor of negligible resistance (as compared to R), in parallel but are well separated from each other. The
S is a 100 V, 50 Hz AC source of negligible resistance. inductance of the parallel combination is
With either key k1, alone or k 2 alone closed, the A. L B. 2 L
current is I0. If the source is changed to 100 V, 100 L
Hz, the current with k1 alone closed and with k2 alone C. 4 L D.
2
closed will be respectively
53. An aeroplane with wing span of 50 m flies at
540 km/h. The component of earth’s magnetic field
k1 k2 perpendicular to velocity of plane is 0.2 gauss. The
T T potential difference between the wing tips is
R L (Wb m –2 = 10 gauss)
A. 0.15 V B. 15 V
C. 1500 V D. 0
I0 54. The time taken by sinusoidal AC of frequency 50 Hz
A. I0, B. I0, 2I0
2 to rise from zero to its maximum value is
I0 A. 1 × 10–3 s
C. 2I0, I0 D. 2I0, B. 2 × 10–3 s
2
C. 4 × 10–3 s
48. Three pure inductances are connected as shown in D. 5 × 10–3 s
fig. The equivalent inductance of the coil will be
55. Two conducting circular loops of radii R1 and R2 are
placed in the same plane with their centres coinciding.
L = 0.75 H L 1 = 0.5 H If R1 >> R2, the mutual inductance M between them
will be directly proportional to
R2 R1
L 2 = 0.5 H A. R B. R
1 2
A. 1.00 H B. 1.50 H
C. 1.49 H D. 1.75 H R 22 R 22
C. D.
49. A coil of inductance 0.525 H is connected to a DC R1 R12
source of 120 V. A current of 0.5 A flows through the 56. Two identical circular loops of metal wire are lying
coil. If the coil be connected to an AC source of on a table without touching each other. Loop A carries
frequency 60 cycles/sec and 120 V, the current in the a current which increases with time. In response, the
coil will be metal loop B
A. 0.386 A B. 0.437 A A. rotates about its CM with CM fired
C. 0.479 A D. 0.443 A B. is repelled by the loop A
50. An AC ammeter is used to measure current and circuit. C. is attracted by the loop A
When a given direct current passes through the circuit, D. remains stationary
the AC ammeter reads 3A. When alternating current 57. An inductor of 2 H and a resistance of 10 are
passes through the circuit, the AC ammeter reads 4 A. connected in series with a battery of 5 V. The initial
Then the reading of this ammeter, if DC and AC rate of change of current is
through the circuit is A. 0.25 As–1 B. 2 As–1
A. 7 A B. 5 A C. 2.5 As–1 D. 0.5 As–1
C. 4 A D. 3 A
58. In the circuit shown in fig. R = 12 , L = 3 H,
51. In an alternating circuit, connected to an emf of
E = 14 V, I = 2.2 A. The current is decreasing at the
100 V and frequency 50 Hz, a resistance of 10 and rate of 1.5 A/s. Find VAB at this instant.
1
an inductance of H are connected in series. R = 12 L = 3H
10 I E
A B
The power dissipated in the circuit will be
A. 500 W B. 534 W A. 31.7 V B. 35.9 V
C. 584 W D. 589 W C. 41.5 V D. 43.7 V
2731 (Physics)—9-II
67
59. An electric lamp, which runs at 100 V DC and 10 A, 60. A power transformer is used to step up an alternating
is connected to 200 V and 50 cycle/s AC main. Then, emf of 220 V to 4.4 kV to transmit 0.6 kW of power.
the inductance of the choke needed to be used in If the primary coil has 1000 turns, the current rating
series with the lamp is a secondary will be (assuming a 100% efficient
A. 0.022 H B. 0.044 H transformer)
A. 1.20 A B. 2.40 A
C. 0.055 H D. 0.083 H C. 1.50 A D. 1.80 A
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A A B B C A C A D D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B B D B C C B C A D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C B A B A C C A D A
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
B A C C A C D B C A
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A B A A D A A A A B
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A D A D C B C B C C
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
NA(B f Bt ) Np 1000
1. As, = Is = Ip 30 = 1.5 A
t Ns 20, 000
100 0.1 0.05 (0.05 0.1) s 22
= 6. As, Is = = 0.1 A
0.05 Z 220
= –0.5 V I 22 0.1
Ip = s s = 0.01A
dB p 220
NA
dt 10 10 10 4 10 4
2. As, I= 0 NI NI
R 20 7. As, B= = NBA = N 0 A
2 r 2r
= 5A
0 N2 A
3. As, peak = NBA L=
I 2r
= 30 × 1 × 0.04 × 30 × 2
= 226 V 4 10 7 (1200)2 12 10 4
=
2 0.15
4. As, d = nA (B2 – B1) = 80 × 0.01 (0 – 1.0) = 2.3 × 10–3 H
= 0.8 Wb
5
d 0.8 8. We have, V = 5.0 × 10–4 × sin 30° × 1800 × 25
Now, |e| = = 8V 18
dt 0.1 = 3.1 V.
s 4.4 1000 1000 N 100 5 10 5
5. As, Ns = Np = 20,000 9. As, L= = 2.5 × 10–3 H
p 220 I 2
1 1
P 6.6 10 3 3
U = LI2 = 2.5 10 4
Ip = = 30 A 2 2
p 220 = 5 × 10–3 J
68
d 1 2 1
10. As, = 15. As, U= LI = × 2.0 × (2)2 = 4J
dt 2 2
= BA cos ; = 0°; cos = 1
d (BA) dB V2 10 2 100
= – A for one turn 16. For d.c.: x= ; R= ;
dt dt R R x
2
dB V0
for n turns = n A x V2
dt 2
For a.c.: = 0 ;
dB 2 R 2R
= nA
dt 100
or, V02 = x.R = x. = 100
= –500 × (.1 × .1) × 1 x
= –5 volts. V0 = 10 V.
11. The current is max. when the capacitor is fully L R 100
discharged because then the whole of the electrical 17. As, = tan 45° = 1 L =
R 2000
energy stored in the capacitor is converted into the
magnetic energy in the inductor. 1
=
1 2 1 20
LI = CV 2 18. As, XL = L = 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 1 = 314
2 2
220 2 0 2
CV 2 C I0 = 1A I 0 0
I2 = I= V 314 L L
L L
10 6 10 10 3 XC
= 10 × 19. As, XL = XC 2f L = XC L =
0.1 10 3 1 10 2 2 f
I = 1A 60
= = 0.1 H
AB 2 3 100
12. Induced emf =
t 100 100
20. We have, R= = 100 , Z = = 200
AB 1 0.5
Induced current I =
t R Z2 R2
Charge flowing through the galvanometer Since, R2 + 2L2 = Z2 L2 =
2
AB
q = It = = 0.3 L = 0.3H
R
21. We have, P = Vrms Irms cos
A
13. Inductance, L = µ0N 2 100 100 10 3
l = cos = 2.5 W
2 2 3
0 N2 A
=
2 r 22. Choke reduces the a.c. current without power loss.
2 2 80
1 2 0 N AI R= = 8
Energy stored, µ = LI
2 4 r 10
2
4 rV V V V
I= or Z = R2 + 2L2 =
or N= Z I I
0 AI 2
L = 100 64 = 6 L = 0.02 H
0.12 0.1
= = 387 1 1
10 7 2 10 3 400 23. For resonance = L or C =
C L 2
40000 1
14. As, M = = 0.1 H = = 2.5 pF
dI / dt (0 4) /10 10 6 10 4 2 1012
2
69
4 3 2 200
24. We have, tan = , Power factor = cos = = 0.6 =
3 5 60
1 1 20
1
= rad s 1
25. As, = C= 2 3
LC L 16 1010 L
As, e0 = n BA
VR 60 VL 20
Ieff = = 0.5 A; Ieff = = 2000 × 4.8 × 10–2 × 80 × 10–4 ×
R 120 L 3
40
= 16.085 V
L= 5 = 20 × 10–5 = 0.2 mH
4 10 0.5
31. As, epIp = es I s
1 1
and C= = µF es I s
16 1010 20 10 5 32 Ip =
ep
26. When capacitance is removed, it is an LR circuit
XL X 550
= 2.5A
tan = 3 L 220
R 100
or XL = 100 3 32. As, V= VR2 (VL )2
When the inductance is removed it is an RC circuit
202 = (12)2 + VL2
XC
tan = XC = 100 3 VL = 256 = 16 V
R
33. As, Pav = EvIv cos
Z= R 2 (X L X C )2 200 1
= cos = 50 watt
= R = 100 2 2 3
200
Ieff = = 2A 34. As, V = V0 sin t = 2 Vrms. sin t
100
1
P = I 2eff Z = 400 W = 2 120 sin 2 60
720
27. We have, V = 100 sin (100 t)
= 2 120 sin
6
1 1
at t= s, V = 100 sin = 5V = 2 120 = 84.8 V
600 6 2
28. We have, XL = 2 × 500 × 8.1 × 10–3 35. In fig. it is clear from the magnet side, induced emf
= 25.434 current will be anticlockwise,
S
10 6 N
XC = = 25.478
2 500 12.5
XL XC VL VC
Now Veff = VR2 (VL VC )2 = VR d 3B0 A 0
36. As, e=
VR = 100 V dt t
3B0 A 0
2E 0
T/2 |e| =
t
29. As, Eav (half cycle) =
T sin t dt
0 37. Induced current in both the coils assist the main
current, there are current through each coil increases.
2E 0 2 x y
=
T
30. Given as, n = 2000, A = 80 cm 2 = 80 × 10–4 m 2
B = 4.8 × 10–2 T and = 200 rpm Observer
70
B d
38. As, |e| = N A cos 46. We have, |E| = [ atT at 2 ] = aT – 2at
t dt
= 500 × 1 × (10 × 10–2)2 cos 0°
E2
= 500 × 100 × 10–4 × 1 Now, dQ = dt
R
= 5V
a2 T
(T 2t )2
R 0
N(B2 – B1 )A cos Q=
39. As, e=
t
2
500(0 – 0.1) 100 10 4 cos 0 Q= a T 2
4t 2 4Tt )dt
= R 0 (T
0.1
= 500 × 100 × 10–4 = 5V a2 2 T T T
= T dt 4 t 2 dt 4T t dt
R 0 0 0
B (4 1)
40. As, e = A =2× = 3V
t 2 a2 3 4T3 T2
= T 4T
R 3 2
N(B2 B1 )
41. As, e= A cos
t a 2 4T 3 a2 T3 a2 T3
= T3 =
100 (6 1) R 3 R 3 3R
= × (40 × 10–4) cos 0°
2 47. At 50 Hz, L = R; at 100 Hz, L = 2R
| e | = –50 × 5 × 40 × 10–4
Current remains unchanged in R. However, it becomes
= –104 × 10–4 = | –1 | = 1V half in I0.
42. If a wire of length l moves with velocity v, L1 L 2 0.5 0.5
perpendicular to magnetic field B, the induced emf is 48. As, L = = = 2.5 H
L1 L 2 0.5 0.5
produced. The induced magnitude is
As, || = Blv Equivalent Inductance
= L + L = 0.75 + 0.25 = 1.00 H
Given, l = 50 cm = 5 × 10–1 m,
v = 30 m/min = 5 m/sec 120
49. We have, R= = 240
|| = 2V 0.5
| | 2 Z= R 2 2 L2 R 2 (2 f)2 L2
B= = 0.8T
l V 0.5 5
43. Given, 1 = 2Wb; 2 = 10 Wb, R = 2
= (240)2 (2 3.14 60)2 (0.525)2
= 311
2 1 10 2 8
As, Q =
R 2 2 = 4 C V 120
I= = 0.386 A
Z 311
44. Given, 1 = 12 × 10–3 Wb, 2 = 6 × 10–3 Wb
50. We have, I2R = 32R + 42R or I2 = 9 + 16
dt = 0.01s = 10–2 s
I2 = 25A
d 2 1
As, e= I = 5A
dt dt
51. As, P = Vrms × Irms × cos
(6 10 3 12 10 3 )
= Vrms R
10 2 = Vrms ×
= 0.6 V Z Z
2 2
Vrms R Vrms R
750 75 =
45. As, f= Z2 R 2 (L)2
60 6
Eight polar dynamo has 4 coils (100) 2 (10) 2
= 2
= 500 W
75 2 1
Effective value is × 4 Hz = 50 Hz (10) 50
6 10
71
52. We have, I = I1 + I2 R
di R Lt
dI dI1 dI 2 = 0 – L0 e
= dt L
dt dt dt Rt
dI1 dI 2 R L
= L0 e
E1 = –L1 , E2 = –L2 L
dt dt
Initially, t = 0
dI
E = L di i0 R E 5
dt = = 2.5 As–1
dt L L 2
E1 = E2 = E
dI
dI1 E E E E 58. As, VL = L
= = dt
dt L1 L L1 L 2
= (3)(–1.5) = –4.5 V
1 1 1 Now, VA – IR – V L – E = VB
=
L L1 L 2 VAB = VA – VB
But L1 = L2 = L = E + IR + VL
= 14 + (2.2)(12) – 4.5
1 2 L
= L = = 14 + 26.4 – 4.5
L L 2
= 35.9 V
5
53. We have, E = 0.2 × 10–4 × 50 × 540 × = 0.15 V 100
18 59. Resistance of the bulb = = 10
10
1 1 1 1 The rms current is given by
54. t = T = s = 5 × 10–3s
4 4 n 200 E rms
Irms =
55. The mutual inductance between two coils in the same R 2 L2
2
plane with their centres coinciding is given by
200
2 2 R 22 N1 N 2 or 10 =
M= 0 H 10 (2 50 L)2
2
4 R1
300
0 2 R2 L= = 0.055 H
= 2 N1N 2 2 100
4 R1
es 4.4 1000
0 R 22 R 22 60. As, NS = e NP = 1000
= N N
1 2 M P 220
2 R1 R1
IPeP = 6.6 × 103 W
56. When current increases with time in loop A, then
magnetic flux in B will increase. According to Lenz’s 6.6 10 3
IP = = 30 A
law loop B is repelled by loop A. 220
IS N P 1000 1
i = i 1 e
R
t
L =
57. As, 0 I P NS 20000 20
R 1
di d d t 1
= L0 L0 e L IS = × IP = × 30 = 1.5 A.
dt dt dt 20 20
72
CHAPTER
5
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
3. They propagate with the speed of light (c), in
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND
vacuum, given by
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
1
Electromagnetic waves: An electromagnetic wave is c= 3 108 m/s.
characterised by two vectors, the electric field E and the 0 0
magnetic field B, which oscillate at right angles to each
4. They follow the principle of superposition.
other and also to the propagations of wave.
Electromagnetic fields are represented by the following 5. The ratio of electric to magnetic field is equal to
equations: E
their velocity (c) is = c
x B
E = Ey = E0 sin t
c 6. Electric and magnetic fields oscillate with the same
x phase or with a constant phase difference.
B = Bz = B0 sin t
c 7. They travel without the aid of any material medium.
The combination of mutually perpendicular electric
and magnetic fields, yields a light wave disturbance is Maxwell’s Equations
called electromagnetic wave. Gauss’s Law of Electrostatics: It states that the total normal
Conduction current: It is the current which arises due 1
to flow of electrons through the connecting wires in an electric flux through a closed surface is equal to times
electric current. 0
Displacement current: It is the current which comes the total charge enclosed within the surface.
into play in the region, wherever the electric field and q
hence the electric flux in changing with time. E ds 0
E
The displacement current is given by
d E Gauss’s Law of Magnetism: It states that the total
ID = 0
dt magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero.
Where Absolute permittivity of free space and
B
B ds 0
d E
Rate of change of electric flux.
dt Ampere’s Law: It states that the line integral of
Characteristics of Electromagnetic Waves magnetic field along a closed path is equal to µ 0 times the
1. The planes of oscillation of electric and magnetic total current threading the surface bounded by that closed
fields are perpendicular to each other. path.
2. Direction of propagation of the EM wave is Mathematically,
perpendicular to the directions of oscillations of
electric and magnetic fields. B dl 0 (IC I D )
72
73
where B = magnetic field or induction.
d E
or B dl 0 IC 0 dt Total Energy Density, U 0 E 2
Faraday’s Law: It states that the rate of change of Momentum Carried by EM Waves (p):
magnetic flux with time is equal to induced emf and that
EH S
the direction of induced emf is always such as oppose the p= or
change that produces it. C2 C2
Mathematically, This is momentum density of the EM wave. This is the
property of the field alone and is not associated with any
d moving mass.
=
dt Standing EM Wave: By the law of superposition, if a
progressive wave is reflected back in the opposite direction,
d then the resulting wave is a standing wave.
e= E dl dt
E = 2E0 cos t sin kx
TRANSVERSE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations
According to Gauss’s law, the total electric flux across, according to their wavelength or frequency is called
must be zero, when the rectangular parallelopiped does not electromagnetic spectrum. All electromagnetic waves in
enclosed any charge i.e., vacuum have the same speed (c = n = 3 × 108 ms–1).
E ds 0
S Y
Radiowaves: Radiowaves are produced by oscillating
electronic circuit. The frequency of radiowaves varies from
In the Fig., B a few Hz to 1019 Hz. The radiowaves are used as carrier
G
When Ex and Ex are F
waves in radio broadcasting and TV transmission.
the values of x-component C
Microwaves: Microwaves produced by oscillating
of electric field on face electric circuit. The frequency of microwaves lies between
ABCD and OGFE res- A
O
X 1019 – 3 × 1011 Hz. The microwaves are used in RADAR
pectively and S be the and other communication system.
area of each of these faces, E D
Z Infrared Rays: Infrared rays are heat radiation and all
then
hot bodies are sources of infrared rays. The frequency range
of infrared rays is 1013 to 4 × 1014 Hz. About 60% of solar
E ds = Es S and E ds E x S
radiation is infrared in nature.
ABCD OGFE
Visible light: The visible light emitted due to atomic
So, ExS – ExS = 0 excitation. Human eye is sensitive to only visible part of
(Ex – Ex)S = 0 the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequency ranges from
4 × 1014 Hz to 8 × 1014 Hz.
When, Ex – Ex = 0 Ex = Ex = 0 (static)
Ultraviolet Rays: The ultraviolet rays are the part of
The electric field is perpendicular to the direction of solar spectrum. They can produced by arcs of mercury and
propagation of em wave. Thus, the electric and magnetic iron. The frequency of ultraviolet rays lies between in the
fields are transverse i.e., perpendicular to the direction of range of 8 × 1014 to 1016 Hz.
propagation of wave. That’s why the electromagnetic waves
X-rays: When a target of an element having high
are transverse in nature.
atomic number is bombarded by fast moving electrons,
Energy in EM Waves (U): E.M. waves consist of two X-rays are produced. The frequency range of X-rays is 10 16
fields – electric and magnetic. Hz to 3 × 1019 Hz. These rays passes a high penetrating
power.
1
Energy density in the Electric field = 0 E2 Gamma rays (): -rays are nuclear origin and range
2
from 3 × 1019 Hz to 5 × 1020 Hz. These rays are highly
1 2 energetic radiation and are mainly emitted by radioactive
Energy density in the magnetic field = B
2 0 substances.
2731 (Physics)—10
74
our daily lives including the communication
APPLICATIONS OF
technology.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic radiation is the foundation for
EM waves are used to transmit short or long or FM working of radar which in turn is used for
wavelength radio waves. They are used to transmit TV or guiding and remote sensing the study of our
telephone or wireless signals and energies.
planet earth.
They are responsible for the transmission of energy
X-rays detect the bone breaks by passing through
in the forms of microwaves, visible light, infrared
the flesh and capturing the image.
radiation, UV light, gamma rays and also X-rays.
Gamma rays can couse and also treat cancers.
EM waves accomplish the transmission of energy
through a vacuum or using no medium. Since EM Infrared radiation is visible at all times, thus is used
waves transmit energy, it plays an important role in by officials to capture enemy.
Spectrum of EM Waves
S.No. Name Frequency Wavelength How Produced
Range (Hz) Range (m)
1. -rays 3 × 1019 – 5 × 1020 6 × 10–13 – 1 × 10–10 Nuclei of atom
2. X-rays 1 × 1016 – 3 × 1019 1 × 10–10 – 3 × 10–8 Bombardment of high
Z target by electrons
3. Ultra-violet 8 × 1014 – 1 × 1016 3 × 10–8 – 4 × 10–7 Excitation of atoms and
vacuum sparks.
4. Visible Light 4 × 1014 – 8 × 1014 4 × 10–7 – 8 × 10–7 Excitation of atoms,
spark and arc flames
VIOLET 4 – 4.5 × 10–7
BLUE 4.5 – 5 × 10–7
GREEN 5 – 5.7 × 10–7
YELLOW 5.7 – 5.9 × 10–7
ORANGE 5.9 – 6.2 × 10–7
RED 6.2 – 7.5 × 10–7
5. Infrared 1 × 1013 – 4 × 1014 8 × 10–7 – 3 × 10–5 Excitation of atoms and
molecules
6. Heat radiation 3 × 1011 – 3 × 1013 1 × 10–5 – 1 × 10–1 Heating
7. Micro wave 1 × 109 – 3 × 1011 1 × 10–3 – 3 × 10–1 Oscillating currents in
special vacuum tubes
8. Ultra-high 3 × 108 – 3 × 109 1 × 10–1 – 1 Oscillating circuits
radio frequencies
9. Very high radio 3 × 10–7 – 3 × 108 1 – 10 Oscillating circuits
frequencies
TV, FM 1 × 108 – 2 × 108 Oscillating circuits
10. Radio frequencies 3 × 104 – 3 × 107 10 – 104 Oscillating circuits
11. Power frequencies 60 – 50 5 × 106 – 6 × 106 Weak radiation from AC circuits.
EXERCISE
1. The transmitting antenna of a radio station is mounted A. 3.33 B. 3.33 × 10–3
vertically. At a point 10 km due north of the C. 3.33 × 10–8 D. 10 –3
transmitter the peak electric field is 10–3 volt/m. The V
2. If the electric amplitude of the wave is 5 , magnetic
magnitude of the radiated field in gauss is m
amplitude of this wave is
75
wb A 11. A circular ring of radius r is placed in a homogeneous
A. 1.67 × 10 10 B. 5 magnetic field perpendicular to the place of the ring.
m2 m
wb wb The field B changes with time according to the
C. 1.67 × 10 8 2 D. 5 × 10 10 equation B = kt, where k is a constant and t is the
m m2
time. The electric field in the ring is
3. A brilliant arc lamp delivers a luminous flux of
100 watt to a 1 cm 2 absorber. The force due to radiation kr
A. B. 2 kr
pressure is 2
A. 3.3 × 10–4 N B. 16.5 × 10–7 N 3 5
C. 3.3 × 10 N–6 D. 3.3 × 10–7 N C. kr D. kr
2 3
4. An L.C. resonant circuit contains a 400 PF capacitor
and a 100 µ H inductor. It is set into oscillation 12. In a plane EM wave electric field varies with time
coupled to an antenna. The wavelength of the radiate having an amplitude 1 Vm –1. The frequency of wave
electromagnetic wave is is 0.5 × 1015 Hz. The wave propagation along x-axis.
A. 377 mm B. 377 m The average density of magnetic field is:
C. 377 cm D. 3.77 cm A. 2.2 × 10–12 Jm –3 B. 3.5 × 10–11 Jm –3
C. 4.5 × 10–12 Jm –3 D. 1.2 × 10–10 Jm –3
5. In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field
oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of 2.0 × 1010 Hz 13. The radiation of 200 W is incident on a surface which
and amplitude 48 V m–1. The wavelength of the wave is is 60% reflecting and 40% absorbing. The total force
on the surface is
A. 1.5 m B. 1.5 × 10–1 m
A. 2.04 × 10–5 N B. 1.07 × 10–6 N
C. 1.5 × 10–2 m D. 1.5 × 10–3 m –7
C. 3.05 × 10 N D. 4.5 × 10–5 N
6. What an intantaneous displacement current of 1A 14. The sun delivers 104 Wm –2 of electromagnetic flux to
current in the space between the parallel plates of the surface of the earth. The total power that in
1 µF capacitor? incident on a root of dimension 10 m square will be
A. 104 Vs–1 B. 105 Vs–1 A. 106 W B. 105 W
7
C. 10 Vs –1 D. 106 Vs–1 7
C. 10 W D. 104 W
7. In an electric circuit, a capacitor of reactance 50 is 15. A point source of electromagnetic radiation has an
connected across the source of 220 V. The average power output of 800 W. The maximum value
displacement current is of electric field at a distance 4.0 m from the source
A. 3.5 A B. 6.9 A is
C. 4.4 A D. 4.5 A A. 53.21 Vm –1 B. 58.56 Vm –1
C. 54.8 Vm –1 D. 50.2 Vm –1
8. An electromagnetic wave in vacuum has the electric
and magnetic fields E and B, which are always 16. The amplitude of oscillating magnetic field in an EM
perpendicular to each other. The direction of wave is 2 × 10–6 T. What will be the amplitude of the
polarization is given by X and that of wave oscillating electric field?
propagation by k. Then A. 500 Vm –1 B. 600 Vm –1
A. X || B and k || B × E C. 700 Vm –1 D. 400 Vm –1
B. X || B and k || E × B
17. A laser emits a beam of light of 2 mm diameter. If the
C. X || E and k || E × B
power of beam is 10 mW, find the intensity of the
D. X || E and k || B × E
beam of light.
9. In a plane electromagnetic wave propagating in space A. 3.18 × 103 Wm –2 B. 4.15 × 103 Wm –2
has an electric field of amplitude 9 × 103 Vm –1, then 4
C. 6.13 × 10 Wm –2 D. 9.26 × 103 Wm –2
the amplitude of the magnetic field is
18. A 100 PF capacitor is connected to a 230 V, 50 H2
A. 3 × 10–5 J B. 2 × 10–4 J ac source. What is the rms value of the conduction
C. 3 × 10 J–6 D. 5 × 10–5 J current?
10. The continuous X-rays spectrum produced by an A. 7.2 µA B. 3.5 µA
X-ray machine at constant voltage has a C. 9.5 µA D. 4.6 µA
A. single wavelength 19. The angle made by direction of travel of an em wave
B. minimum wavelength with y-axis, when the wave point travelling in free
C. maximum wavelength
D. minimum frequency space is given by a kˆ ˆj iˆ is
76
28. The rms value of the electric field of the light
1 1 1 3
A. = sin B. = cos comming from the sum is 720 N/C. The average total
2 5
energy density of the electromagnetic wave is
1 1 1 3 A. 8.35 × 10–12 J/m 3 B. 4.58 × 10–6 J/m 3
C. = cos D. = sin
3 5 –9
C. 6.31 × 10 J/m 3 D. 3.4 × 10–3 J/m 3
20. What is the force exerted by a photon of intensity 29. The electric field in an EM wave is given by
1.4 kW/m 2, if it falls on a perfect absorber on radius x
2 m? E = 50 N/C sin t . Find the energy contained
c
A. 1.35 × 10–4 N B. 2.35 × 10–4 N in a cylinder of cross section 10 cm 2 and length
C. 4.51 × 10–5 N D. 3.5 × 10–3 N 50 cm along x-axis.
21. The photon energy in units of eV for electromagnetic A. 5.5 × 10–12 J B. 8.5 × 10–11 J
waves of wavelength 40 m is –10
C. 3.5 × 10 J D. 2.5 × 10–12 J
(Given, h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js.)
30. The sun radiates EM energy at the rate of 3.9 × 10 26
A. 3.1 × 10–8 eV B. 5.8 × 10–7 eV
–9 W. Its radius is 6.96 × 108 m. The intensity of sun
C. 4.2 × 10 eV D. 2.1 × 10–5 eV
light in (Wm –2) at the solar surface will be
22. A plane EM wave of frequency 25 MHz travels in free A. 3.8 × 106 B. 3.5 × 106
space along the x-direction. At a particular point in
C. 4.1 × 10 7 D. 5.6 × 107
space and time the electric vector is E 6.3 V/mjˆ.
31. An electromagnetic radiation has an energy 11 keV.
Find the B at this point.
To which region of electromagnetic spectrum does it
A. 3.5 105 kˆT B. 2.1 10 8 kˆT belong?
C. 4.5 10 7 kˆT D. 6.9 107 kˆT A. x-ray region B. UV region
23. An electromagnetic wave with Poyinting vector C. -ray region D. Visible region
6 Wm –2 is absorbed by a surface of area 12 m 2. The
32. The magnetic of magnetic field part of harmonic EM
force on the surface is
wave in vacuum is B0 = 510 nT. The magnitude of
A. 2.4 × 10–8 N B. 3.5 × 10–7 N
–8
the electric field part of the wave is
C. 6.2 × 10 N D. 1.2 × 10–6 N
A. 123 NC–1 B. 153 NC–1
24. A plane of EM wave of wave intensity 5 Wm –2 strikes C. 167 NC –1 D. 183 NC–1
a small mirror of area 20 cm 2, used perpendicular to
the approaching wave. The momentum transferred by 33. In plane EM wave, the electric field oscillates
the wave to mirror each second is sinusoidally at a frequency of 2.5 × 1010 Hz and
A. 3.25 × 10–11 kgms–1 amplitude 480 Vm –1. The amplitude of oscillating
B. 6.67 × 10–11 kgms–1 magnetic field will be
C. 1.12 × 10–12 kgms–1 A. 1.6 × 108 Wbm –2
D. 4.91 × 10–11 kgms–1 B. 1.6 × 10–6 Wbm –2
25. Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium at a speed C. 1.52 × 107 Wbm –2
of 2 × 108 ms–1. The relative permeability of the D. 2.25 × 10–6 Wbm –2
medium is 1.0. The relative permittivity is 34. If a source is transmitting EM wave of frequency
A. 2.25 B. 3.25 8.2 × 10 6 Hz, then wavelength of the EM wave
C. 1.25 D. 1.00
transmitted from the source will be
26. A radio transmitter operates at a frequency of 800 kHz A. 42.5 m B. 45.3 m
and a power of 10 kW. The number of photons per C. 48.5 m D. 36.6 m
second emitted is
35. The phase and orientation of the magnetic velocity
A. 2.171 × 1031 B. 1.171 × 1031
associated with electromagnetic oscillation differ
C. 0.171 × 1030 D. 1.125 × 1032
respectively from those of the corresponding electric
27. An EM wave passing through vacuum is described vector by
by the equations
A. 0 and B. 0 and
E = E0 sin (kx – t) and B = B0 sin (kx – t). Then, 2
A. E0 = B0k B. E0k = B0
C. and D. and 0
C. E0B0 = k D. E0 = B0 2 2 2
77
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C D B C D C C A B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A A B A C B A A C B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B A B A B B B A D
31 32 33 34 35
A B B D A
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
E0 10 3 Hence, an intantaneous displacement current of 1 A
1. As, B0 = can be set up by changing the p-d. across the parallel
C 3 108
plates of capacitor at the rate of 106 Vm –1.
= 3.33 × 1012 Tesla = 3.33 × 10–8 Gauss.
7. Displacement current = conduction current
2. Here, E0 = 5 V/m
V 220
E 5 id =
B0 = 0 = 1.67 × 10–8 wb/m 2. c 50
C 3 10 9
= 4.4 A.
3. Energy/sec = 100 watt
8. In electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic fields
hv are mutually perpendicular i.e., wave propagates
or = 100 J/s
t
perpendicular to E and B or along E × B. While
hv = 100 J
Force = momentum/sec. polarization of wave takes place parallel to electric
field vector.
hv 100
= = 3.3 × 10–7 N.
C 3 108 E 0 9 10 3
9. As, B0 = = 3 × 10–5 J.
1 c 3 108
4. As, v=
2 LC 10. The continous spectrum of X-rays consists of
1 radiations of all possible wavelength range having a
= definite minimum (short) wavelength.
2 100 10 6 400 10 12
10 7 = B d
= Hz. 11. As, Edl dt
4
c 3 108 d
= × 4 = 377 m. or E × 2r = (kt × r2) = kr2
v 10 4 dt
5. Given, v = 2 × 1010 Hz kr
E= .
E0 = 48 V/m 2
C 3 108
= = 1.5 × 10–2 m. 0 KA 8.85 10 12 10 1
V 2 1010 12. As, C= =
d 10 3
d E d V = 8.85 × 10–8 F
6. As, id = 0 0 A
dt dt d
d C dV
0 A dV dV i= (CV) =
or id = c dr dr
d dt dt
dV id 1 = 8.85 × 10–8 × 25
or = = 106Vs–1
dt C 10 6 = 2.2 × 10–6 Jm –3.
78
13. We have, Ftotal = Freflecting + Fabsorbing 1
i.e., = cos 1 .
1.2 0.4 P 1.6P 3
= P =
c c c
I 1.4 10 3
1.6 200 20. Pressure, P= =
= = 1.07 × 10–6 N. c 3 108
3 10 8
= 0.47 × 10–5 Nm –2
14. We have, total power = Solar constant × area Forced exterted = P × area
= 104 × (10 × 10)W = 106W. = P × 4r2
15. The intensity of EM wave = 0.47 × 10–5 × 4 × 3.142 × 4
Pav E 20 = 2.35 × 10–4 N.
I=
4 r 2 20 c 21. Given, = 40 m,
0 Pav c G = 6.6 × 10–34 Js
or E0 = hc 6.6 10 34 3 108
2 r As, E = hv = = J
40
4 10 7 800 3 108
= 6.6 10 34 3 10 8
2 (4)2 = eV
40 1.6 10 19
= 54.8 Vm –1.
= 3.1 × 10–8 eV.
16. As, E0 = cB0
E 6.3 V/m
Given c = 3 × 108 m/s, B0 = 2 × 10–6 T 22. As, B= = = 2.1 × 10–8 J
8
E0 = 3 × 108 × 2 × 10–6 = 600 Vm –1. c 3 10 m/s
As, E is along y-direction and wave is travelling
17. Given, diameter of beam = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m
along x-direction, hence B is along the z-direction.
D
2
Area of the beam = r2 = i.e., B = 2.1 10 8 kˆJ .
2
= 3.14 × 1 × 10–6 I
23. As, P = FA but P =
= 3.14 × 10–6 m 2 c
Power, P = 10 mW = 10 × 10–3 W IA 6 12
= 10–2 W Therefore, F = = 24 × 10–8 N.
c 3 10 8
P 10 2 W 24. Momentum transferred by one second by EM wave to
Intensity, I =
A 3.14 10 6 m 2 the mirror is
= 3.18 × 103 Wm –2.
2 Sav A 2 5 20 10 4
P=
Vrms c 3 108
18. As, Irms =
XC = 6.67 × 10 –11 kgms–1.
Given, Vrms = 230 V 25. Given, v = 2 × 108 ms–1, µr = 1, c = 3 × 108 ms–1
1 1 Speed of EM wave in a medium is given by
As, XC =
C C 2 1 1
v= =
Vrms 0 r (0 r )
I=
C 2 r
1 1
1 =
= 0 0 r r
100 10 12 2 50
Irms = 7.2 × 10–6 A = 7.2 µA c2 (3 108 )2
or, r = = 2.25.
19. Let be the desired angle, v2 r (2 10 8 )2 1
a ˆj
a ˆj = a cos i.e., cos = p 10 10 3
a 26. No. of photons, n =
kˆ ˆj iˆ 1 hv 6.6 10 34 880 10 3
=
111 3 = 1.171 × 1031.
79
27. In case of EM wave described by the equations of
P 3.9 10 26
electric field and magnetic field, 30. As, intensity =
A 4 r 2
E0 = CB 0 ...(1)
3.9 10 26
Velocity of EM wave, =
22
4 (6.96 10 8 ) 2
c = v = [ k = 2/] 7
2 k
From (1), we have = 5.6 × 107 Wm –2.
31. Given, E = 11 keV
E0 = B
k 0 = 11 × 103 × 1.6 × 10–19J
or E0k = B0.
hc
28. Total energy density, As, E=
U = Ue+ Um
hc 6.6 10 34 3 10 8
1 2 or = =
= 0 E 0 E 11 10 3 1.6 10 19
2
= 1.125 × 10–10 m
E0
E
= 0 Erms 2
= 1.125 Å.
2
32. Given, B0 = 510 nT = 510 × 10–9 T
= (8.85 × 10–12) × (720)2
As, E0 = cB0 = 3 × 108 × 510 × 10–9 = 153 NC–1.
= 4.58 × 10–6 Jm –3.
33. Amplitude of oscillating magnetic field
1
29. The energy density, U av = 0 E 20 E 480
2 B0 = 0 =
c 3 108
1 = 1.6 × 10–6 Wbm –2.
= 8.85 10 12 C 2 /Nm 2 × (50 N/C)2
2
= 1.1 × 10–8 J/m 3 c 3 108
34. As, = = = 36.6 m.
The volume of the cylinder 8.2 10 6
V = 10 × 50 = 500 cm 3 35. The electric and magnetic field vectors are in the
= 5 × 10–4m 3 same phase in EM wave, but their orientation is
The energy contained in volume, perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular
to the direction of propagation of EM wave.
U = 1.1 × 10–8 × 5 × 10–4 = 5.5 × 10–12 J.
80
CHAPTER
6
OPTICS
N
INTRODUCTION
A B
Optics is the branch of Physics that studies the behaviour In y
cid ra
and properties of light, including its interactions with matter en
e d
and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. It
tr
ay i r ct
e fle
usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet and R
infrared light. O
Ray optics were based on the concept that light consists (b) The angle of incidence (i) is equal to the angle of
of rays. A ray of light is the straight line path followed by reflection (r) i.e., i = r.
light in going from one point to another.
Reflection at a Plane Surface: The image formed by
Wave optics is the branch of optics that studies interference,
a plane mirror is always virtual in nature, inverted, erect of
diffraction, polarization and other phenomena for which
the same size and same distance from the object.
the ray approximation of geomateric optics is not valid.
(a) The size of the image is equal to the size of the
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT object.
AT PLANE AND SPHERICAL SURFACES (b) The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect
and laterally inverted.
Reflection of Light at Plane Surface: When a ray of light,
(c) If the mirror is turned through an angle , the
after being incident on a surface, returns in the same medium
reflected ray turn through 2.
along a single well-defined direction, the phenomenon is
called reflection. (d) The deviation of a ray produced by a plane mirror
is – 2i, where i is the angle of incidence.
M (e) When two plane mirrors are held at an angle with
O
their reflecting surfaces facing each other and an
object is placed between them, images formed by
successive reflections. The number of images n is
Normal i
A
given by
r
360
n= 1 .
M Reflection at Spherical Surfaces
Spherical mirrors are two types: Concave and convex
(i) Laws of Reflection
mirrors. In concave mirror, reflection of light takes place in
(a) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the bent in concave surface. In convex mirror, reflection of
the surface all lie in the same plane. light takes place at bulging out convex surface.
80
81
1. Radius of curvature: The radius of curvature (R) of Refraction occurs because the speed of light is
a spherical surface is the radius of that sphere, of different in different media.
which it is a part. It is maximum in vacuum and has smaller values in
2. The parallel rays after reflecting from the concave other media.
surface meet at a point called focus. If the rays start It can be shown that
from this point, then after reflection, the rays becomes
parallel. c1
1 2
c2
3. The distance between the pole of the spherical
surface to the focus is called the focal length, which c1 and c2 are the speeds of light in media 1 and 2.
is half the radius of curvature i.e., (ii) Absolute refractive index of a medium can be defined
R as
f=
2 c
4. Parallel rays in the concave mirror converse at the cm
focus and produce real image Fig. (i), whereas in c = speed of light in vacuum
convex mirror, they appear to diverge and produce cm = speed of light in the medium
virtual image Fig. (ii)
(iii) Medium with larger value of µ is said to be optically
denser than another medium with smaller value of µ
which is optically rarer.
P c c
C P F C 1 and 2
c1 c2
2
1c1 2 c2 and 1 2
Fig. (i) Fig. (ii) 1
Refraction of Light at Plane Surface 1 sin i 2 sin r
Laws of Refraction (iv) Since frequency remains the same as light goes from
one medium to another it is obvious that the
(a) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal all
wavelength must change
lie in the same plane.
c2 2
(b) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
c1 1
sine of the angle of refraction is constant for any two
given media. This is called Snell’s law.
, 1 2 1
The constant is called the refractive index of m 2
medium 2 with respect to medium 1. 1 1 2 2
sin i (v) Reversibility of Rays
1 2
sin r
sin r 1
N 2 1
Incident sin i 1 2
Ray
Medium 2 1 1 2 1
1
(vi) Apparent Depth
Refracted
Real Depth (t )
Medium
Ray Apparent Depth
2
N t
Apparent Depth =
When a ray of light enters a denser medium it is
refracted towards the normal in such a manner than the
t 1
ratio of sine angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of Apparent shift = t t 1
refraction is constant, is called refractive index ().
2731 (Physics)—11
82
(ii) The Brillance of Diamonds: The refractive index of
MIRROR FORMULA
diamond is 2.47 and the critical angle for diamond
The relation between focal length of the mirror and air interfere is 24°. Due to low value of critical
distances of the object and image from the mirror is called angle, a diamond can be cut so as to have a large
mirror formula. number of faces. A ray of light entering the diamond
Mirror Formula for Concave Mirror: The image from the face undergoes a series of total internal
formed by concave mirror are: reflection from the other faces, where i > i c .
Hence, it shines very brilliantly.
1 1 1
(i) For real image:
v u f DEVIATION AND DISPERSION
1 1 1 OF LIGHT OF A PRISM
(ii) For virtual image are:
v u f
Deviation of Light by a Prism
Mirror Formula for Convex Mirror: The image When a ray of light travels through a prism, it bends
formed by a convex mirror is always virtual and erect, towards the thicker part of the prism. The deviation produced
1 1 1 by the prism is measured by the angle between the incident
whatever be the position of the object. i.e., .
v u f and emergent rays. The angle, = i 1 + i 2 – A and
A = r1 + r2, where A is refracting angle of prism.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND A
ITS APPLICATIONS
Critical Angle: The angle of incidence (iC or C) for O
N M
which the angle of refraction is 90°, is called the critical Q R
angle for the pair of media under consideration i1 i2
r1 r2
2 sin C P N 1 M1 S
1 2 sin C.
1 sin 90
If the second medium is air, first medium has refractive Refractive index of the material of the prism is
index µ, then A m
sin
1 2
A
sin C sin
2
Total Internal Reflection: If the angle of incidence is = angle of deviation,
more than the critical angle, no refraction takes place and A = refracting angle of prism,
ray is reflected completely into first medium. This and m = angle of minimum deviation.
phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
Dispersion of Light: The splitting up of white light
Rarer medium into seven colours on passing through a transparent medium
B1 B2
like a glass prism is called dispersion of light.
A C µ1
Totally A
ic µ2 reflected
ray
m of
A b e a lig h t R R
w h it e O
Y
O
Denser medium (µ 1 > µ2 ) G
Y
G
B B
I I
V V
Applications of Total Internal Reflection B C
(i) Mirage: It is an optical illusion observed due to VIBGYOR
total internal reflection in deserts and metalled roads Dispersion of composite light takes place because the
on a hot day when the air near the ground is hotter refractive index of a medium depends on the wavelength
and hence rarer than air above. of light.
2731 (Physics)—11-II
83
Lens Formula: The relation between focal length of
B C
Relation between the two is A a lens and distances of object and image from optical
2 4 centre of the lens.
A and B are called Cauchy’s constants. Smaller the Convex lens: The image formed may be real or virtual
value of , larger is the value of µ. It is maximum for violet (i) For real image, the required lens formula,
colour and minimum for red.
Deviation without Dispersion Achromatic Prism 1 1 1
Combination: To combine two prisms of different materials f v u
in a way that each cancels the dispersion due to the other. (ii) For virtual image, the required lens formula,
Net dispersion is zero but a net deviation is produced.
1 1 1
(µb – µr)A = ( b r)A f v u
b = blue, r = red, Concave Lens: In concave lens, the image formed is
µ = for crown, µ = for flint glass always virtual, the required lens formula,
1 1 1
f v u
= deviation for mean ray
= dispersive power MAGNIFICATION OF LENS
The ratio of the image formed by the lens to the size of
LENS FORMULA
image is called magnification produced by lens.
Lens: It is defined as the portion of a transparent medium
If u and v are the distances of object and image from
bounded by two curved surfaces or by one curved surface
the optical centre of the lens, and O and I are their sizes,
and the other plane surface.
the lateral magnification
Spherical Lenses can be
I v f v f
m= or m = or m =
O u f f u
h2
Linear magnification, m =
h1
h2 v
Convex lens Concave lens For real image of convex lens, m =
h1 u
h2 v
When image formed is virtual, m =
h1 u
In concave lens, image formed is always virtual,
h v
m= 2
h1 u
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
(a) Plano Convex; (b) Plano Concave; POWER OF A LENS
(c) Double Convex; (d) Double Concave; Power of lens is defined as the ability of the lens to converge
(e) Convexo Concave; (f) Concavo Convex 1
a beam of light falling on the lens, P = .
Lens Maker’s Formulae for Thin Lenses: The relation f
connecting the focal length of the lens with the radii of
If f is taken in m, then P is expressed in dioptre (D).
curvature of its two surfaces and the refractive index of the
lens is called lens maker’s formula. 1
P (dioptre) =
f (m)
1 1 1
( 1) ,
f R
1 R 2 COMBINATION OF THIN LENSES IN CONTACT
The focal length of convex lens is taken as positive, A single lens which forms the image of the given object at
while that of concave lens is taken as negative. the same point as it is formed by the combination of two
84
more lenses, is called an equivalent lens. Equivalent power, If final image is formed at the least distance of distinct
P = P1 + P2. vision
L1 L2 f0 fe
m 1
fe D
O
I I
C1 C2
WAVE OPTICS: WAVEFRONT
u v AND HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
v A surface drawn at any instant in the medium affected by
the waves originated from a source on which each particle
MICROSCOPE AND vibrates in the same phase is called wavefront.
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE A
P
Simple Microscope: A convex lens of small focal length
is called a simple microscope or a magnifying glass.
S Q Rays
D
Magnifying power of microscope, M = 1
f
R
D B
If image formed at infinity m
f Spherical Wavefront: A spherical wavefront is
= angle subtended by final image (as seen through produced by a point source of light. It is because, the laws
microscope). of all such points, which are equidistant from the point
= angle subtended by the object, when both are at source, is a sphere.
least distance of distinct vision. Cylindrical Wavefront: When the source of light is
linear in shape a cylindrical wavefront is produced. It is
D = least distance of distinct vision.
because all the points, which are equidistant from the linear
Compound Microscope: A compound microscope is a source, lie on the surface of a cylinder.
two lenses system f0 (object) and fe (eye piece) of focal
Plane Wavefront: A small part of a spherical or
lengths. Its magnifying power is very large as compared to
cylindrical wavefront originating from a distant source will
the simple microscope,
appear plane and hence it is called a plane wavefront.
Magnifying power = M = m0 me Huygen’s Principle
It states that
v D
0 1 (a) Each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh source of
u0 fe
secondary wavelets, which spread out with the speed
D ve v0 of light in that medium.
where 1 f = v and u = m0 (b) The new wavefront at any later time is given by the
e e 0
forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at that
If the final image is formed at infinity, time.
v0 D
then m LAWS OF REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
u0 fe
USING HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
Astronomical Telescope: A telescope used to see Hugen’s proposed the wave theory of light. These secondary
heavenly bodies is called astronomical telescope. It wavelets transmits with the velocity of light in the same
produces a virtual and inverted image. As such bodies are medium. A wavefront is a real or imaginary surface where
round, the inverted image does not affect the observation. the phase of oscillation is the same. Huygen’s principle of
Magnifying Power is also called angular magnification. wave theory of light is used to prove the laws of reflection
It is defined as the ratio of the angle () subtended by the and laws of refraction.
final image at the eye to the angle () subtended by the
object at the eye. INTERFERENCE
f0 The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution of energy in
m the medium due to superposition of two light waves is
fe
called interference.
85
Interference in Thin Films: For films to appear bright Displacement of Fringe: If a thin transparent plate of
2n 1 refractive index µ and thickness t is introduced in front of
2µt cos r = , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... one of the two slits, then fringe width remains same, but the
2
For films to appear dark D
whole fringe pattern shifts by a distance = ( 1)t .
2µt cos r = n, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ... d
In case the film is of negligible thickness, i.e., t << ,
COHERENT SOURCES ON SUSTAINED
then the net path = , hence the film will appear dark. INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
2
t = thin film thickness; µ = refractive index Coherent Sources: Two sources which emit light with
r = angle of reflection respect to space and time with zero or a constant phase
difference are called coherent sources.
Superposition of Waves: If two waves of the same
frequency having intensities I1 and I2 arrive at a point Sustained Interference of Light: Interference pattern
with phase difference , then the resultant intensity at that in which the positions of maxima and minima remain fixed
is called a sustained interference.
point is
The fundam ental condition for the sustained
IR = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos
interference is that the two sources should be coherent.
Since two independent sources cannot be coherent, a
If I1 = I2, then I R 4I cos2 ( / 2)
sustained interference pattern can be obtained only if two
Imax = 4IImin = 0 sources are obtained from a single parent source.
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT DIFFRACTION DUE TO A SINGLE SLIT
AND EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH The phenomenon of bending of light around corners, or
Alternate dark and bright bands are obtained on a screen spreading of light into the geometrical shadow of an
placed in front of the slits. These are called interference obstacle is called diffraction.
fringes. A narrow slit of width a is placed at a distance D from
the screen. When the slit is illuminated with monochromatic
2 light of wavelength , then alternate bright and dark bands
Phase difference = times path difference
of light are formed on both sides of the central maximum.
Let ‘d’ be the distance between two slits and ‘D’ the Condition for dark fringe
distance of the screen from the two slits. ‘x’ be the distance a sin m, m 1, 2, 3, ...
of a point P on the screen from the centre O.
m
For Maxima sin
a
xd Condition for bright fringe
= m, m = 0, 1, 2, ...
D 1
Further a sin m , m 1, 2, 3, ...
m D 2
x
d 1
For Minima sin m
2 a
xd 1 2
= m , m = 0, 1, 2, ... Angular width of central maximum =
D 2 a
2 D
1 D Width of central maximum =
x m a
2 d D = Distance of the screen from the slit.
a = Width of the slit
Fringe Width (): Distance between two successive
bright (or dark) fringes
WIDTH OF CENTRAL MAXIMUM
D
The central maximum extends upto distance y1 (the distance
d
of first secondary minimum) on both sides of the centre of
Position of the nth bright fringes the screen.
yn n Thus, width of the central maximum
n =
D d 0 = 2y 1
86
D limited to just one direction in a plane perpendicular to the
y1 = direction of propagation, the wave is said to be polarised
a
or plane polarised. The phenomenon of the restriction of
2D the vibrations to a particular direction is called polarisation.
0 =
a
Since 0 = 2 PLANE OF POLARISED LIGHT
Hence, the central maximum is twice as wide as any It is the light in which the vibration of the light (vibrations
other secondary maximum or minimum. of the electric vector) are restricted in a particular plane.
Plane of Polarisation: The plane perpendicular to the
Fresnel’s Distance (D F): It is the distance of the screen
plane containing the vibrations of plane polarised light is
from the slit at which the spreading of light due to
called plane of polarisation.
diffraction becomes equal to the size of the slit.
DF a2 BREWSTER’S LAW
=a or D F
a According to this law, when unpolarized light is incident
at an angle called polarising angle, ip on an interface
RESOLVING POWER OF A MICROSCOPE separating air from a medium of refractive index µ, then the
AND ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPES reflected light is fully polarized, provided
Resolving Power of a Microscope: It is defined as the µ = tan ip
reciprocal of the least separation between two close objects, Malus Law: It states that when a completely plane
so that they appear just separated, when seen through polarised light beam is incident on an analyser, the intensity
microscope. of the emergent light veries as the square of the cosine of
The least separation between two objects, the angle between the planes of transmission of analyser
and polariser. When plane polarised light passes through a
polariser, then
d= where, µ refractive index
2 sin I = I0 cos2
1 2 sin I0 = maximum intensity of the plane polarised light
Resolving power of a microscope = I = intensity when the angle between the axes of the
d
two crystals is , after it comes out of the second polariser.
where, half angle and µ sin numerical aperture.
USES OF PLANE POLARISED
AND POLAROIDS
O
1. Polaroids are used in sunglasses, they protect the
eyes from glare.
2. The polaroids are used in window panes of train and
Resolving Power of Astronomical Telescope: It is
an aeroplane.
defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angular separation
between two distinct objects, so that they appear just 3. These are used as filters in photography to produce
separated, when seen through the telescope. and detect the plane polarised light in the laboratory.
The smallest angular separation between two objects, Polaroids: Polaroids are thin and large sheets of
so that they appear just separated is found to be crystalline polarising material capable of producing plane
polarised beams of light.
1.22
d = A polaroid has a charactertistic plane called
D
where D diameter of objective transmission plane. When unpolarised light falls on a
D polaroid, only the vibrations parallel to the transmission
Resolving of an astronomical telescope = . plane get transmitted.
1.22
POLARISATION
If the vibrations take place equally in all directions in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation the Un-polarised Plane polarised
wave is called an unpolarized wave. If the vibrations are light light
87
EXERCISE
1. A fish looking up through the water sees the outside 90 120
world contained in a circular horizon. If the refractive A. cm B. cm
11 11
4
index of water is and the fish is 12 cm below the 150 180
3 C. cm D. cm
surface of water, the radius of the circle in cm is 11 11
A. 12 3 5 B. 12 3 7 8. Two mirrors at an angle produce, 5 images of a
12 3 point. The number of images produced, when is
C. D. 4 5 decreased to 30° is
7
A. 8 B. 11
2. A ray of light passes from vacuum into a medium of C. 15 D. 20
refractive index n. If the angle of incidence is twice
the angle of refraction then the angle of incidence is 9. The image formed by a convex mirror of focal length
20 cm is half the size of the object. The distance of
1 n 1 n the object from the mirror is
A. cos B. sin
2 2 A. 10 cm B. 20 cm
1 n 1 n C. 30 cm D. 40 cm
C. 2 cos D. 2 sin
2 2 10. An object is placed at 20 cm from a convex mirror of
3. A ray of light entering from air to glass (refractive focal length 20 cm. The distance of the image from
index 1.5) is partly reflected and partly refracted. If the pole of the mirror is
the incident and the reflected rays are at right angles A. infinity B. 10 cm
to each other, the angle of refraction is C. 15 cm D. 40 cm
1
2 1
2 11. The refractive index of water for a light going from
A. sin B. sin
3 3 air to water be 1.33, what will be the refractive index
of light going from water to air?
1 2 1 1
C. sin D. sin A. 0.25 B. 0.75
3 3
C. 0.55 D. 0.95
4. An air bubble inside a glass slab appears to be 6 cm 12. For a concave mirror the magnification of a real image
deep when viewed from one side & 4 cm deep when
was found to be twice as great when the object was
viewed from the opposite side. The thickness of the
15 cm from the mirror as it was 15 cm from the mirror
slab is
as it was when the object was 20 cm from the mirror.
A. 10 cm B. 6.67 cm
C. 15 cm D. 2.35 cm The focal length of the mirror is
A. 5.0 cm B. 7.5 cm
5. A thin prism P1 with angle 4° and made from glass of C. 10 cm D. 12.5 cm
refractive index 1.54 is combined with another thin
prism P2 made from glass of refractive index 1.72 to 13. The focal length of a glass lens in air is 10 cm. Its
produce disperssion without deviation. The angle of focal length in water will be (refractive of glass = 1.5
the prism P2 is refractive index of water = 4/3)
A. 5.33° B. 4° A. 2.5 cm
C. 3° D. 2.6° B. 5 cm
6. How much water should be filled in a container, 21 cm C. 20 cm
in height, so that it appears half filled when viewed D. 40 cm
from the top of the container. Given refractive index 14. A thin coverging lens of refractive index 1.5 has a
4 power of +0.5 D. When this lens is immersed in a
of water = liquid, it acts as diverging lens of focal length
3
A. 8.0 cm B. 10.5 cm 100 cm. The refractive index of the liquid is
C. 12.0 cm D. 14.0 cm 4 3
A. B.
7. A real image formed by a convace mirror is 4.5 times 3 2
the size of the object. If the mirror is 20 cm from the 5
object, its focal length is C. D. 2
3
88
15. The distance between an object and its real image 22. An object is placed first at infinity and then at 20 cm
formed by a lens is D. If the magnification is m, the from the object side focal plane of a convex lens. The
focal length of the lens is two images thus formed are 5 cm apart. The focal
(m 1)D mD length of the lens is
A. B. A. 5 cm B. 10 cm
m m 1
C. 15 cm D. 20 cm
(m 1)D mD
C. D. 23. A ray of light suffers minimum deviation, when
m2 (m 1)2
incident on a 60° prism of refractive index 2. The
16. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm is in contact angle of incidence is:
with a concave lens of focal length 25 cm. The power
A. 15° B. 30°
of the combination is dioptres is
C. 60° D. 45°
A. –1.5 B. –6.5
C. +6.5 D. +6.67 24. A beaker is filled with water to a height of 10.0 cm.
A microscope is focussed on a mark at the bottom of
17. Two lenses of power + 12 D and –2D are in contact. the beaker. Water is now replaced by a liquid of
The focal length of the combination is refractive index of 1.60 upto the same height. By
A. 10 cm B. 12.5 cm what distance would the microscope have to be moved
C. 16.6 cm D. 8.33 cm to focus on the mark again. Refractive index of water
18. The figure shows an equiconvex lens of focal length is 1.33
f. If the lens is cut along PQ, the focal length of each A. 1.25 cm upwards B. 1.25 cm downwards
half will be C. 1.27 cm upwards D. 1.27 cm downwards
P 25. A ray of light is incident at angle i on one surface of
a prism of small angle A and emerges normally from
R S
the opposite surface. If the refractive index of the
material of the prism is µ, the angle of incidence i is
Q nearly equal to
f A A
A. B. f A. B.
2 2
C. 2f D. 4f A
C. µA D.
19. A short linear object of length b lies along the axis 2
of a concave mirror of focal length f at a distance µ 26. A needle of length 5 cm, placed 45 cm from a lens,
from pole of the mirror. The size of the image is forms an image on a screen placed 90 cm on the other
approximately equal to side of the lens. Identify the type of lens and find its
1/ 2 focal length what is the size of the image?
u f u f
A. b B. b A. 30 cm, 20 cm B. 40 cm, 20 cm
f f
C. 20 cm, 10 cm D. 30 cm, 10 cm
1/ 2 2
f f 27. A concave mirror of focal length f in air is placed in
C. b D. b
u f u f a medium of refractive index 2. Its focal length of
20. The image of an object placed in front of a concave mirror in the medium is
mirror of focal length 12 cm is formed at a point f
which is 10 cm more distant from the mirror than the A. B. f
2
object. The magnification of the image is
C. 2f D. 4f
A. 1.5 B. 2
C. 2.5 D. 3 28. For a prism the refractive index (µ) is related to
wavelength () as µ = A + B/2. The dispersive power
21. An object is moving towards a concave mirror of
is large if
focal length 24 cm. When it is at a distance of 60 cm
A. A is large B. B is large
from the mirror its speed is 9 cm/s. The speed of its
C. µ is large D. A and µ are large
image at the instant is
A. 4 cm/s towards the mirror 29. A dentist has a small mirror of focal length 16 mm.
B. 9 cm/s towards the mirror He views the cavity in the tooth of a patient by
C. 4 cm/s away from the mirror holding the mirror at a distance of 8 mm from the
D. 9 cm/s away from the mirror cavity. The magnification is
89
A. 2 B. 3.2 A. 2 m B. 4 m
C. 1.5 D. 1.8 C. 3 m D. 6 m
30. An object is placed asymmetrically between two plane 39. A point source of light moves in a straight line parallel
mirrors inclined at an angle of 72°. The number of to a plane table. Consider a small portion of table
images formed is directly below the line of movement of the source.
A. 2 B. 0 The illuminace at this portion varies with this distance
C. 4 D. 5 r from the source as
31. A car is fitted with a convex mirror of focal length 1 1
20 cm. A second car 2 m broad and 1.6 m height is A. E 3 B. E 4
r r
6 cm away from the first car. The position of the 1 1
second car as seen in the mirror of the first car is C. E 2 D. E
r r
A. 20.48 cm B. 18.49 cm
C. 17.45 cm D. 19.35 cm 40. A man has a concave shaving mirror of focal length
0.2 m. How for should the mirror be held from his
32. A point object is placed at a distance of 30 cm from
face in order to give an image of two magnification?
a convex mirror of a focal length 30 cm. The image
A. 0.3 m B. 0.4 m
will format
C. 0.2 m D. 0.1 m
A. pole B. 15 cm behind the mirror
C. infinity D. no image will be found 41. A beam of light is incident at 60° to a plane surface.
The reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to
33. A convex mirror forms an image one-fourth the size
each other, then refractive index of the surface is
of the object. If object is at a distance of 0.5 m from
the mirror, the focal length of mirror is: 1
A. 3 B.
A. 0.14 m B. –2.4 m 3
C. –1.5 m D. 0.17 m 1
C. 2 3 D.
34. An object is placed a distance of 10 cm from a concave 2 3
mirror of radius of curvature 0.6 m. Which of the 42. The focal length of a concave mirror is 20 cm. Where
following statements is in correct? an object must be placed to form an image magnified
A. The image formed is real two times, when the image is real?
B. The image is 0.5 times the size of the object A. 10 cm from the mirror
C. The image is 1.5 times the size of the object B. 20 cm from the mirror
D. The image is formed at a distance for 15 cm from C. 30 cm from the mirror
the mirror D. 15 cm from the mirror
35. An astronomical telescope of ten fold angular magni- 43. A double convex lens of focal length 20 cm is made
fication has a length of 44 cm. The focal length of the 3
objective is: of glass of refractive index . When placed
A. 20 cm B. 10 cm 2
4
C. 30 cm D. 40 cm completely in water (aµw) = , its focal length will
3
36. A lamp is hanging at 40 cm from the centre of table. be:
If its height is increase by 10 cm, the illuminance of A. 17.7 cm B. 22.5 cm
the lamp will decreases by C. 80 cm D. 15 cm
A. 27% B. 36%
44. A ray of light passes through four transparent media
C. 20% D. 10%
with refractive indices µ1, µ2, µ3 and µ4 as shown in
37. In a photometer, two sources of light when placed at fig. The surfaces of all media are parallel. If the
30 cm and 50 cm respectively produce shadows of emergent ray CD is parallel to the incident ray AB,
equal intensities. Their candle powers are in the ratio we must have:
of
µ1 µ2 µ3 µ4
13 15
A. B. D
15 13
16 9 C
C. D. B
25 25 A
38. A book can be read, if it is placed at a distance of
50 cm from a source of 1 Cd. At what distance should A. µ3 = µ4 B. µ4 = µ1
the book be placed, if the source is of 16 Cd? C. µ1 = µ2 D. µ2 = µ3
2731 (Physics)—12
90
45. A short object of length L is placed along the principal 52. The near point of a short-sighted person is 10 cm and
axis of concave mirror away from focus. The object he desires to read a book 30 cm away from him. The
distance is u. If the mirror has focal length f, what will person of the lens to be used by him is
be the length of the image (Take L << |u – f |) A. –6.66 D B. –7.33 D
C. –5.33 D D. –10.2 D
f 2f L
A. L B.
u f (u f ) 2 53. Aperture of the human eye is 2 mm. Assuming the
mean wavelength of light to be 5000 Å, the angular
f2 2 f 2L resolution limit of the eye is
C. L D.
(u f ) 2
(u f ) A. 2 min B. 1 min
C. 0.5 min D. 1.5 min
46. Critical angle is 30° when light travels from a denser
medium to rarer medium. Then, the velocity of light 54. In Young’s double slit experiment the intensity of
in the medium will be light at a point on the screen where the path difference
c c is is I, being the wavelength of light used. The
A. B.
2 3 intensity at a point where the point difference is
C. c D. 2c 4
will be
47. In a two slit experiment with monochromatic light, I I
fringes are obtained on a screen placed at some A. B.
4 2
distance from the slits. If the screen is moved by C. I D. zero
5 × 10–2 m towards the slits the change in fringe
width is 3 × 10–5 m. If the distance between the slits 55. In the double-slit experiment, the distance of the
is 10–3 m. Calculate wavelength of light used second dark fringe from the central line is 3 mm. The
distance of the fourth bright fringe from the central
A. 4000 Å B. 6000 Å
line is
C. 8000 Å D. 2000 Å
A. 6 mm B. 8 mm
48. In a Young’s double slit experiment, the distance C. 12 mm D. 16 mm
between the slits is 1 mm and the distance of the 56. Air has refractive index 1.003. The thickness of an air
screen from the slits is 1 m. If light of wavelength column, which will have one more wavelength of
6000 Å is used then find the distance between the Yellow light (6000 Å) than in the same thickness of
second dark fringe and fourth bright fringe. vacuum is
A. 1.4 mm B. 1.5 mm A. 2 mm B. 2 cm
C. 1.3 mm D. 5.1 mm C. 2 m D. 2 km
49. For light of wavelength 6 × 10–7 m, it is found that 57. A person sets up Young’s experiment using a sodium
for near normal incidence in a thin film of air, lamp and placing two slits 1 metre from a screen. The
9 fringes are observed between two points. Calculate person is not sure of slit separation and he varies the
the difference of film thickness between these points: separation and finds that the interference fringes
A. 27 × 10–8 m B. 27 × 10–4 m disappear if the slits are too far apart. The angular
C. 27 × 10 m–7 D. 27 × 10–10 m 1
resolution of his eye is . How far apart are the slits
50. A 25 Cd lamp and A 100 Cd lamp are placed at the 60
ends of a photometer bench 200 m long. At what when he just cannot see the interference pattern
point on the bench will the screen of the photometer [ = 5890 Å]?
be equally illuminated by both lamps. A. 5 mm B. 4.01 mm
C. 2.025 mm D. 3.025 mm
3 1
A. m B. m 58. In Young’s double slit experiment we get 60 fringes
2 2 in the field of view if we use light of wavelength
7 2 4000 Å. The number of fringes we will get in the
C. m D. m same field of view if we use light of wavelength
2 3
6000 Å is
51. An equilateral prism is placed on the prism table of A. 40 B. 90
a spectrometer in the position of minimum deviation. C. 60 D. 50
If the angle of incidence is 60°, the angle of deviation 59. With a monochromatic light, the fringe width obtained
of the rays is is a double slit experiment is 1.33 mm. If the whole
A. 60° B. 45° set up is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33,
C. 90° D. 30° the new fringe with will be
91
A. 1.33 mm B. 1 mm 68. Light wave from two coherent sources of intensity
1.33 ratio 81 : 1 produces interference. The ratio of the
C. 1.33 × 1.33 mm D. mm maxima and minima is the interference pattern will be
2
A. 25 : 16 B. 20 : 18
60. Light of wavelength 6328 Å is incident normally on C. 16 : 25 D. 36 : 25
a slit having a width of 0.2 mm. The distance of the
69. A Galileo telescope has on objective of focal length
screen from the slit is 0.9 m. The angular width of the
100 cm and magnifying power 50. The distance
central maximum is
between the two lenges in normal adjustment is
A. 0.09 degrees B. 0.72 degrees A. 42 cm B. 98 cm
C. 0.18 degrees D. 0.36 degrees C. 102 cm D. 36 cm
61. In an experiment = 480 nm, distance between two 70. A ray of light is incident on the surface of a glass
coherent source is 0.4 mm, distance between the plate of refractive index 1.536 at the polarizing angle.
sources and the screen is 100 cm. Distance between The angle of refraction is
3rd and 7th bright bands on same side of central A. 33°4 B. 31°5
bright band is: C. 29°2 D. 21°1
A. 4.8 mm B. 5.2 mm 71. Width of two slits in Young’s experiment are in the
C. 6.8 mm D. 9.4 mm ratio 4 : 1. What is the ratio of amplitudes of light
62. A slit is illuminated by red light of wavelength waves from them?
6500 Å. The first minimum is obtained at = 30°. A. 2 : 1 B. 3 : 1
The width of the slit is C. 1 : 2 D. 2 : 3
A. 3200 Å B. 1.24 micron 72. Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident on the
–4
C. 6.5 × 10 mm D. 2.6 × 10–4 cm aperture of size 2 mm. Calculate the distance up to
63. Light of wavelength 540 mm is falling on a wedge of which the ray of light can travel, such that its spread
is less than the size of the aperture.
glass (refractive index 1.5) Interference takes place
A. 6.67 cm B. 6.67 m
between the rays reflected from top and bottom faces
C. 8.87 m D. 2.35 cm
of the wedge. The wedge increases in thickness from
one dark fringe to the next by 73. In a medium, polarising angle is 60°. The critical
angle for this medium will be
A. 90 nm B. 180 nm
A. 35°16 B. 36°15
C. 280 nm D. 360 nm
C. 29°18 D. 31°15
64. The luminous efficiency of a lamp is 5 lm/ and its 74. Two slits are 1 mm apart and same slits are 1 m apart
luminous intensity is 35 cd. The power of the lamp on a screen. Find out fringe separation, when light of
is wavelength 500 nm is used.
A. 80 W B. 176 W A. 0.5 mm B. 0.7 mm
C. 88 W D. 36 W C. 0.1 mm D. 0.2 mm
65. If a lamp hanging 2 m directly above a table is 75. Two slits in Young’s experiment are 0.02 cm apart.
lowered by 0.5 m, the intensity of illumination on the The interference fringes for light a wavelength 6000
table increases by about × 10–8 cm are formed on a screen 80 cm away. The
A. 22% B. 78% distance of the fifth bright fringe is
C. 44% D. 56% A. 2.5 cm B. 1.2 cm
C. 2.4 cm D. 3.1 cm
66. Light of wavelength 5000 Å is made to pass through
76. In a certain region A to B in a thin film. How we get
a slit of width 2 mm. Up to what distance is ray optics
10 fringes with light of wavelength 4125 Å. How
a good approximation?
many fringes will be observed in the same region
A. 5 m B. 7 m
with wavelength 5893 Å?
C. 8 m D. 4 m A. 4 B. 5
67. The focal length of the objective lens of a telescope C. 6 D. 7
is 30 cm and that of its eye lens is 3 cm. It is focussed 77. A star is moving towards the earth with a speed of
on a scale 2 m distant from it. The distance of the 9.0 × 106 m/sec. If the wavelength of a particular
objective lens from the eye lens to see with relaxed spectral line emitted by it is 6000 Å, then the value
eye is of apparent wavelength is
A. 38.3 cm B. 42.7 cm A. 5000 Å B. 3250 Å
C. 63.5 cm D. 72.3 cm C. 5820 Å D. 4315 Å
92
78. The velocity of moving galaxy is 300 kms–1 and A. 0.06 cm B. 0.09 cm
apparent change in wavelength of spectral line emitted C. 0.13 cm D. 0.18 cm
from the galaxy is observed as 0.5 nm. Then, the
83. Two coherent point P
actual wavelength of the spectral line is
sources S 1 and S 2
A. 6000 Å B. 4500 Å x
vibrating in phase
C. 5000 Å D. 3000 Å S 1 S 2
emit light of
79. How fast a person should drive his car so that the red wavelength . The
signal of light appears green? (wavelength for red 2
separation between E
colour = 6200 Å and wavelength of green colour D
them is 2. The light
= 5400 Å)
is well collected on a screen placed at a distance
A. 3.9 × 107 m/sec B. 2 × 108 m/sec
7 D >> from the slit S1. The minimum distance so that
C. 7 × 10 m/sec D. 1.5 × 108 m/sec
intensity at P is equal to intensity at O is
80. A plane wavefront ( = 6 × 10–7 m) falls on a slit
0.4 mm wide. A convex lens of focal length 0.8 m A. 2D B. 3D
placed behind the slit focusses the light on a screen.
C. 5D D. D
What is the linear diameter of secondary maxima?
A. 3 mm B. 9 mm 84. In Young’s double slit experiment interference fringes
C. 12 mm D. 6 mm 1° part are produced on the screen the slit separation is
A. 0.546 mm
81. A zone plate of focal length 60 cm behaves as a
convex lens. If wavelength of incident light is 6000 Å, B. 0.0337 mm
then radius of first half period zone plate will be C. 0.246 mm
D. 0.0927 mm
A. 6 10 8 m B. 6 × 10–8 m
85. The diameter of the lens of a telescope is 0.61 m.
C. 6 × 10–4 m D. 36 × 10–8 m
Wavelength of light is 5000Å. The resolution power
82. Light of wavelength 6 × 10–5 cm falls on a screen at of telescope is
a distance of 100 cm from a narrow slit. The width of
A. 2 × 103 B. 2 × 104
the slit, if the first minima lies 1 mm on either side
of the central maxima is C. 1 × 106 D. 2 × 105
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C B C C C D B B B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C D C D A A C D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C B D C C D B B A D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D B D C B B D A C D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A C C B C A B B C D
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
A A B B B A C A B D
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
A B B C B C A A B A
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
A A A A B D C C A D
81 82 83 84 85
C A B B C
93
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
3 I v 1 v u
1. Since is the crticial angle, we have sin = 9. ; ; v
4 O u 2 u 2
r u
or v= ( u is negative)
2
1 1 1
=
12 cm u v f
1 2 1
= u = 20 cm.
u u 20
Fish 1 1 1
10. =
9 7 u v f
cos = 1
16 4 1 1 1
3 =
tan = v f u
7 1 1 1
r r 3 12 3 =
But tan = r . 20 20 10
12 12 7 7 v = –10 cm
sin i 2 sin(i/2) cos(i/2) = 10 cm
2. n=
sin(i/2) sin(i/2) 11. Here, a = 1.33
w
= 2 cos(i/2) or i = 2 cos–1 (n/2). 1 1
Now, w = 0.75
3. Clearly i = 45° a a w 1.33
sin 45 3 2 f f
= r = sin–1 . , m
sin r 2 3 12. 2m=
15 f 20 f
4. Let the thickness of the slab be t and the real depth 20 f
2= f = 10 cm.
of the bubble from the first side be x 15 f
x tx
Then, = 1.5 x = 9 cm 1 n2 1 1
6 4 13. P= 1
t – x = 6 cm
f n1 R1 R 2
t = 15 cm. 1 1 1
In air Pair = (1.5 1)
0.54 f air R1 R 2
n 1
5. A = A = 4 3 .
n 1 0.72 1 1.5 1 1
In water, Pwater = 1
x 4 fwater 4 / 3 R1 R 2
6. x = 12 cm.
21 x 3 Pwater fair 1
=
uv (20)(20 4.5) 180 Pair fwater 4
7. f = cm.
u v 20 (20 4.5) 11 fwater = 4fair = 40 cm
Thus, Pwater < Pair.
360
8. Number of images = 1
1 n2 1 1
14. P= 1
360 f n1 R1 R 2
5= 1
1 1
5 = 0.5 and
360 R1 R 2
= 60
6 1.5 1 1
–1 = 1
New angle, = – 30° = 60° – 30° = 30° n1 R1 R 2
360 5
Number of images = 1 11. n1 = .
30 3
94
v uv ( f 20)( f 5)
15. m= , v+u=D
u 22. As, f=
uv f 20 f 5
D mD
u= , v or 2f 2 + 25f = f 2 + 25f + 100
m 1 m 1
f = 10 cm.
uv mD
f= f = .
uv (m 1)2
sin A m
2
1 1 1 1 23. We have, =
16. P = = –1.5 dioptre. A
f1 f2 0.4 0.25 sin
2
17. P = P1 + P2 = 12 – 2 = 10 D A m
sin
1 2
f= = 0.1 m = 10 cm. 2 =
10 60
sin
18. Let the focal length of each half be f on combining 2
the two halves, we get back the original lens A m 1 1
1 1 1 2 sin = 2
= f = 2f 2 2 2
f f f f
A m
1 1 1 = 45°
19. We have, 2
f u v
2i
du dv = 45°
Differenting: 0= 2
u2 v i = 45°
2
v 10.0
or dv = du 24. Apparent depth in water = = 7.52 cm
u2 1.33
v f 10.0
But = and du = b Apparent depth in liquid = = 6.25 cm
u u f 1.60
2 Distance through which the microscope would have
f
dv = b . to be shifted.
u f
= 7.52 – 6.25 = 1.27 cm upwards.
2
f 25. Here the angle of emergency i = 0
Hence, |dv| = b .
u f A + = i, Also = (µ – 1)A
1 1 1 i – A = (µ – 1)A or i = µA.
20. = u = 20 cm
u u 10 12 1 1 1
26. =
v = 30 cm f u v
v 30 1 1 1
m= = 1.5. = or f = 30 cm
u 20 f 45 90
1 1 1 v 90
21. = magnification m = 2
u v f u 45
size of image = 2 × 5 = 10 cm.
uf 60 24
v= = 40 cm 27. Focal length of a mirror does not depend on the
u f 36
Further differentiation gives medium in which light is incident, the mirror is placed.
Hence, it remains equal to f.
1 du 1 dv dv v 2 du
2 = 0 2
u 2 dt
v dt dt u dt B
28. u= A+
2 2
40
= 9 = –4 cm/s du 2B
60
=
= 4 cm/s d 3
The speed of object is 4 cm/s away from the mirror. Dispersive power is large if B is large.
95
f 16 16 I 16 9
29. As, m= 2. I
= 1
f u 16 ( 8) 8 I 25 25
I 9
360 360 I × 100 = 100 = 36%.
30. We have, n= n = =5 I 25
72
360 37. If the screen is equally illuminated, i.e., E1 = E2
Here, is odd one object is line asymmetrically. 2
I1 I2 I1 r2 (30) 2 3 9
= = 12 = .
1 1 1 1 31 r12 r22 I2 r2 (50) 2 5 25
31. We have, = or
v 600 20 v 600
38. Given, I1 = 1 cd, I2 = 16 cd and r1 = 50 cm
600
v= cm = 19.35 cm. 1 16
31 We have, =
(50)2 d2
1 1 1 1 2 1
32. We = or d2 = (50)2 × 16
30 v 30 v 30 15
v = 15 cm d = 50 × 4 cm = 200 cm = 2 m.
Hence, image 15 cm behind the mirror. 39.
f 1 f r r
33. As, =
f 4 4 f (0.5)
4f = f + 0.5
We have, I cos
As, E=
0.5 r2
f= = 0.17 m.
3 Ih 1
E= or E
r 2 r2
0.6
34. We have, f= = 0.3 m = –30 cm f 0.2
2 40. As, m= 2=
f u 0.2 u
1 1 1 0.2
Now, = or 2= or 0.4 + 2u = 0.2
v 10 30 0.2 u
1 1 1 3 1 or 2u = 0.2 – 0.4 = –0.2
or = u = –0.1 m i.e., 0.1 m
v 10 30 30
30 41. From the Brewster’s law
or v= = 15 cm = tan ip = tan 60° =
2 3
v 15 f 20
As, m= = 1.5 42. As, m= –2 =
u 10 f u 20 u
Since the object lies between principal focus and
pole 20
–2 = 20 + u = –10
Hence, the image is 1.5 times the size of the object. 20 u
u = 30 cm.
35. We have, f0 + fe = 44 cm and fo/fe = 10
f0 f fw ( g 1)
fe = , f0 0 44 43. As, =
10 10 fa g
440 1
w
= 40 f0 f0 10
41 fw
f 0 = 10 cm =
fa
2
I r1 fw = 4 × fa
36. We have, =
I r2 4 × 20 = 80 cm.
I 40 40 16 44. From given fig. we see CD || AB.
=
I 50 50 25 Therefore, refractive indies µ 1 and µ2 are equal, µ4 = µ1
96
45. Let the two ends of the object be at distance u1 = 3 D 5 6 10 7 1
Distance = 4 m
L L 2 d 2 10 3
u and u2 = u respectivly. So that |u1 – u2|
2 2 = 1.5 mm.
= L. Let the image of the two ends to formed at u1 49. Let the thickness at the two points be t1 and t2
and u2. So that the image would be L = |u1 – u2|
1 1
1 1 1 2t1 = m1 and 2t2 = m2
Since, = 2 2
v u f
2(t2 – t1) = (m2 – m1)
fu
or, v= , The image of the two
u f or t2 – t1 = (m2 – m1)
2
L
f u
9 6 10 7
v1 = 2 = = 27 × 10–7 m.
L 2
(u f )
2 50. Let the screen be placed at a distance x from the
L 25 cd lamp. According to the principle of photometry
f u I1 I
2
and v2 = 2
= 22
L r1 r2
u f
2
25 100 2
= or x = m.
f 2L x 2
(2 x )2 3
L = |v1 – v2| =
L2 2
(u f ) 51. In the position, of minimum deviation
4
Since, the object is short and kept away from the i1 = i 2
focus But i1 = 60°, hence, i2 = 60°
L2 Now, A + m = i1 + i2 or 60° + m = 60° + 60°
We have, << (u – f)2
4 m = 60°
f2
Finally L = L. 52. Given, u = 30 cm, v = – 10 cm and f = ?
(u f )2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
46. As, µ= = = =2 As, or
sin c sin 30 12 v u f 10 30 f
c 3 108 c Solving, we get
µ= m/s = .
2 2 f = – 15 cm (concave lens)
D 100 100
47. Fringe width, = p= 6.66 D
d f 15
1.22
= D 53. Angular resolution limit of eye =
d a
d B 10 3 3 10 3 1.22 5 10 7
= = rad
D 5 10 2 2 10 3
= 6 × 10–7 = 6000 Å 1.22 5 10 7 180
= 3
60 minutes
48. Portion of 2nd dark fringe 2 10
1 minute.
1 D 3 D
x2(dark) = 1
2 d 2 d
54. Phase difference =
Position of fourth bright fringe 4 2
4 D I
x4 (bright) = IR = I2cos .
d 4 2
97
55. Distance of 2nd dark fringe
6500 10 10
62. We have, a= = 1.24 × 10–6 m
1 d ( 6)
= 1 = 3 mm = 2 mm
2 = 1.24 micron.
Distance of 4th bright fringe
= 4 = 8 mm.
63. 2nt = 1 t =
2n
56. Let the required thickness be t Å
540
t = = 180 nm.
Number of wavelengths in vacuum = 2 1.5
6000
4 35
1.0003 64. We have, = 5 P = 28 = 88 W.
Number of wavelengths in air = t P
6000
1.0003 t t 1 1
= 1 65. As, E1 = ; E2 =
6000 6000 r12 r22
6000 2 2
or 0.003 t = 6000 or t = Å E2 r 2 4
0.0003 = 1 =
E1 r 1.5 2.25
= 2 × 107 Å = 2 mm. 2
1 1 1 Percentage increase in intensity
57. As, = (rad) E 2 E1 E
60 60 180 = 100 2 1 100
D E1 E1
=
D d D d 1.75
= 100 = 77.8%.
1 5890 2.25
= 10 8
60 d d
a2 (2 10 3 )2
5890 10 8 60 180 66. As, DF =
d= cm 5 10 7
(D F = Fresnel Distance) = 8 m.
= 0.2025 cm = 2.025 mm.
67. Given, u0 = –200 cm, f = 30 cm
m1 1 D
58. As, x= 1 1 1
d =
v0 200 30
60 × 4000 = m2 × 6000 m2 = 40.
1 1 1
or =
59. Wavelength in water = v0 30 200
n
600
D v= 35.3
Now = 17
d L = v0 + fe = 35.3 + 3 = 38.3 cm
D
= I1 a2 81
d 68. As, = 2
1.33 I2 b 1
= = = 1 mm. a 9
n n 4/3 = a = 9b
b 1
60. Angular width In the interference pattern,
2 2 6328 10 10 180 I max (a b)2 (9b b)2
= = 0.36 degrees. =
a 2 10 4 I min (a b)2 (9b b)2
n D 100 b2 25
61. We have, xn = = 2
.
d 64b 16
7 D 3D 69. Given, f0 = 100 cm, m = 50
x7 = and x3
d d f0 100
fe = 2 cm
9 m 50
4D 4 480 10 m 1 m
x7 – x3 =
d 0.4 10 3 The distance between two lenges in normal
= 4.8 mm. adjustment = fo – fe = 100 – 2 = 98 cm.
2731 (Physics)—13
98
70. Given, µ = 1.536 2µt = n11 = n22
It P is the polarization angle, then n1 1
tan P = µ 1.536 or n2 =
2
or, P = 56°56
Given, n1 = 10, 1 = 4125 Å
If r is the angle of refraction, then
r = 90° – P 2 = 5893Å
= 90° – 56°56 = 33°4. 10 4125
n2 = = 7.
5893
1 4
71. Given, =
2 1
77. As, =
c
a12 1 4
Now, = =
a22 2 1 10 6 6000Å
= 6000Å
a1 2 3 10 8
= . = 180 Å
a2 1
Apparent wave length,
72. Given, d = 600 nm = 600 × 10–9m,
= – = 6000 – 180 = 5820 Å.
a = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m
78. Given, = 0.5 nm = 0.5 × 10–19m,
a2 (2 10 3 )2
Required distance Zf = v = 300 kms–1 = 300 × 103 ms–1
600 10 9
v c
Zf = 6.67 m. As, = =
c v
73. Given, P = 60°
(0.5 10 8 m)(3 108 ms1 )
As, µ = tan P = tan 60° = 3 =
300 10 3 ms 1
If C is the critical angle, then
= 5 × 10–7 m
1
µ= = 5000 × 10–10 m = 5000Å.
sin C
79. Doppler shift source moving towards the observer,
1 1
or sin C = = = 0.5774 v
2 = 1
c
C = 35°16.
74. Given, d = 1 mm = 10–3 m, D = 1 m, v
5400 = 6200 1
= 500 nm = 500 × 10–9 m c
D v 5400
As, = W 1 =
d c 6200
1 500 10 9
= 54
10 3 v = 1 c
= 0.5 × 10–3 m = 0.5 mm. 62
= 3.9 × 107 m/sec (approx.).
75. Given, d = 0.02 cm, D = 80 cm,
= 6000 × 10–8 cm = 6 × 10–5 cm 80. For the secondary maxima,
nD 5
For nth bright fringe Yn = d sin =
d 2
For 5th maximum, n = 5, 5F
5 80 6 10 5 2n =
Y5 = = 1.2 cm. d
0.02
5 0.8 6 10 7
76. Let n, and n2 be no. of fringes observed between A =
and B. If t is the change in thickness of the film and 4 10 4
1 and 2 are wavelengths, then the normal incidence, = 6 × 10–3 m = 6 mm.
2731 (Physics)—13-II
99
r2 P
81. As, fp =
(2 p 1)
x
For the first half period zone,
S S1
r= fp = 0.6 6000 10 10
2
r = 6 × 10–4 m.
D E
82. Given, n = 1, = 6 × 10–5 cm
Distance of screen from slit = 100 cm
Distance of first minima from central maxima x = D tan 60° = 3D .
= 0.1 cm
D
Distance of 1st minima from 84. The width fringe width =
the central maxima d
As, sin = The angular seperation of the fringes is given by
Distance of the screen from the slit
0.1 1
sin = = =
100 1000 D d
n 1 6 10 5 Given, = 1° = rad
As, a sin = n or a= 180
sin 1
1000 589 180 10 9
d=
a = 0.06 cm.
83. Path difference = 2 cos = 0.0337 mm.
2 cos = h 85. The diameter of telescope (d) = 0.61 m
For x to be minimum n = 1 Wavelength of light () = 5000Å = 5 × 10–7 m
1 d 0.61
cos = Resolution power = =
2 1.22 1.22 5 10 7
= 60° = 1 × 106
100
CHAPTER
7
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER
AND RADIATION
DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION (iv) The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron
is emitted from a metal surface is independent of the
The phenomena such as interference, diffraction and intensity of light and depends upon its frequency.
polarisation in which interaction of radiation takes place
with radiation itself. Such phenomenon can be explained HERTZ AND LENARD’S OBSERVATIONS
on the basis of electromagnetic wave nature of radiation.
Hertz Observations: Hertz studing experimentally, the
The phenomena such as rectilinear propagation production of electromagnetic waves by means of spark
reflection, refraction etc. which can be explained on the discharged, found that the high voltage sparks across the
basis of either of the wave nature of the particle nature of detector loop were enhanced, when emitter plate was
radiation. illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. If the
suitable radiation fall on a metal surface, some electrons
near the surface absorb enough energy from the incident
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
radiations. So that the attraction of the positive ions in the
The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal material of the surface and escape to the surrounding space.
surface, when light of sufficiently high frequency falls Lenard’s Observations: These indicate that when
upon it, is called photoelectric effect. The electrons so ultraviolet radiations fall on emitter plate electrons are
emitted are called photoelectrons. ejected from it which are attracted towards the other metal
Threshold Frequency: The minimum frequency (o) plate kept at positive potential. The flow of electrons
which the incident light must, posses so as to eject through the evacuated glass tube results in the current flow
photoelectrons from a metal surface, is called threshold in the external circuit. Thus, light falling on the surface of
frequency of the metal. i.e., work function, W = ho. emitter causes current in the external circuit.
Laws of Photoelectric Effect EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
(i) Photoelectric emission takes place from a metal Einstein explained photoelectric equation on the basis of
surface, when the frequency of incident light is above Max Planck’s quantum theory of radiation.
its threshold frequency. A photon striking the metal surface transfer whole of
(ii) The photoelectric emission starts as soon as the light its energy h to any one of the electrons present in the
is incident on the metal surface. metal and its own existence is vanished. The energy supplied
to the electrons is used in two ways—
(iii) The number of photoelectrons emitted is independent
of the frequency of the incident light and depends 1. A part of this energy is used in ejecting the electron
only upon its intensity. from the metal surface (W), called work Function.
100
101
2. The rest of energy is given to the electron in the Millikan plotted a graph between the stopping
form of Kinetic energy, (E K). Suppose the Kinetic potential and the frequency of light over a wide range of
energy of photoelectrons emitted from the metal frequencies and obtained a straight line. Parallel lines were
surface is EK, and W is the energy required to eject obtained for other metallic surfaces.
a photo electron from the metal surface, (W is the Now, according to Einstein’s equation, we have
work function of the metal and is different for 1 2
mvmax = h( – 0)
different metals), then we have— 2
h = W + EK 1 2
But mvmax = eV0
EK = h – W ...(i) 2
eV0 = h( – 0)
where, h is the energy of incident photon.
or EK = h( – 0)
If h< W, then the photoelectrons will not be emitted,
so if the light of frequency 0 (threshold frequency) is Since h and e are constants and V0 is constant for a
given surface, this eq indicates that the graph between the
incident on the metal surface, then an amount of energy
kinetic energy, (eV0) and the frequency of light v must be
h0 of the photon of light will be spent in ejecting the
a straight line. This is actually the case, as found by
electrons out of the metal i.e.,
Millikan. Hence Einstein’s equation is verified. The slope
W = h 0 of the curves determines Planck’s Constant.
Putting this value of W in equation (i), we get
PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT (PHOTON)
EK = h( – 0)
A definite value of energy as well as momentum gives a
1 2 strong indication that the light quantum is a particle, which
or, mvmax = h( – 0) ...(ii)
2 was later named as photon. The particle like behaviour of
Where max is the maximum velocity of emitted light on the scattering of X-rays from electrons.
photoelectrons. hc
Energy of photon, E = h =
Electrons which get emitted may have belonged to the
conduction shell or some shell below it. Naturally,
h h
conduction shell-electrons will need least energy to come and p=
c
out of the metal slab. Hence, the balance remainig energy
for them will be more. Hence, the electrons coming out of where h is Planck’s constant.
the metal slab will have various kinetic energies or speeds.
Out of these, we are concentrating on the electrons having MATTER WAVES-WAVE
the maximum speeds. NATURE OF PARTICLE
1 2 c c Matter waves are associated with a moving particle. These
or, mvmax = h ...(iii) waves are not electromagnetic waves in nature de-Broglie’s
2 0
concept of nature loves symmetry led to the discovery of
Equations (i), (ii) and (iii) represent Einstein’s matter of waves.
photoelectric equations.
DE-BROGLIE WAVES RELATION
The (negative) potential V 0 at which the current is just
reduced to zero is called the ‘Stopping Potential’. Since the According to de-Broglie wave is associated with energy
energy of the fastest electrons is just balanced, when they moving particle.
fall through the stopping potential, we have, The quantum theory of radiation energy of the photon
is given by
1 2
mvmax = eV0 ...(iv) E = h ...(i)
2
Further the energy of relativistic particle is given by
where e is the electronic charge and V 0 is the stopping
potential. Thus, the stopping potential multiplied by E= m02 c 2 p2 c 2 [ Rest mass m = 0]
electronic charge gives the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons. E = pc ...(ii)
102
From equation (i) and (ii), we get From the above curve, we have
h h 1
pc = h p = = (180 ) , For = 50°,
c c 2
h h
or p= or = 1 1
p = (180 50) = 130 = 65°
h 2 2
Hence, de-Broglie wavelength is given by, = .
mv From Bragg’s law, for first order diffraction, n = 1
This relation is called de-Broglie relation.
2d sin = 1 ×
DAVISSON-GERMER EXPERIMENT For Ni crystal, distance between atomic planes
The wave nature of slow moving electrons has been d = 0.91 Å
established experimentally by Davisson and Germer in = 2 × 0.91 × sin 65° = 1.66 Å
1927. The electrons from hot tungsten cathode (C) are From de-Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength associated
accelerated by the potential difference (V) between cathode with electron,
(C) and anode (A). The fine beam of electron strike to the
Ni crystal. By rotating the electron defector on circular 12.27 12.54
= = 1.66 Å
scale at different positions, the intensity of scattered beam V 54
is measured for different values of scattering angled, the
This verify the experiment at value determined by
angle between the incident and the scattered electron beam.
Davisson and Germer.
The graph is plotted between angled and the intensity
of scattered electron beam. Such graphs are plotted at Max Planck’s Quantum Theory of Radiation
different accelerating voltages. In each graph, the intensity
of electron beam is in given curve point from the point O, In an attempt to explain the spectral distribution of energy
direction is proportional to the distance, i.e., in the spectrum of a black body, Max Planck, gave a
I d revolutionary idea regarding the nature of light. His theory
is known as Quantum theory of radiation. According to this
The experimental curves obtained by Davisson and
theory, radiation consists of tiny packets of energy called
Germen as shown in Fig.
photons or light quanta (each photon has a definite amount
of energy by h, 2 h, 3 h ..... where h is plank’s constant
Incident
Incident
beam
beam
and is the frequency of radiation.
The rest mass of the photon is zero while the mass of
At 44 V At 48 V h
moving photon is 2 . The momentum of photon of
c
Incident
Incident
beam
beam
h
wavelength is and the momentum of photon of energy
At 54 V At 60 V E is E/c).
EXERCISE
3. The work function of caesium is 2.14 eV. Find the
1. If a light wave of wavelength 4950 Å is viewed as a threshold frequency for caesium, if the photocurrent
continous flow of photons, what is the energy of each is brought to zero by a stopping potential of 0.60 eV.
photon in eV? A. 1.25 × 1012 Hz B. 5.16 × 1014 Hz
A. 1.2 eV B. 1.5 eV
C. 3.14 × 1016 Hz D. 1.0 × 1012 Hz
C. 0.8 eV D. 2.5 eV
4. If a light of wavelength 4950 Å is viewed as a
2. The radio transmitter operates on a wavelength of continous flow of photons, what is the energy of each
1500 m at a power of 400 kilowatt. Then the frequency photon in eV? (Given h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, c = 3 × 108
corresponding to this wavelength is ms–1)
A. 500 kHz B. 200 kHz A. 1.2 eV B. 3.9 eV
C. 100 kHz D. 400 kHz C. 0.5 eV D. 2.5 eV
103
5. Light of two different frequencies whose photons have 14. If the speed of photo electrons is 104 ms–1, what
energies 1 and 2.5 eV respectively, successively should be the frequency of incident radiation on the
illuminate a metal whose work function is 0.5 eV. potassium m etal? (W ork function potassium
The ratio of the maximum speeds of the emitted = 2.3 eV)
electrons will be A. 5.56 × 1014 Hz B. 3.15 × 1012 Hz
A. 1 : 5 B. 1 : 4 C. 1.12 × 1016 Hz D. 2.14 × 1010 Hz
C. 1 : 2 D. 1 : 1
15. The distance between two plates of a cathode ray
6. If the energy of a photon corresponding to a wave oscilloscope is 1 cm and potential difference between
length of 6000 Å is 3.32 × 10–19 joule, the photon them is 1200 volt. If an electron of energy 2000 eV
energy for a wavelength of 4000 Å will be enters at right angles to the field, what will be its
A. 1.11 × 10–19 joule B. 2.22 × 10–19 joule deflection if the plate be 1.5 cm long?
C. 4.44 × 10–19 joule D. 4.98 × 10–19 joule A. 0.03 × 10–2 m B. 0.43 × 10–2 m
C. 0.34 × 10–4 cm D. 0.34 × 10–2 m
7. The mass of 3Li7 nucleus is 0.042 amu less than the
sum of masses of its nucleons. The binding energy 16. In a Cathode ray tube, a potential difference of
per nucleon is 3000 volts is maintained between the deflector plates
A. 3.358 Mev B. 5.586 MeV whose separation is 2 cm. A magnetic field of
C. 7.586 MeV D. 9.586 MeV 2.5 × 10–3 wbm –2 at right angles to the electric field
gives no deflection of the electron beam which
8. The work function of a photoelectric meterial is
received an initial acceleration by a potential
3.32 eV. The threshold frequency will be equal to difference of 10,000 V. Calculate (e/M) of an electron
A. 8 × 1014 Hz B. 8 × 1010 Hz
20
A. 1.5 × 1011 C/kg B. 2.8 × 1011 C/kg
C. 5 × 10 Hz D. 4 × 1014 Hz 11
C. 1.8 × 10 C/kg D. 1.2 × 1011 C/kg
9. An x-particle moves in a circular path of radius
17. A drop of oil of radius 10–4 cm and carrying a charge
0.83 × 10–12 m in the presence of magnetic field of
q esu is moved vertically upward through air by an
0.25 Wb/m 2. The de-Broglie wavelength associated
electric field of 1950 v/cm with a constant velocity
with the particle will be.
of 0.035 cm/sec. If the viscosity of air is
A. 0.1 Å B. 10 Å 180 × 10–6 cgs units. Calculate the charge q on the
C. 0.01 Å D. 1 Å drop. Neglect density of air. Given the density of oil
10. The momentum of each photon in a given radiation = 0.96 gm/cm 3 and g = 980 cm/sec2
is 3.3 × 10–29 kg metre/sec. The frequency of radiation A. 23.43 × 1010 esu B. 24.34 × 10–10 esu
is: Given h = 6.6 × 10–34 joule sec. C. 34.24 × 10 –10 esu D. 24.43 × 10–10 esu
A. 3 × 10 Hz B. 6 × 1010 Hz 18. How many photon per second does a one watt bulb
C. 7.5 × 1012 Hz D. 1.5 × 1013 Hz emit if its efficiency is 10% and the wavelength of
11. The human eye can barely detect a yellow light light emitted is 500 nm.
(6000 Å) that delivers 1.7 × 10–18 watt to the retina. A. 2.53 × 1017 B. 2.35 × 1017
C. 3.25 × 10 17 D. 2.30 × 1017
Nearly how many photons per second does the retina
receive 19. If the wavelength of light falling on a surface in
A. 50 B. 5 increased from 3000 Å to 3040 Å then what will be
C. 500 D. more than 5 million the corresponding change in the stopping potential
12. A radio transmitter operates at a frequency of 880 (Given that hc = 12.4 × 10–7 eV Å).
kHz and a power of 10 kW. The number of photons A. –5.5 × 10–12 V B. +5.5 × 10–12 V
emitted per second are C. –6.7 × 10–12 V D. +6.7 × 10–12 V
A. 1.71 × 1031 B. 1327 × 1034 20. With what velocity must an electron travel so that its
C. 13.27 × 10 34 D. 0.75 × 10–34 momentum is equal to that of a photon with a
13. What is the energy of emitted photoelectrons, if light wavelength of 5200 Å?
frequency 1016 Hz is incident on a Na-target? Work A. 1200 m/s B. 1000 m/s
for function of Na = 2.5 eV C. 1800 m/s D. 1400 m/s
A. 38.875 eV B. 42.235 eV 21. If the wavelength of light incident on a photoelectric
C. 47.123 eV D. 51.234 eV cell be reduced from 4000 Å to 3600 Å, then what
104
will be the change in the cut off potential. (h = 6.6 29. A proton accelerated through a potential V has de-
× 10–34 J – s, C = 3.0 × 108 m/s, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C) Broglie wavelength . Then, the de-Broglie wave-
A. 0.42 volt B. 0.30 volt length of an -particle, when accelerated through the
C. 0.34 volt D. 0.43 volt same potential V is
22. The kinetic energy of an electron gets tripled then the
A. B.
de-Broglie wavelength associated with it changes by 2 2
a factor
1 C. D.
A. B. 3 2 2 8
3
1 30. e, p and are the de-Broglie wavelengths of electron,
C. D. 3 proton and -particle. If all are accelerated by same
3
potential, then
23. A particle of mass 1 mg has the some wavelength as A. e > p < B. e < p <
an electron moving with a velocity of 3 × 106 m/sec. C. e < p < D. e > p >
The velocity of the particle is
A. 2.7 × 10–18 m/sec B. 2.7 × 10–21 m/sec 31. When the momentum of proton in charged by an
–31 amount P o , the corresponding change in the
C. 3 × 10 m/sec D. 9 × 10–2 m/sec
de-Broglie wavelength is found to be 0.25%. Then,
24. de-Broglic wavelength associated with an electron the original momentum of the proton was
having kinetic energy E is given by the expression A. 400 po B. 4 po
2h C. p o D. 100 po
A. 2 mh E B.
mE 32. The wavelength of photon is 1.4 Å. It collides with
h 2 2 mE an electron at rest. Its wavelength after collision is
C. D.
2 mE h 2.0 Å. Then, the energy of the scattered electron is:
A. 3.11 × 10–15 J B. 1.15 × 10–14 J
25. Consider the metal exposed to light of wavelength –16
C. 4.26 × 10 J D. 0.12 × 10–16 J
600 nm. The maximum energy of electron doubles,
when light of wavelength 400 nm is used. Then, the 33. A proton and -particle are accelerated through a
value of work-function is potential difference of 100 V, the ratio of the
A. 0.50 eV B. 2.35 eV wavelength associated with the proton to associated
C. 1.02 eV D. 2.45 eV with an -partide is
26. If an electron and a photon propagate in the form of A. 2 2 : 1 B. 2 : 1
waves having the same wavelength, it implies that 1
they have the same C. 2 :1 D.
2 2 :1
A. Energy
B. Momentum 34. The kinetic energy of an electron is 5 eV. Calculated
C. Angular momentum the de-Broglie w avelength associated with it
D. Velocity (h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
27. The de-Broglie wavelength of particle moving with a A. 2.71 Å B. 5.47 Å
velocity 2.25 × 108 m/sec is equal to the wavelength C. 12.5 Å D. 9.23 Å
of proton. The ratio of kinetic energy of the particle 35. The de-Broglie wavelength of a proton (charge = 1.6
to the energy of the photon is (velocity of light is × 10–19C mass = 1.6 × 10–27 kg) accelerated through
3 × 108 m/sec) a potential difference of 1 kV is
7 1 A. 7 Å B. 0.9 × 10–12 m
A. B. C. 0.9 nm D. 600 Å
8 8
5 3 36. If the kinetic energy of the particle is increased by
C. D. 16 times, the percentage change in the de-Broglie
8 8
wavelength of the particle is
28. The kinetic energy of electron and proton is 10–32 J.
A. 60% B. 50%
Then, find the relation between their de-Broglie
C. 25% D. 75%
wavelengths is
A. p = e B. p > e 37. Maximum kinitic energy of photoelectron varies, with
C. p = 2e D. p < e the frequency of the incident radiation of graph.
105
A. E B. E A. 1.246 eV B. 2.567 eV
C. 3.767 eV D. 4.1281 eV
44. The photoelectric cut off voltage in a certain
V V experiment is 1.5 V. The maximum KE of photoelectric
emitted is
C. E D. E
A. 2.4 × 10–19 J B. 1.5 × 10–19 J
–19
C. 1.6 × 10 J D. 0.6 × 10–19 J
45. Use Moseley’s law with b = 1 to find the frequency
V V
of the K X-rays of La(X = 57), if the frequency
38. For a radiation of wavelength 3000 Å incident on a of the K X-rays of Cu(z = 29) is known to be
metal surface, maximum kinetic energy of emitted 1.88 × 1018 Hz
photoelectrons is 0.5 eV. If radiation of wavelength A. 7.52 × 1018Hz B. 8.75 × 1016Hz
2000 Å falls on the metal, then maximum kinetic C. 12.34 × 1017Hz D. 4.05 × 1016Hz
energy of photoelectron will be
A. < 0.5 eV B. = 0.5 eV 46. The wavelength of light incident on metal A is twice
C. > 0.5 eV D. Zero than that of falling on metal B. If maximum kinetic
energy of photoelectrons emitted in two cases, is EkA
39. In work function of a metal plate is negligible, then and EkB respectively, then
find the KE of the photoelectrons emitted, when
A. EkA = EkB/2 B. EkA < EkB/2
radiations of 1000 Å are incident on the metal surface
C. EkA = EkB D. EukA = 2EkB
A. 13.6 eV B. 14.4 eV
C. 11.6 eV D. 12.9 eV 47. Light of wavelength 332 mm is incident on the metal
40. If efficiency of a one watt bulb is 10% and it emits surface of work function 1.07 eV. What will be the
light of wavelength 500 nm, then number of photons value of stopping potential required to stop emission
emitted per second are about of photoelectrons? (h = 6.6 × 1034Js)
A. 4.5 × 1019 B. 5.2 × 1019 A. 1.33 V B. 4.66 V
C. 6.44 V D. 2.66 V
C. 2.5 × 1017 D. 3.1 × 1018
48. A neutron beam of energy E scatters from atoms on
41. The work function of caesium metal is 214 eV. When
a surface with a spacing d = 0.1 nm. The first maximum
light of frequency 6 × 1014 Hz is incident on the
intensity in the reflected beam occurs at = 30°.
metal surface, photoemission of electrons occurs. The
maximum KE of the emitted electrons is What is the kinetic energy E of the beam in eV?
A. 0.34 eV B. 0.64 eV A. 0.11 eV B. 0.31 eV
C. 0.11 eV D. 0.26 eV C. 0.21 eV D. 0.01 eV
42. In an experiment of photoelectric effect, the slope of 49. Ultraviolet radiations of 6.2 eV fall on an aluminium
cut off voltage vs frequency of incident light is found surface, whose work function is 4.2 eV. KE of the
to be 4.12 × 10–15 Vs. One value of Planck’s constant fastest emitted electron will be
is A. 3.2 × 10–17 J B. 3.2 × 10–12 J
C. 3.2 × 10 J–21 D. 3.2 × 10–19 J
A. 3.5 × 10–34 Js B. 6.6 × 10–34 Js
–33
C. 2.1 × 10 Js D. 8.9 × 10–34 Js 50. If the stopping potential for a photoelectrons is 39.9
43. The work function for a certain metal is 4.2 eV will V, then maximum velocity of photoelectron is
this metal given photoelectric emission for incident A. 3.75 × 106 ms–1 B. –3 × 108 ms–1
radiation of wavelength 330 nm. 7
C. 2.9 × 10 ms –1 D. 4.8 × 107 ms–1
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B D B C D B A C D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A C A D C B A A D
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C C A C C B D D C D
2731 (Physics)—14
106
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
A C A B B D C C D C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A B C A A B D C D A
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
1. Energy of photon, BE m 931
34 8
7. We have, =
hc 6.6 10 3 10 A A
E= =
4950 10 10 0.042 931
=
= 4.0 × 10–19 J 7
= 5.586 MeV
4.0 10 19
= 2.5 eV 8. As, E = hv
1.6 10 19 Since E = 3.3 eV = 3.3 × 1.6 × 10–19
2. Given, = 1500 m
3.3 1.6 10 19
c 3 108 v= Hz
As, v= 6.6 10 34
1500
= 8 × 1014 Hz.
= 20000 Hz = 200 kHz.
3. For the minimum, cut off or threshold frequency. h h
9. As, = =
Energy h0 of incident photon = work function W 0 p mv
W0 2.14 eV mv
0 = 0 5.16 1014 Hz. r= q
h 6.6 10 34 Js B
4. Given, = 4950 Å = 4950 × 10–10 m 1
mv = qrB = 2e × 0.83 × 10–12 ×
Now, energy of each photon, 4
hc 6.6 10 34 3 10 8 6.6 10 34 4
E= = =
4950 10 10 2 1.6 10 19 0.83 10 12
–19
= 4.0 × 10 J = 0.01 Å
19
4.0 10 hv
= eV = 2.5 eV
1.6 10 19 10. Momentum = p
c
5. E = Energy of incident photon pc 3.3 10 29 3 108
W 0 = Work function v= =
E – W 0 = Available energy
h 6.6 10 34
1 2 = 1.5 × 1013 Hz.
E – W 0 = mv 11. n = number of photons falling per second on retina
2
2(E W0 ) nhv = 1.7 × 10–18
v=
m c
or nh = 1.7 × 10–18
v available energy
v1 1 0.5 0.5 1 1 1.7 10 18
= n=
v2 2.5 0.5 2 4 2 hc
hc hc hc 1.7 10 18 6000 10 10
6. As, E = hv = and E1 = and E2 = = = 5.15 5.
1 2 6.6 10 34 3 10 8
E1 12. As, nhv = P, n = number of photons/sec
= 2 E2 = E1 1
E2 1 2 n × 6.6 × 10–34 × 880 × 103 = 10 × 103
6000 10 10 3
= 3.32 × 10–19 × = 4.98 × 10–19 J. n= = 1.71 × 1031.
4000 6.6 10 34 880 10 3
107
1 6.6 10 34 1016 hc
13. As, mv max 2 = h – W = 2.5 18. = energy of one photon for the light of
2 1.6 10 19
wavelength .
= 41.375 – 2.5
n = number of photons emitted per sec.
= 38.875 eV
nhc
1 2 = energy emitted by bulb per sec.
14. As, h = mu W0
2
Efficiency of the bulb is 10%
1
= 9.1 10 31 × (104)2 + 2.3 × 1.6 × 10–19
2 nhc P P
= or n = or
= 4.55 × 10–23 + 3.68 × 10–19 10 10 hc
= 3.6795 × 10–19 J
1 watt (500 10 9 m)
3.6795 10 19
J n=
= 10 (6.6 10 34 J.s) (3 10 8 m.s 1 )
h
= 2.53 × 1017.
3.6795 10 19
= 5.56 1014 Hz
6.6 10 34 hc
19. As, eV0 = – W0
V 1200 V W 0 = work function of the metal over which
15. As, E = = 1.2 × 105 V/m
d 10 2 m light is incident
Kinetic energy of electron entering the field K = 2000 W = is a constant for a given metallic surface
eV = 3.2 × 10–16 hc d (12.4 10 7 eVÅ)(40Å)
Deflection of electron in the field of length edV0 =
2 (3000 Å) 2
1.5 × 10–2 is
dv0 = –5.5 × 1012 eV
eEl 2 eEl 2
y=
2 mv 2 4K h 6.63 10 34
20. As P= kgm/sec.
1.6 10 19 1.2 10 5 (1.5 10 2 )2 5200 10 10
=
4(3.2 10 16 ) Momentum of the electron = mv
= 0.34 × 10–2 m. = 9.1 × 10–31 v
E V 6.63 10 34
16. Bev = eE or V = 9.1 × 10–31 × v =
B dB 5200 10 10
3000 v = 1400 m/s.
= = 6.7 × 107 m/s
2 10 2.5 10 3
2
1 2 hc hc W
21. As, eV0 = w or V0 =
Now, eV = mv e e
2
V0 = (V 0)2 – (V0)1
2eV e
or v= 2 10000
m m h W hc W
= c
e 2 e e1 e
e
or (6 × 107)2 = 2 × 10, 000
m
e hc 1 1 hc 1 2
= 1.8 × 1011 coulomb/kg. =
m e 2 1 e 1 2
4 (6.6 10 34 ) (3 10 8 ) 0.4 10 7
17. As, qE = 6rv + r 3g
3 = 7
(1.6 10 19 ) 7
4.0 10 3.6 10
6 rv (4 r 3g / 3)
q= = 0.34 volt.
E
= [6 × 3.14 × (180 × 10–6) × 10–4 × .035 + (4/3) h
22. For an electron, the de-Broglie wavelength, =
× 3.14 × (10–4)3 × 0.96 × 980]/[1950/300] 2 mk
= 24.34 × 10–10 esu or stat coulomb where, h = Planck’s constant,
108
m = mass of an electron mp > me
and k = kinetic energy of an electron p < e .
1
Since, h, m remain the same, then h h 1
k 29. As, =
2 mE 2 mqV mq
k 3k
= .
k k 3 mpqp
=
h p m q
23. The de-Broglie wavelength, =
mv q = 2qp, m = 4mp, p =
As both particle electron having same wavelength
Therefore, momentum will be equal a = .
2 2
m v
m pvp = m eve U p = e e h h
mp 1
30. As, =
p 2 mE mE
9.1 10 31 3 10 6
= 6 KE, gained by charged particle under potential V
10
me ve E = qE
vp =
mp Ee = eV, Ep = eV
vp = 2.7 × 10–18 m/sec. E = 2eV Ee = Ep < E
and me < mp < m
1 1 ( mv ) 2
24. As, E = mv2 or E = h h h
2 2 m =
mv = 2 mE 2 me E e 2m p E p 2 m E
h h e > p > .
h= = .
m 2 mE 1 p
31. As,
25. Maximum energy = h – p p
1230 1 1230 p p 0.25 1
= = 0 =
600
2 400 p p 100 400
1230 p = 400 p0.
= = 1.02 eV.
1200 1 1
26. When an electron and photon propagate in the form 32. As, E = hc
1 2
of the waves having the same wavelength, hence,
they have same momentum. By de-Broglie equation 1 1
= 6.63 10 34 3 108 10
1 1.4 10 2 1010
p .
= 4.26 × 10–16 J
1 2 h h 1
27. We have, Kelectron = mv and = ...(i) 33. As, =
2 mu 2 mQV mQ
1 h 2 h
Kelectron = ...(ii) p m Q 4 m p 2Q p
2 2 = 2 2.
hc mpQ p mp Q p
Kphoton = ...(iii)
h
Dividing equation from (i) & (ii), we get 34. As, =
2 mE
K electron 2 25 108 3
= . 6.6 10 34
K photon 2c 2 3 108 8 =
2 9.1 10 31 5 1.6 10 19
h = 5.47 Å.
28. As, = , E = 10–32 J, which in constant for
2 mE
1 h h h
both particles, hence, 35. As, =
m p 2 mE 2 mqV
109
6.6 10 34 44. Given, V0 = 1.5 V
= As, Kmax = eV 0 = 1.5 eV
2 (1.6 10 27 ) (1.6 10 19 ) 100
= 1.5 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
= 0.9 × 10–12 m.
= 2.4 × 10–19 J
h 1 k2 16 k
36. As, = 4 45. As, f = a(z – b)
2 mk 2 k1 k
2
f La z 1
1 100 = La
or = 4 2 = 1 25 fCu zCu 1
2 4 4
2
1 = 25 × 4 = 100 z 1
Increase in percentage = 100 – 25 = 75%. fLa = fCu La
zCu 1
37. Some minimum frequency is required to eject the 2
photoelectrons. 57 1
= 1.88 × 1018
29 1
38. When wavelength of incident radiation is decreased, 18
= 7.52 × 10 Hz.
their frequency increases and hence, electron with
more energy come out of the surface of the metal. hc hc
46. As, EkA = W = EkA + W
hc
39. As E = h =
hc
EkB = W
6.62 10 34 3 10 8 /2
E= eV
1000 10 10 1.6 10 19 2 hc
or EkB = W = 2(EkA + W) – W
E = 12.41 eV.
hc E W
40. Let is energy emitted by bulb in 1 s or EkB = uB
2 2
nhc p p or EkB < EuB.
= or n =
10 10 hc hc o
47. As, V0 =
n = 2.53 × 1017. e e
41. Given, W 0 = 2.14 eV, = 6 × 1014 Hz 6.6 10 34 10 8 1.07 1.6 10 19
=
As, Kmax = h – W 0 1.6 10 19 332 10 9 1.6 10 19
= 6.63 × 10–34 × 6 × 1014 J – 2.14 eV = 3.73 – 7.07 = 2.66 V.
6.63 6 10 20 48. As, 2d sin = = d = 10–10 m
= eV – 2.14 eV
1.6 10 19 h 6.6 10 34
= 2.48 – 2.14 = 0.34 eV. p= = 6.6 × 10–21 kg ms–1
10 10 10 10
V
42. We have, = 4.12 × 10–15 Vs (6.6 10 24 )2
E= 1.6 10 19
e = 1.6 × 10–19 2 (1.7 10 27 )
V 6.62
Planck’s constant, h = e
= 1.6 10 2 eV
2 1.7
= 4.12 × 10–15 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 2.05 ×10–2 eV = 0.21 eV.
= 6.592 × 10–34 Js
49. As, Ek = h – W = (6.2 – 4.2) eV = 2.0 eV
= 6.6 × 10–34 Js.
= 2 × 1.6 × 10–19 J = 3.2 × 10–19 J
43. Given, W 0 = 4.2 eV, = 230 nm = 330 × 10–9 m
1 2
hc 50. As, eV 0 = mv
Energy of incident photon, E = 2
6.63 10 34 3 10 8 2 eV0 2 eV
= J v2 = or v =
330 10 9 m m
= 3.767 eV. v = 3.75 × 106 ms–1.
110
CHAPTER
8
ATOMS & NUCLEI
In the early 19th century, John Dalton developed his (f) These rays ionize the gas through which they
atomic theory that matter is made up of extremely small pass.
and indivisible particles of matter called atoms. In 1859, (g) These rays cause fluorescence and heat the object
Plucker and others discovered that when a high potential on which they fall due to the transfer of kinetic
of the order of 10,000 volts is applied to a discharge energy.
tube at low pressure of about 10–6 atmosphere, rays are (h) Cathode rays consists of material particle and
liberated at the cathode. These rays are known as cathode possess energy.
rays consisting of negative charged particles.
ELECTRON
Later in the 19th century, J.J. Thomson demonstrated
that atoms are electromagnetically constituted and from
them fundamental material units bearing electric charge
that are now called electron can be extracted. Electrons
are the universal constituents of all atoms as the electrons
emitted in a cathode ray tube all possess the same mass
and a unit electron-charge. The same is true of electron
emitted, in the photoelectric cell or the thermionic value
or by a radioactive source. Therefore, it may be said that
These negatively charged particles are known as electrons are prevalent in all forms of matter.
electron.
J.J. Thomson (1900-1906) studied the effect of
magnetic field on cathode rays and found the ratio of
Properties of Cathode Rays
change to mass (e/m) of an electron and calculated the
(a) Cathode rays always travel in a straightline. mass of electron from it.
(b) Cathode rays cast shadows of any solid object
Charcteristics of the Electron
placed in their path.
Mass and Charge: The mass of an electron is about
(c) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged
1/1840 time that of a hydrogen atom or proton.
particles and therefore, they get deflected towards
the positive place in an electric field. me = 9.109 × 10–31 kg
An electron possesses a unit negative charge
(d) Cathode rays travel with high speed equivalent to
that of velocity of light and penetrate through e = 1.602 × 10–19 coulombs
thin metallic sheets.
PROTONS
(e) The nature of these rays is independent of the gas
and the cathode material used in the discharge Goldstein (1886) in an experiment with discharge tube
tube. containing perforated cathode showed the presence of
110
111
another type of radiation, that passed through hole in the
cathode and carried positive charge. These rays consisting
of positive charged particles were called positive rays or
anode rays or canal rays and these positive charged particle
are called proton.
Properties of Anode Rays
(a) Positive rays consist of positively charged particles.
(b) These rays travel in straight lines.
(a) T -particle pass through the Gold foil without
(c) These rays get deflected by an electrical field and
suffering any change in their path shows that the
bend towards the negative plate.
atom consists largely of empty space.
(d) The nature of these rays depend on the gas used
(b) A few -particle get deflected through wide angle
in the discharge tube.
or backwards shows that these must be present in
(e) These rays can produce mechanical as well as each atom a heavy positively charged body at its
chemical change. centre and called its nucleus.
(f) Particle of these rays are heavier than the cathode (c) The number of -particles which undergoes such
ray particle. strong deflection is very small shows that the
volume occupied by this heavy positively charged
body is only a minute fraction of the total volume
of the atom.
RUTHERFORD MODEL OF AN ATOM
On the basis of -particle scattering experiment,
Rutherfored put the nuclear model of the atom in 1912:
(a) The atom consists of positively charged nucleus
on which entire mass of the atom resides.
(b) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by
NEUTRONS electrostatic forces of attraction.
Rutherford (1920) suggested that in an atom, there must
be present at least a third type of fundamental particles BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL
which should be electrically neutral and possess mass
(a) The electrons keep on revolving in one or more
nearly equal to that of proton. He proposed the name for
of the infinite number of circular orbits about the
such fundamental particle as neutron. In 1932, Chadwick
nucleus without losing or gaining any energy.
bombarded beryllium with a stream of -particles. He
observed that the penetrating radiations were produced (b) The electrons can move in only those circular
which were not affected by electric and magnetic fields. orbits where the angular momentum (mvr) is a
These radiations consisted of neutral particles, which whole number multiple of h/2.
were called neutrons. (c) The absorption or emission of energy can occur
only by transition of electron from lower to higher
THE NUCLEUS energy level or vice versa, respectively.
In the twentieth century, 1911, Rutherford performed a
scattering experiment and in this experiment a thin gold MODERN STRUCTURE OF ATOM
of thickness 4 × 10–7 m was bombarded with -particle.
The modern structure of atom was developed in light of
It was observed that most of the particles passed through
de Broglie and Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
the metallic foil without any deflection. But a few waves
deflected from their most original path, some of them De Broglie Principle: All the moving material objects
deflected backwards. From this observation, he arrived possess wave like characteristic. The de Broglie wavelength
at the following conclusions: of material particle is given by
112
h h VALENCE
mv p
Valence, also known as valency or valence number, is a
h = Planck’s constant (J-sec) measure of the number of bonds formed by an atom of a
m = Mass of particle (kg) given element. “Valence” can be defined as the number of
v = Velocity (ms–1) valence bonds a given atom has formed, or can form, with
one or more other atoms. For most elements the number of
SHAPES OF ATOMIC ORBITALS bonds can vary. The IUPAC definition limits valence to the
The wave function for an electron is termed as atomic maximum number of univalent atoms that may combine
orbital, which is the region of finding an electron. with the atom, that is the maximum number of valence
The diffuse electron cloud in an orbital has its greatest bonds that is possible for the given element.
density near the nucleus which becomes thinner as the The valence of an element depends on the number of
distance from the nucleus increases. valence electrons that may be involved in the forming of
(a) s-Orbital: They are spherical in shape and have valence bonds. A univalent (monovalent) atom, ion or
symmetrical orientation. group has a valence of one and thus can form one covalent
(b) p-Orbital: They are dumb bell in shape with two bond. A divalent molecular entity has a valence of two and
lobes. can form two sigma bonds to two different atoms or one
sigma bond plus one pi bond to a single atom. Alkyl
(c) d-Orbitals: They are five in number (double dump-
groups and hydroxyl ions are univalent examples; oxo
bell shaped)
ligands are divalent.
(d) f-Orbitals: There are seven f-orbital, f-orbitals have
8 lobes and 3 nodes. Covalence
The concept of covalence was developed in the middle of
FILLING OF ORBITALS the nineteenth century in an attempt to rationalize the
(a) Aufbau Principle: It states that electrons are feeded formulae of different chemical compounds. In 1919, Irving
in the orbitals in order of increasing energy and Langmuir, borrowed the term to explain Gilbert N. Lewis’s
energy of the orbitals is governed by (n + 1) cubical atom model by stating that “the number of pairs of
rule. electrons which any given atom shares with the adjacent
Therefore, orbitals of lower energy are filled first atoms is called the covalence of that atom.” The prefix co-
followed by orbitals of higher energy. means “together”, so that a co-valent bond means that the
(b) Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: It states that no two atoms share valence. Hence, if an atom, for example, had
electrons can have the same value of the four a + 1 valence, meaning it has one valence electron beyond
quantum numbers. the complete shell, and another a – 1 valence, meaning it
(c) Hund’s Rule: This rule states that pairing of requires one electron to complete its outer shell (missing
electrons in degenerate orbitals belonging to a an electron), then a bond between these two atoms would
particular sub shell does not take place till each result because they would be complementing or sharing
orbital is occupied by a single electron with a their out of balance valence tendencies. Subsequent to this,
parallel spin. it is now more common to speak of covalent bonds rather
than “valence”, which has fallen out of use in higher level
QUANTUM NUMBERS work with the advances in the theory of chemical bonding,
but is still widely used in elementary studies where it
The set of four integers required to define the state of
provides a heuristic introduction to the subject.
electron in an atom are called quantum numbers.
(a) Principal Quantum Number (n): It has integral Common Valences
values 1, 2, 3, 4..... and denoted as K, L, M, For elements in the main groups of the periodic table, the
N..... valence can vary between one to seven, but usually these
(b) Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): For each value elements form a number of valence bonds between one and
of n, l have values from 0, 1, 2, 3..... (n – 1). four. The number of bonds formed by a given element was
(c) Magnetic Quantum Number (m): For each sub- originally thought to be a fixed chemical property. In fact,
energy shell, there can be (2l + 1) number of in most cases this is not true. For example, phosphorus
orbitals. often has a valence of three, but can also have other
(d) Spin Quantum Number (s): Each spinning electron valences.
1 1 Nevertheless, many elements have a common valence
can have two values + (clockwise spin), – related to their position in the periodic table, following the
2 2
(anticlockwise spin). octet rule. Elements in the main groups 1 (alkali metals)
113
and 17 (halogens) commonly have a valence of 1; elements to the valency number, the oxidation state can be positive
in groups 2 (alkaline earth metals) and 16 (chalcogens) (for an electropositive atom) or negative (for an electro-
valence 2; elements in groups 13 (boron group) and 15 negative atom).
(nitrogen group) valence 3; elements in group 14 (carbon Elements in a high oxidation state can have a valence
group) valence 4. larger than four. For example, in perchlorates, chlorine has
Valence Vs Oxidation State seven valence bonds and ruthenium, in the +8 oxidation state
in ruthenium (VIII) tetroxide, has even eight valence bonds.
The “oxidation state” of an atom in a molecule gives the Examples : (Valencies according to the number of
number of valence electrons it has gained or lost. In contrast valence bonds definition and conform oxidation state)
Compound Formula Valence Oxidation State
Hydrogen chloride HCl H=1 Cl = 1 H = +1 Cl = –1
Chlorine Cl 2 Cl = 1 Cl = 1 Cl = +1 Cl = –1
Perchlorate* HClO4 H=1 Cl = 7 O = 2 H = +1 Cl = +7 O = –2
Sodium hydride NaH Na = 1 H=1 Na = +1 H = –1
Ferrous oxide** FeO Fe = 2 O=2 Fe = +2 O = –2
Ferric oxide** Fe2O3 Fe = 3 O=2 Fe = +3 O = –2
* The univalent perclhorate ion (ClO 4–) has valence 1.
** Iron oxide appears in a crystal structure, so on typical molecule can be identified.
In ferrous oxide, Fe has oxidation number II, in ferric Radio-Carbon Dating and Carbon Dating
oxide, oxidation number III. Radiocarbon Dating: It is the technique to find out the
age of archaeological objects like plants and animals fossils.
NUCLEAR REACTION Carbon Dating: C 14 isotope produced in upper
When nucleon comes into contact with a target, a new atmosphere is incorporated in CO 2 which is inhaled by
nucleus results and it is called a nuclear reaction. During plants and in turn consumed by human beings.
14 1
nuclear reactions, the total mass number of reactants should
7 H 0n 146 C 11 H
be equal to total mass of products. The nuclear reaction in
A plant animal carbon cycle exists in nature as long
which energy is released is exogeric and in which energy
as it is alive the C-14 content remains same. When a plant
are of two categories : or animal dies, the process of incorporation of 146 C stops
A. Reactions that depend on nature of bombarding and it starts decaying.
particles.
2.303 N
B. Reactions which depend on transformation of target Age can be calculated by t = log 0
Nt
nucleus.
.693 1
Nuclear Fission = Yr
5770
In this process U-235 is hit by slow moving neutrons, it
splits up into a number of fragments with the release of Half-Life Period
large amount of energy. The fission of an atom of U-235 Is the time in which half of the original amount of the
releases 211.5 MeV of energy. Nuclear Reactor is a device substance disintegrates.
in which nuclear fission is carried in a controlled manner. .693
Half life period t1/2 =
Nuclear Fusion
Average life period
It is the process in which lighter nuclei of atoms fuse
1 t1/ 2
together to form a heavier nucleus. The heavier nucleus has Average life = 1.44 t1/ 2
.693
less mass. Fusion reaction occur at high temperature so
these are called thermonuclear reactions. Artificial Radioactivity
Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion. Discovered by Madam Curie and her husband E. Joliot by
2 3 4 1 artificial disintegration a stable nucleus is made radioactive
1 H 1 H 2 He 0 n 17.6MeV isotope.
2731 (Physics)—15
114
4
27 30 1 Artificial Transmutation of Elements
2 He 13 Al 15 P 0 n
Stable Radioactive Transformation of an element into another by bombarding
30 t1/ 2 2.55 min
15 P 30
14 Si 1 e
0
positive it with high energy particle is termed as artificial
transmutation of elements. It was discovered by
Phenomenon in which non-radioactive element is
Rutherford.
formed is called artificial radioactivity.
EXERCISE
1. Which of the following has the same atomic number C. same difference between number of protons and
and atomic weight? neutrons
A. Hydrogen B. Helium D. same mass number and atomic number
C. Oxygen D. Nitrogen 9. Charge on fundamental particle neutrino is
2. Nuclides having the same atomic and mass numbers A. 0 B. +1
are known as C. –1 D. None of these
A. Isotones B. Isomers
10. The fundamental particle that has least mass is
C. Isobars D. Isotopes
A. meson B. -particle
3. Which of the following are -emitters? C. electron D. neutron
A. Polonium-212 B. Radium-226
11. Which of the following has highest mass?
C. Helium-5 D. Tritium
A. Neutron B. Alpha particle
4. Which of the following is true for Thomson Model C. Electron D. Deuterium
of the atom?
12. The wavelength of an electron
A. The radius of an electron can be calculated using
A. is equal to that of light
Thomson Model.
B. In an undisturbed atom, the electrons will be at B. remains constant with velocity
their equilibrium positions, where the attraction C. decreases with an increasing velocity
between the cloud of positive charge and the D. increases with an decreasing velocity
electrons balances their mutual repulsion. 13. No two electrons in an atom can have the same
C. When the electrons are disturbed by collision, values of all four quantum numbers according to
they will vibrate around their equilibrium positions A. Hund’s rule
and emit electromagnetic radiation whose B. Flemming rule
frequency is of the order of magnitude of the C. Pauli’s exclusion principle
frequency of electromagnetic radiation of a D. Bohr theory
vibrating electron. 14. The velocity of a photon is
D. Both (B) and (C)
A. dependent on its wavelength
5. Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. It emits B. dependent on its source
A. -particles B. -particles C. equal to cube of its amplitude
C. -rays D. neutrons D. independent of its wavelength
6. The SI unit of Radioactivity is: 15. Isotopes have different
A. Becquerel B. Curie A. arrangement of electrons
C. Weber D. Gauss
B. no. of P and e–
7. What are nucleons? C. no. of neutrons
A. the sum of protons and neutrons present in the D. no. of electrons
nucleus
B. the number of protons in the nucleus 16. The electrons configuration of a dispositive ion M 2+
C. the number of neutrons in the nucleus is 2, 8, 14 and its mass number is 56. The number of
D. the sum of protons, neutrons and electrons present neutrons present is
in the nucleus A. 32 B. 42
C. 30 D. 34
8. Isobars have:
A. same mass number but different atomic number 17. How many unpaired electrons are there in Ni2+?
B. same number of neutrons but different mass A. 0 B. 2
number C. 4 D. 8
2731 (Physics)—15-II
115
18. In two H atoms A and B the electrons move around 30. The atomic theory of matter was proposed by
the nucleus in circular orbits of radius r and 4r A. John Kennedy B. Lavoisier
respectively. The ratio of the times taken by them to C. Proust D. John Dalton
complete one revolution is 31. Gamma radiation from a radioactive nucleus results
A. 1 : 4 B. 1 : 2 in change in the number of
C. 1 : 8 D. 2 : 1 A. neutrons B. protons
19. How many unpaired electrons are there in Ni2+? C. Both (A) and (B) D. None of these
A. 0 B. 2 32. Smallest particle of an element or a compound which
C. 4 D. 8 is capable of independent existence is called
A. Atom B. Molecule
20. The number of electrons in the M shell of the element
C. Element D. Compound
with atomic number 24 is
A. 24 B. 12 33. The particles that display dual nature of both waves
C. 13 D. 8 and particles are
A. Protons B. Electrons
21. The atomic radius is of the order of C. Mesons D. Neutrons
A. 10–8 cm B. 108 cm
–12 34. Avogadro’s number represents the number of atoms
C. 10 cm D. 10–10 cm
in
22. Mass number of an element represents number of A. 12 g of C12 B. 320 g of sulphur
A. Protons and neutrons C. 32 g of oxygen D. 14.3 of sulphur
B. Protons and electrons
35. The total number of ions present in 111 g of CaCl2
C. Electrons and neutrons
is
D. None of these A. One mole B. Two mole
23. The symbol of a metal element which is used in C. Four mole D. Three mole
making thermometers is: 36. The nuclides 40 41
18 Ar and 19 Kare
A. Ag B. Hg A. isotopes B. isobars
C. Mg D. Sg C. isotones D. None of these
24. If the value of principal quantum number is 3, the 37. The law of the multiple proportion was proposed by
total possible values for magnetic quantum number A. Dalton B. Dulong
will be C. Petit D. Lavoisier
A. 1 B. 4
38. Match the following:
C. 9 D. 12
Term introduced Name of the Scientist
25. Which one of the following elements has an atomicity (a) Atom (i) Avogadro
of ‘one’? (b) Molecule (ii) Einstein
A. helium B. hydrogen (c) Element (iii) Robert Boyle
C. sulphur D. ozone (d) Mass energy (iv) Dalton
26. The law of conservation of mass was given by relationship
A. Dalton B. Proust (a) (b) (c) (d)
C. Lavoisier D. Berzelius A. (iv) (i) (ii) (iii)
B. (iv) (i) (iii) (ii)
27. The atoms of which of the following pair of elements
C. (iv) (iii) (i) (ii)
are most likely to exist in free state?
D. (iv) (iii) (ii) (i)
A. hydrogen and helium
B. argon and carbon 39. Give reason why atomic mass has no units
C. neon and nitrogen A. It is well defined physical quantity.
D. helium and neon B. Properties of atoms are not measurable.
C. It is a ratio of masses.
28. Which of the following elements has the same D. It is the average mass.
molecular mass as its atomic mass?
40. Which of the following statement is true?
A. nitrogen B. neon
A. A photon is a waveform of light energy.
C. oxygen D. chlorine
B. A photon is a positively charged nuclear particle.
29. Charge on a positron is equal to that of C. A photon is a quantum of light.
A. proton B. electron D. A photon is a bundle of energy of definite magni-
C. nucleon D. neutron tudes but not necessarily light energy.
116
41. The positron is as heavy as 47. The maximum number of 3d electrons having spin
A. electron B. neutron
1
C. alpha particle D. proton quantum number s = are
2
42. An atom which doesn’t have any neutron is
A. deutrium B. tritium A. 10
C. helium D. hydrogen B. 14
C. 5
43. When 3p orbitals are completely filled, then the newly
entering electron goes into D. any number from 1 to 10
A. 4p B. 3d 48. In the Schrodinger’s wave equation represents
C. 4s D. 4d A. Orbit B. Wave function
44. Bohr’s model of atom is not in agreement with C. Wave D. Radial probability
A. Line spectra of hydrogen atom 49. The valence electrons of 29Cu lie in the
B. Pauli’s principle A. K-shell
C. Planck’s theory
B. M-shell
D. Heisenberg’s principle
C. N-shell
45. The total number of subshells in the nth main energy D. both M and N shell
level are
A. n 2 B. 2n 2 50. In the atomic spectrum of hydrogen, the spectral
C. (n – 1) D. n lines pertaining to electronic transition of n = 4 to
46. How many electrons in 19K have n = 3; l = 0 n = 2 refers to
A. 1 B. 2 A. Lyman lines B. Balmer lines
C. 4 D. 3 C. Paschen lines D. Brackett lines
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B B D A A A B A D
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C C D C C B C B C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A A B C A C D B A D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D B B A D C A B C C
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
A D C D D B C B C B
_______________
117
CHAPTER
9
ELECTRONIC DEVICE
Junction
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are certain elements (e.g., Ge, Si, Ga, As
and Se) which behave like good conductors under certain p-type n-type
conditions (generally at shightly elevated temperatures)
and as bad conductors when those conditions do not exist. Direction of
Their resistivities lie between 10–5 and 107 ohm m at room electric field
temperature. Depletion layer
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors: Pure Circuit Symbol of pn-junction
semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors to
P N
enhance the desirable characteristics of pure semiconductors,
certain impurities are added to them. This is called doping.
Suppose we take the case of Germanium (Ge) crystal. It’s Forward and reverse biasing on a junction diode.
atom has 4 electrons in its valence band. Thus, it needs 4 Forward Bias: When a battery is connected across the
more electrons to complete its octet. Let we dope it with junction diode with its positive terminal connected to the
phosphorus (P) which has 5 electrons in its valence band. p-side and the negative terminal connected to the n-side of
This doping will complete octets for both Ge and P, but the diode it is said to be forward biased. If the bias voltage
one electron will become extra in the lattice. Such doped is greater than the barrier potential across the depletion
semiconductors are called n-type (i.e., negative-type) layer, the majority carriers move towards the junction and
cross it, causing a flow of current.
semiconductors. Similarly, doping Ge with Boron (B) will
make it a p-type (i.e., positive-type) semiconductor. + –
pn
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
A diode made of semiconductor components, usually + –
silicon. The cathode, which is negatively charged and has
an excess of electrons, is placed adjacent to the anode, Reverse Bias: When a battery is connected across the
which has an inherently positive charge, carrying an excess junction diode with its negative terminal connected to
of holes. p-side and positive terminal connected to n-side, the diode
is said to be reverse biased.
Junction Diode: It is a device in which p-type
+ –
semi-conductor is joined with an n-type semiconductor,
pn
back to back. At their junction, within a limited width,
holes of p-type are neutralised by extra eletrons of n-type
semiconductor. This is called depletion layer. – +
117
118
Zener Breakdown and note the corresponding reverse current. On plotting the
If the reverse bias is continuously increased, then at a graph between reverse bias and reverse current, we note the
reverse biasing of pn junction diode, the reverse current is
certain value, the covalent structure breaks down and large
very small and voltage independent upto certain reversed
number of electrons are released causing an abrupt increase
bias voltage known as breakdown voltage. It is called
in current. This voltage is called Zener voltage.
reverse saturation current.
Dynamic Resistance (R): We have,
–8 –6 –4 –2 Reverse
6 bias (V)
V B
R =
I 2
3
V = small change in applied voltage
Reverse
I = corresponding change in current Current (I)
5
I-V CHARACTERISTICS IN FORWARD 10
AND REVERSE BIAS
15
Forward Characteristics: For a given low forward
bias voltage (V) note the forward current (ImA) which due
to migration of majority carriers across the pn junction. On + –
plotting, the graph between forward bias and forward
current, we get the curve OPQ. This is called forward
+ – +
characteristics. V
µA
–
– + –
V
mA
+
– +
Knee voltage: It is forward bias voltage beyond which
the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly
+ – with voltage, showing the linear variation but below the
knee voltage the variation is non-linear.
B
10 DIODE AS A RECTIFIER
C
8 Rectifier: It is a device which used for converting alternating
current/voltage in direct current (DC). A pn junction can be
6 E
used as a rectifier in two types.
I (mA)
4 (a) Half Wave Rectifier: It is based on the fact that the
2 resistance pn junction becomes low, when forward
biased and becomes high when reversed biased.
A single diode acts as a half wave rectifier.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
V +
Reverse characteristics: For a reverse bias voltage (V) AC –
applied to the pn junction not the reverse current (A) VP VTms
=V RL C
input P/ 2
which is due to magnetic of majority charge carrier across
the pn junction so on increasing the reverse biased voltage
119
Voutput with (mA) Forward Current
Capacitor (C)
Reverse Forward
Time Voltage (V) Voltage (V)
Time Cathode
Anode
Voutput without These negative voltages
Capacitor (C) (lower halves) get cut off by
the Half wave Rectifier.
(b) Full Wave Rectifier: A rectifire which rectifies both
(µA) Reverse Current
halves of the A.C. input is called a Full Wave
Rectifier. To make use of both the halves of the
ZENER DIODE AS A VOLTAGE REGULATOR
input cycle, two junction diodes are used.
Zener diode is connected to the positive terminal of the
p n + d.c. It is more heavily doped than ordinary diodes, due to
which it has narrow region. While regular diode gets
Input Voutput DC Voltage damaged when the voltage across them exceeds the reverse
AC S
P –
Voltage
+ breakdown voltage, zener diode works exclusively in
depletion region. The depletion region in zener diode goes
back to its normal state when the reverse voltage gets
p n +
removed. This particular property of zener diode makes it
Step down transformer
useful as a voltage regulator.
Input JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
AC
Voltage If a single crystal continuous crystal of a semiconductor is
grown in such a way that it is equivalent to two diodes
Time (either p-n and n-p, or n-p and p-n) fused together back to
back, such that the middle sandwitched layer is thin, it is
Output called a Junction Transistor.
DC
Voltage Junction transistors are two types npn and pnp. In a
Time npn transistor, a thin p layer is sandwiched between two
thick n type layers; and in a pnp transistor a thin n type
layer is sandwiched between two thick p type layers.
I-V CHARACTERISTICS
C C
LED (Light Emitting Diode): It is
photoelectric device which converts B B
electrical energy into light energy. It
is heavily doped pn junction diode. npn pnp
LED is made of GaAsP, GaP etc. E E
Photodiode: It is an opto- Emitter (E): It is that electrode which supplies majority
electronic device in which current carriers (i.e., positive holes in case of p-type and electrons
Light
carriers are generated by photons in case of n-type semiconductors) to the base for current
through photo excitation i.e., photo flow within the transistor.
conduction of light. Base (B): This is the electrode which is attached to the
Solar Cell: It is basically a solar middle sandwitched layer. Through it, current passes from
energy converter. It is a pn junction emitter to collector.
device, which converts solar energy Collector (C): It is the other end of the transistor,
into electrical energy. which collects the current which comes to it from the
Zener Diode: It is highly doped emitter via the base.
+
pn junction which is not damaged by high P Note: In the symbol of a transistor, arrow is put on the
reverse current. It can operated continuously, emitter. The direction of this arrow indicates the direction
without damage in the region of reverse of current within a transistor.
breakdown voltage. In the forward biased, the Whether the transistor is a pnp or an npn, base-emitter
zener diode acts as ordinary diode. It can be –
junction is Always forward-biased; and base-collector
used as voltage regulator. junction is always reverse biased.
120
-value npn transistor: The EB junction is forward biased, the
The portion of IE in the collector is called -value. positive pole of the emitter-base battery V EE is connected
to base and its negative pole to emitter.
IC
= The resistance of emitter base junction is very low. So
IE the voltage of V EE (i.e., VEB) is quite small is 1.5 V, then
where, in this case, Ie = Ib + Ic.
IC = Collector current npn
IE = Emitter current E C
-value
The portion of base-current (IE) in the collector is called
B
-value. Ie IC
Ib
IC
= – + – +
IB
Relationship between and VEE
We known IE = IC + IB
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR
From this we can derived easily
CB configuration: Base in common to both emitter and
= collector.
1
Input characteristics: When V CE is constant, curve
and + between Ie and V EB is known as input characteristics. It is
1
also known as emitter characteristics.
dc current gains
and are called V EB = – 10 V
dc current gains.
is generally 0.9 and
V CB = 20 V
is generally 1. V CE = 0
I e (mA)
Transistor is used in a circuit: It is used in any one
of the following three ways:
(i) Common Base
(ii) Common Emitter
(iii) Common Collector V E B (in V)
‘Common’ mean ‘grounded’, i.e., ‘earthed’. Input characteristics of npn transistor are also similar
to the figure but Ie and VEB both are negative and V CB is
TRANSISTOR ACTION positive. Dynamic input resistance of a transistor is given
pnp transistor: The EB junction is forward biased. It means by
the positive pole of emitter-base battery V EE is connected VEB
to emitter and its negative pole the base. Holes are majority Ri =
I e V
carriers in emitter p-type semiconductor are repelled towards CB constant
the base by positive potential an emitter due to bettery VEE, [Ri is order of 100 ]
resulting in emitter current Ie. in case, Ie = Ib + Ic. Output characteristics: Taking the emitter current Ie
pnp constant, the curve drawn between IC and VCB are known
E C as output characteristics of CB configuration.
Dynamic output resistance,
V
Ie IC R o = CB
B Ib I C Ie constant
Ie – + CE configuration: Emitter is common to both base
+ –
V CC and collector.
121
Input characteristics: Input characteristics curve is
drawn between base current Ib and emitter base voltage VEB Amplifier
at constant emitter voltage VCE.
Dynamic input resistance, Input Voltage
V
R i = BE
I B VCE constant
Output
Voltage
V CE = 20
100 V CE = 1 V
V CE = 2 V ac Volatge Gain (A V)
80 V CE = 5 V
V0 v0
Av = , where
60 Vi vi
I b (µA) 40 V0 = small change in output voltage corresponding
to Vi (small) change in input voltage.
20 ac Current gains ( ac) and (ac)
0 I C iC
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.10 ac =
I B iB
Forward Voltage
I C
Output characteristics: Variation of collector current ac = at constant VC
I e
IC with VCE can be noticed for V CE, between O and V. The
value of V CE upto which the IC charges with V CE is called Transconductance (gm) of the transistor: It is also called
Knee voltage. The transistors are operated in the region mutual conductance.
above Knee voltage. ac
gm = , where Ri = input resistance
Ri
V
Dynamic out resistance, Ro = CB I C VBE
I C IB constant = , at constant VCE
I B I B
I C
70 IB = 300 µA = , at constant VCE
VBE
60 IB = 250 µA
= Rate of change of output current w.r.t. input
50 IB = 200 µA
voltage keeping output voltage constant.
40 IB = 150 µA
Power Gain (Ap)
IC 30 IB = 100 µA Ap = Current gain × Voltage gain
20 IB = 50 µA RL
IB = 0 mA
Ap = 2ac
10 Ri
5 10 15 20
Resistance Gain
VCE (Volt) R out or R L
Resistance gain =
R input or R i
TRANSITOR AS AN AMPLIFIER Common Base Amplifier
An amplifier is a device, which is used for increasing the E C
amplitude of variation of alternating voltage/current or
power. The amplifier thus produces an enlarged version of IE IC
B
Output
input signal.
RL
To amplify means to increase the amplitude of the IB
input signal without changing its frequency or wavelength.
V EB V CB
The general concept is represented below:
+
2731 (Physics)—16
122
(a) Voltage Gain E 0 I C (R L I C ) I C
IE = increment change in IE Power Gain =
E i I B (R i I B ) I B
IC = incremental change in IC 2
Ei = Input voltage I R
= C L
Ri = Input Resistance I B R i
E0 = Output voltage = ac2 × Resistance gain
RL = Load Resistance
E i = Ri × IE Transistor as an Oscillator
E 0 = RL × IC The radio waves which are used as carrier waves in radio
E 0 R L I C communication are produced by the circuits called
Voltage gain = oscillators. The damped em wave suitable for the
Ei R i I E
transmission of code messages on telegraphic messages but
RL I C to transmit speech or music, we require undamped em
= ac I waves or carrier waves. The block diagram of feedback
Ri E
oscillator.
= ac × Resistance gain
(b) Power Gain Transistor as
Output
an oscillator
Power Output = E0 × IC
Power Input = Ei × IE
E 0 I C
Power Gain =
E i I E Feedback
Circuit
(R L I C ) I C
=
(R i I E ) I E
2
I C R L
= C
I E R i
B +
= 2ac × Resistance gain npn
VCC
Common Emitter Amplifier E
–
Output L C
npn IC
IB
Input Signal
Output
IE VBB K
V EB
+ LOGIC GATES COR, AND,
V CB
NOT, NAND AND NOR
(a) Voltage Gain
Logic gates are the building blocks of a digital system. A
Voltage input = IB × Ri gate is a electronic circuit which follows a logical
Voltage output = IC × RL relationship between input and output voltages and for this
I C R L reason, it is called a logic gate.
Voltage Gain = There are three basic logic gates.
I B R i
1. OR gate 2. AND gate and
= ac = Resistance Gain
3. NOT gate.
(b) Power Gain
Each logic gate has its characterisitics symbol its
Power Output = E0 × IC function is defined either by a truth table or by a Boolean
Power Input = Ei × IB expression.
123
In digital circuit, low and high voltage are often 0 = 1 and 1 = 0
represented by 0 and 1 respectively. The NOT operation is also called negation or inversion.
Truth Table: It is a table that shows all input/output
possibilities for a logic gate. It is also called a table of A Y
combinations. 1 0
Boolean Expression: George Boolean invented a 0 1
different kind of algebra based on binary nature (two valued)
of logic. It was first applied to switching circuits, as a The NAND gate
switch is a binary device (on or off). If the output of AND gate is connected to the input of NOT
gate, the gate so obtained is called NAND gate.
Logic gates are applied in digital circuits.
A Y
‘OR’ GATE Y
In Boolean algebra, addition symbol (+) is referred to as B
OR gate.
A
A Y
Y B
B
Boolean expression for the NAND gate is
y = A + B Y = equals A or B.
Truth table of the ‘OR’ gate y= A.B
A B Y Truth Table
0 0 0 A B y y
0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
‘AND’ GATE
The multiplication sign [either × or] is referred to an AND The NOR gate
gate. If the output (y) of OR gate is connected to the input of
A a NOT gate, the gate so obtained is called the NOR gate.
Y
B A Y
Y
Y = A.B implies Y equals A and B B
Truth table of ‘AND’ gate.
A
A B Y Y
0 0 0 B
1 0 0 Boolean expression for the NOR gate is
0 1 0
1 1 1
y= A+B
Truth Table
‘NOT’ GATE
A B y y
The bar symbol (– ) is referred to NOT gate. Y = A implies
0 0 0 1
Y equals NOT A.
1 0 1 0
Y
0 1 1 0
A
1 1 1 0
124
NAND or NOR gate is building block in digital circuit
A
(i) To create Not gate by NAND gate A
Y Y
If the two input terminals are joined together, you B
get a NOT gate B
(ii) To create AND gate by NAND gates
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
A A
Y The transistors that are full ‘OFF’ are said to be in their cut
Y off region. When using the transistor as a switch, a small
B B base current controls a much larger collector load current,
when using transistors to switch inductive loads such as
(iii) To create OR gate by NAND gates relays and solonoids, a fly wheel diode is used.
EXERCISE
1. A piece of semiconductor is connected in series in an 6. A triode has a mutual conductance of 2.5 m A/V and
electric circuit on increasing the temperature, the a plate resistance of 20 k. Calculate the load
current in the circuit will resistance required for a voltage gain of 30.
A. stop flowing B. decrease A. 10 k B. 20 k
C. increase D. remain unchanged C. 30 k D. 40 k
2. A common emitter transistor amplifier has a current 7. In a triode, the plate current changes by 0.5 mA when
gain of 50. If the load resistance is 4 k and the the plate potential is changed by 12 V. Find the plate
input resistance is 500 , find the voltage gain of the resistance. If the amplification factor is 16, find the
amplifier. change in the grid voltage necessary to produce a
A. 700 B. 400 change of 4 mA in the plate current.
C. 500 D. 900 A. 4 V B. 2 V
3. In a pn-junction photo cell, the value of photo electro C. 7 V D. 6 V
motive force produced by monochromatic light 8. A p-type semiconductor has acceptor level 57 MeV
proportional to the above the valence band. The maximum wavelength
A. frequency of light falling on the cell of light required to create a hole is
B. voltage applied at pn-junction A. 57 Å B. 57 × 10–3 Å
C. intensity of light falling on the cell C. 217100 Å° D. 11.61 × 10–33 Å
D. barrier voltage at pn-junction 9. A triode value has amplification factor 33 and anode
4. A transistor is connected in common emitter (CE) resistance of 16 kilo ohm. It is required to amplify a
configuration. The collector supply is 8 V and the sinusodial signal of 0.5 V to give on output of 12.5
voltage drop across a resistor of 800 in the collector volt. Determine the load resistance required.
circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor () is 0.96, A. 70 × 103 B. 40 × 103
C. 50 × 10 3 D. 80 × 103
find the base current.
A. 40 A B. 35 A 10. The slope of anode and mutual characteristics of a
C. 26 A D. 15 A triode value are 0.02 mA/volt and 1 mA/volt. Then
5. The input resistance of a common emitter amplifier is the amplification factor of the value is
665 and the load resistance is 5 k. A change of A. 5 B. 50
base current by 15 A results in the change of C. 500 D. 0.5
collector current by 2 mA. Find the voltage gain of 11. 14 × 1015 electrons reach the anode per second. If the
the amplifier. power consumed is 448 milli-watts, the anode voltage is
A. 1002 B. 4300 A. 150 V B. 200 V
C. 2100 D. 6103 C. 14 × 448 V D. 448/14 V
125
12. A change of 0.5 mA in the plate current of a triode 20. The probability of electrons to be found in the
occurs when the plate potential is changed by 12 V. conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor at a
Find the plate resistance. If the amplification factor is finite temperature.
16, find the change in grid voltage required to produce A. decreases exponentially with increasing band gap.
a change of 4 mA in the anode current. B. decreases with increasing temperature
A. 600 V B. 0.006 V C. increasing exponentially with increasing band gap
C. 6 V D. 60 V D. is independent of the temperature and the band
gap
13. The voltage amplification of a triode is 20 with 50
k and 25 with 75 k load resistance. Determine the 21. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
value constant. increases when electromagnetic radiation of
A. 6.66 × 10–4 mho B. 5.55 × 10–4 mho wavelength shorter than 2480 nm is incident on it.
–4
C. 2.22 × 10 mho D. 8.88 × 10–4 mho The band gap (in eV) for the semiconductor is
A. 0.8 B. 0.5
14. A diode operating in sapce charge limited region has C. 0.7 D. 0.9
an anode voltage of 80 V when the current is 100
mA. What is the anode voltage and anode dissipation 22. A Light Emitting Diode (LED) has a voltage drop 2 V
if the current is 60 mA? across it and passed a current of 10 mA, when it
A. 50.2 V, 4.20 W B. 54.6 V, 3.38 W operates with a V battery through a limit resistor R.
C. 60.3 V, 8.29 W D. 30.1 V, 6.53 W The value of R is
A. 5 B. 250
15. A transistor, connected in comm on emitter C. 400 D. 300
configuration, has input resistance Rin = 2 k and
load resistance of 5 k. If = 60 and an input signal 23. The part of transistor, which is heavily doped to
12 mV is applied. Calculate the resistance gain, produce a large number of majority carriers is called
voltage gain, the power gain and the value of output A. emitter B. base
signal. C. collector D. diode
A. 2.5, 1.8 V, 9000 B. 5.2, 8.1 V, 7000 24. In a transistor amplifier, the two ac current gains
C. 6.2, 9.8 V, 6000 D. 7.6, 4.3 V, 2000 I C I C
and are defined as = and = . The
16. The current gain of a common base circuit is 0.97. I E I B
Calculate the current gain of common emitter circuit. relation between and is
A. 4.41 B. 8.13
C. 5.62 D. 32.3 A. B.
1 1
17. In a common base circuit of a transistor, current 1 1
amplification factor is 0.95. Calculate the base current C. D.
when emitter current is 2 mA.
A. 0.1 mA B. 100 mA 25. In an npn transistor, 108 electrons enter the emitter in
C. 10 mA D. 1 mA 10–8 s. If 1% electrons are lost in the base, the fraction
of current that enters the collector and current
18. In a common-base circuit of a transistor, current amplification factor are respectively.
amplification factor is 0.95. Calculate the emitter A. 0.9 and 90 B. 0.8 and 49
current when base current is 0.2 mA. C. 0.99 and 99 D. 0.7 and 50
A. 6 mA B. 2 mA
26. The graph given below represents the I-V
C. 9 mA D. 4 mA
characteristics of zener diode, which part of the
19. In which case is the junction diode forward biased characteristics curve is most relevant for its operation
+6V +12V as voltage regulator?
A.
I (µA)
Forward
–2V –2.5V bias
B. Reverse
bias
0V 2V d b
C. c V
–2V 0V
D.
e I (µA)
126
A. ab B. bc
A
C. cd D. de
27. The saturation current of a pn junction germanium at
Y
27°C, is 10–5. What will be the required potential to
be applied in order to obtained a current of 250 mA
in forward bias? B
A. 0.26 V B. 0.34 V A. NOR B. OR
C. 0.41 V D. 0.54 V C. AND D. NAND
28. A transistor is connected in common emitter 35. A certain logic circuit has A and B as the two inputs
configuration. The collector supply is 8 V and the and y as the output. What is the logic gate in the
voltage drop across a resistor of 800 in the collector circuit, if the truth table of circuit is shown?
circuit is 0.5 V. If the current gain factor () is 0.96,
then the base current will be A B Y
A. 0.125 mA B. 0.0256 mA 0 0 0
C. 0.041 mA D. 0.098 mA 1 0 1
29. A pn photodiode is fabricated from a semiconductor 0 1 1
with band gap of 2.8 eV. Which of the following
1 1 0
wavelengths it can detect?
A. 442 nm B. 580 nm A. NAND B. XOR
C. 820 nm D. 950 nm C. NOR D. OR
30. A Ge specimen is dopped with Al. The concentration 36. When the inputs of two input logic gate are 0 and 0,
of accepter atoms is 10 2 atom m –3. Given the the output is 1. When the inputs are 1 and 0, the
intrinsic concentration of electron hole pair is 1019 output is zero. The type of logic gate is
m –3. The concentration of electrons in the specimen A. XOR B. NAND
is C. NOR D. OR
A. 102 m –3 B. 104 m –3 37. In the given circuit, the potential difference between
17
C. 10 m –3 D. 1015 m –3 A and B is
31. In a semiconducting material, the mobilities of 10 k A
electrons and holes are e and h respectively. Which
of the following is true?
A. e < h B. 0 < 0, h > 0 30 V 10 k 10 k
C. e = h D. e > h
32. A small impurity is added to germanium to get p-type
B
semiconductor. This impurity is a
A. 15 V B. 10 V
A. pentavalent substance B. bivalent substance
C. 18 V D. 20 V
C. monovalent substance D. trivalent substance
38. The common emitter amplifier has a voltage gain 50,
33. In the following CE configuration, an npn transistor
an input impedance of 100 and an output
with current gain = 100 is used. The output voltage
impedance of 200 . The power gain of the amplifier
of the amplifier will be
is
A. 1000 B. 1250
C. 100 D. 500
10 k
1k 39. A transistor is operated in CE configuration at constant
Vout collector voltage V C = 1.5 V, such that a change in
the base current from 100 A to 150 A produces. A
change in the collector current from 5 mA to 10 mA.
The current gain is
A. 10 V B. 1 V A. 50 B. 67
C. 0.1 V D. 10 mV C. 100 D. 75
34. Which logic gate is represented by the following 40. The number of density of electrons and holes in pure
combination of logic gates? silicon at 27°C are equal and its value is 2.0 × 1016
127
m –3 on doping within, the hole density increases to A. D 1 B. D2
4.5 × 1022 m –3, the electron density dopes silicon is C. D3 D. D1 and D3
A. 3.57 × 108 m –3 B. 8.89 × 109 m –3 44. A zener diode has a contact potential of 0.8 V in the
9
C. 3.25 × 10 m –3 D. 0.89 × 109 m –3 absence of biasing. It undergoes zener breakdown for
41. In pn junction diode, the reverse saturation current is an electric field of 106 V/m at the depletion region
10–5 A at 27°C. Find the forward current for a voltage of pn junction. If the width of the depletion region
0.2 V. Given exp 7.62 = 2038, K = 1.4 × 10–23 JK–1 is 2.4 m, what should be the reverse biased potential
A. 2.04 × 10–3 A B. 2.04 × 10–2 A for the zener breakdown to occur?
–2
C. 1.04 × 10 A D. 0.34 × 10–2 A A. 2.4 V B. 3.4 V
C. 4.1 V D. 5.6 V
42. A transistor has a current amplification factor (current
gain) of 50. In a CE amplifier circuit, the collector 45. In the following circuit, the current flowing through
resistance is chosen as 5 and the input resistance 1 k resistor is
is 1 . Calculate the outvolt, if input voltage is 500
0.01 V.
A. 1.5 V B. 0.5 V
C. 2.5 V D. 3.5 V 10 V 1k
43. Three photodiodes D 1 , D 2 and D 3 are made of
semiconductors having band gaps of 2.5 eV, 2 eV
and 3 eV respectively. Which ones will be able to A. 5 mA B. 1 mA
detect light of wavelength 6000 Å? C. 3 mA D. 0 mA
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B C C A C D C C B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B C A B A D A D B A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
B C A A C D A B A C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D D B D B C B B C B
41 42 43 44 45
B C B A A
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
1. It is because with rise in temperature, the resistance 0.5
of semiconductor decreases, therefore, overall 4. Collector current Ie = A
800
resistance of circuit decreases. Which in turn increases
I 0.96
the current in the circuit. Current gain = c 24
I b 1 1 – 0.96
ac R L
2. Voltage gain Av = Ic 0.5
Ri Ib = 26 A
24 800 24
50 4000
= = 400. I c 2 10 3 2
500 5. ac = 10 3
6
3. If a light wavelength sufficient to break the covalent I b 15 10 15
bond falls on the junction, new hole electron pairs Voltage gain
are created. Number of produced electron hole pairs R 2 10 3 5000
AV = ac L
depend upon number of photons. Hence, current is Ri 15 665
proportional to intensity of light. = 1002
128
R L R g P V 12 V
6. We have, Voltage gain A = P m L 12. As, r p = P Vg 24000
RP RL RP RL iP 0.5 mA
20 10 3 2.5 10 3 R L 16
10 3 mho
30 = gm =
20 10 R L 3 rp 24
RL = 30 k i p
gm = (ip/Vg) V P or Vg =
VP 12 gm
7. Plate Resistance RP =
I P 0.5 10 3 4 mA
= 6 volt
= 24 k (16 / 24) 10 3
Mutual Conductance RL (50 103 )
16 13. As, A = ;20
gm = 1 rp R L rp (50 103 )
R P 24000
(75 10 3 )
I P 25 =
But gm = rp (75 10 3 )
Vg
r p = 75 k and = 50
I P 4 10 3
Vg = 2400 6 V
Vg 16 50
gm = 6.66 10 4 mho
rp 75 10 3
hc hc
8. As, = E =
E 14. As, Ip = KV3/2
p or 100 = K (80)
3/2
6.6 10 –34 3 108 60 = K (V p)3/2
=
57 10 3 1.6 10 19 3/2
VP 60
= 0.2171 × 10–4 m 80 =
100
= 217100 Å or VP = 54.6 volt
9. We have, A = Voltage gain Anode dissipation
Output voltage = IP VP = 54.6 × 60 × 10–3 = 3.38 W
=
Input voltage
Rc 5
12.5 15. The resistance gain = 2.5
= 25 R in 2
0.5
Output voltage R
rL Voltage gain = c
As, A= or 25 Input voltage R in
rP rL
A = 60 × 2.5 = 150
33rL
= Output voltage = 150 × Input voltage
16 103 rL = 150 × 12 × 10–3
33rL = 25 × 16 × 103 + 25 rL = 1.8 V
or rL = (25 × 16 × 103)/8
2 R c
= 50 × 103 As, Power gain = 60 60 2.5 9000
R in
10. As, (ip/Vp) = 02 mA/Volt (ip/Vg)
= 1 mA/volt 0.97 0.97
16. As, = 32.3
= (Vp/Vg) 1 1 0.97 0.03
= 1/0.2 = 50 IC IC
17. As, = or 0.95
IE 2 10 3
P P 448 10 3
11. As, V = IC = 1.90 × 10–3 = 1.9 mA
i ne 14 1015 1.6 10 19
= 200 V IB = IE – IC = 2 mA – 1.9 mA = 0.1 mA
129
For the breakdown region,
IC
18. As, =
Ie I (µA)
d
or IC = 0.95 Ie
Ic = Ib + Ic V2 V1 (V)
= 0.2 mA + 0.95 Ie d b
c
Ie = 4 mA
19. We have,
e I (µA)
–2V –2.5V
Thus, the characteristics curve de is most relevant for
its operation as voltage regulator.
20. At finite temperature, the probability of jumping an 27. I = I0[eev/kT–1] or eeV/kT
electron from valence band to conduction band
decreases exponentially with the increasing band gap. 1
= 1
(E g)n = n0e–Eg /KBT I0
250 10 3
hc 1237.5 eV = 1 25001
21. As, Eg = 0.5 eV 10 5
max 2480 nm
eV
or = 10.126
22. A LED is connected to a battery through resistance in kT
series, hence the current flowing is 10 mA. 10.126 kT
or V =
The voltage drop across LED = 2 V e
As the battery has 6 V, the potential difference across, 10.126 1.38 10 23 300
=
R =4V 1.6 10 19
IR = 4 V
V = 0.26 V
4V
or R = 400
10 10 3 A VL
0.5 5
mA
28. As, IC =
R L 800 8
23. The emitter of transistor is heavily dopped so to act
as source of majority charge carriers. Ic 1
Ib = I e – I c = Ic Ic 1
24. Clearly, the relation between
and is, = 5 1
1 = 1 0.0256 mA
8 0.96
25. 108 electrons enter the emitter is 10–8 s
108 106 10 19 1240
IE = A = 5 mA 29. As, = nm 442 nm
8 2.8
10
30. Given, As n i = 1019 m –3 and nh = 1021 m –3
I
1% of IE is lost in base i.e., IB = E n i2 = nenh
100
99 ni2 1019 1019
90% IE i.e., I enters the collector, ne = 1017 m 3
100 E nh 10 21
IC = 0.99 IE
31. The mobility of an electron in the conduction band
I 0.99 I E is more than the mobility of a hole in valence band,
So, the amplification factory, = C 99
I B 0.01 I E i.e., e > h.
26. When reverse bias is greater than the V i, there is 32. A trivalent impurity added to germaniam produces a
breakdown condition p-type semiconductor.
2731 (Physics)—17
130
Vo R eV
33. As, AV = o 41. As, I = I 0 exp 1 since, I 0 10 5 A
Vi Ri kT
Ro 10 1.6 10 19 0.2
or Va = Vi 10 –3 100 1 V I = 10 5 e 23
1 10 5 [e 7.62 1]
Ri 1 1.4 10 300
34. NAND gate is a universal gate because it repeated, it = 10–5 (2038.6 – 1) = 2037.6 × 10–5
can give all basic gate like OR, AND and NOT gates. = 2.04 × 10–2 A
35. XOR gate gives high output for two difference values 42. Given, = 50, Rc = 54 = 5 × 103
of inputs. RB = 14 = 1 × 103 ,
36. The logic gate must be a NOR gate, whose output is V2 = 0.01 V, V0 = ?
high, if both the inputs are low.
The voltage given of CE amplifier,
37. The forward biased p-n junction does not offer any Ro V R
resistance, AV = or o C
Ri Vi RB
10 10 R C Vi
RAB = 5 k
10 10 Vo = R
B
Total resistance, R = 10 + 5 = 15 k 50 5 10 3 0.01
= 2.5 V
V 30 1 10 3
Current in the circuit, I = A
R 15 103 43. As, E = hv = hc
I = 2 × 10–3 A 6.6 10 34 3 108
=
6 10 7 1.6 10 19
I
Current through each arm = 10 –3 A = 2.06 eV
2
For the incident radiation to be detected by the
VAB = 10 × 103 × 10–3
photodiode, energy incident radiation photon should
= 10 V be greater than that the band gap. This is true only
for D 2.
A 2v (50)2
38. Ap = A v, Ai = 1250 44. Given, the breakdown field E = 106 Vm –1
Ar 200 / 100
The width of the depleton region,
I C (10 5) mA d = 2.4 × 10–6 m
39. Current gain, =
I B (150 100) A Vbreakdown = E × d = 106 × 2.4 × 10–6
= 2.4 V
5 10 3
= 100 45. From fig, we see that, the zener diode is used as a
50 10 6 voltage regulator device.
40. Given, ni = 2 × 106 m –3, So, the voltage across 1 k is 5 V
nh = 4.5 × 1022 m –3 Current flowing through 1 k resistor,
ni3 6 3
(2 10 ) 5V
As, ne = I =
nh 4.5 10 22 1 10 3
9 3
= 8.89 10 m = 5 10 3 A 5 mA
2731 (Physics)—17-II
131
CHAPTER
10
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Very High (v.h.f.) FM radio, police, meteorology device
PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC 30 MHz – 300 MHz
WAVES IN ATMOSPHERE Ultra high (u.h.f) TV (bands 4 and 5), aircraft landing
300 MHz – 3 GHz system
The earth plays an important role in the propagation of
Microwave Radar, communication satellities,
electromagnetic waves from one place to another place on Above 3 GHz mobile telephones and TV links
the surface of the earth. The sun is the main source of
electromagnetic radiation and it sends out EM waves of (1 GHz = 109 Hz)
different wavelengths towards the earth. As the EM waves
The Earth’s Atmosphere: The envelop of gaseous
propagate through the earth’s atmosphere, a major part of
surrounding the earth is called atmosphere. It is divided
it is absorbed by the atmosphere. Most of the infra-red
radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and the atmosphere into various regions as given below.
gets heated. Troposphere: It extends upto a height of 10 km. The
Radio waves are a member of the electromagnetic temperature decreases with height from 290 K to 220 K.
family of waves. They are energy-carriers which travel at Stratosphere: It extends from 10 km to 50 km from the
the speed of light c, their frequency f and wavelength surface of the earth. There is ozone layer in this region in
being related, as for any wave motion, by the equation between 30 km to 50 km which absorbs a large portion of
v = ƒ UV radiations. The temperature of this region varies from
220 K to 280 K.
where,
Mesosphere: It extends from 50 km to 65 km from the
v = c = 3.0 × 10 8 ms–1 in a vacuum (or air). If
surface of the earth. The temperature of this region falls
= 300 m, then f = v = 3.0 × 108 ms–1/(3.0 × 102 m)
= 106 Hz = 1 MHz. The smaller is, the larger f. from 280 K to 180 K with height.
Radio waves can be described either by their frequency Ionosphere: It extends from 65 km to 400 km from the
surface of earth. The temperature of this region increases
or their wavelength, but the former is more fundamental
with height from 180 K to 700 K that is why it is called
since, unlike (and v), f does not change when the waves
thermosphere.
travel from one medium to another. They have frequencies
extending from about 30 kHz upwards and are grouped
into bands, as shown in the table
SKY AND SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION
Frequency band Some uses
Sky Wave Propagation
Low (I.f) Long-wave radio and communication
30 kHz – 300 kHz over large distances When the radio waves from the transmitting antenna reah
Medium (m.f.) Medium-wave, local and distant radio the receiving antenna after reflection in ionosphere, the
300 kHz – 3 MHz wave propagation is called sky wave propagation.
High (h.f) short-wave radio and communication This travels skywards and, if it is below a certain
3 MHz – 30 MHz amateur and CB radio
critical frequency (typically 30 MHz) is returned to earth
131
132
by the ionosphere. This consists of layers of air molecules AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY MODULATION
(the D, E and F layers), stretching from about 80 km above
the earth to 500 km, which have becomes positively charged Amplitude Modulation (AM)
through the removal of electrons by the sun’s ultraviolet When the modulating wave is super imposed on a high
radiation. On striking the earth, the sky wave bounces back frequency carrier wave in a manner that frequency of the
to the ionosphere where it is again gradually refracted and modulated wave is same as that of the carrier wave but its
returned earthwards as if by ‘reflection’. This continues amplitude is modified in accordance with that of the
until it is completely attenuated. modulating wave, the process is called amplitude
The critical frequency varies with the time of day and modulation.
the seasons. Sky waves of low, medium and high frequencies The information signal is used to vary the amplitude
can travel thousands of kilometres but at very high frquency of the carrier so that it follows the wave shape of the
and above they usually pass through the ionosphere into information signal.
outer space.
Information
If both the surface wave and the sky wave from a signal
transmitter are received at the same place, interference can +
occur if the two waves are out of phase. When the phase
difference varies the signal ‘fades’, i.e., goes weaker and
Carrier
stronger. If the range of the surface wave for the signal is
less than the distance to the point where the sky wave
first reaches the earth, there is a zone which receives no =
signal.
Space Wave Propagation Modulated
carrier
When the radio waves from transmitting antenna reach the
receiving antenna either directly or after reflection from the
ground or in troposphere, the wave propagation is called
Amplitude modulation
space wave propagation.
If a wave comes directly from a transmitting antenna The modulated signal contains other frequencies called
and is received by a receiving antenna, it is called a line- side frequencies, which are created on either side of the
of-sight wave of a space wave. For very high frequency, carrier (a single frequency) in the process of modulation. If
ultra high frequency and microwave signals, only the space the carrier frequency is fc and the modulating signal is fm,
wave, giving line-of-sight transmission is effective. A range two new frequencies of fc – fm and fc + fm are produced, one
of up to 150 km is possible on the earth if the transmitting below fc and the other above it.
antenna is on high ground and there are no intervening Information
Modulator Transmitter
obstacles such as hills, building or trees. Transmission via source
communication satellites is considered later.
Carrier Propagating
NEED FOR MODULATION medium
The sound waves (20 Hz to 20 kHz) cannot be transmitted Receptor of
Demodulator Receiver
directly from one place to another for the following reasons. information
Height of Antenna: For efficient radiation and Communication System
reception, the height of transmitting and receiving antennas
should be comparable to a quarter of wavelengths of the Lower Carrier Upper
side side
frequency used for 15 kHz it is 5000 m. frequency frequency
Detecting Signals: Modulation is necessary for a low
frequency signal, when it is to be sent to a distant place,
so that information may not out in the way itself as well
as for proper. Identification of a signal and to keep the
height of antenna small. fc – fm fc f c + fm
133
If, as usually occurs in practice, the carrier is modulated +
by a range of audio frequencies a.f., each a.f. gives rise to
a pair of side frequencies. The result is a band of frequencies, a.f signal
called the lower and upper sidebands, stretching below and
above the carrier by the value of the highest modulating
+
frequency.
r.f signal
For example, If f c = 1 M Hz and the highest
fm = 7 kHz = 0.007 MHz, then fc – fm = 0.993 MHz and
fc + fm = 1.007 MHz. +
Lower Carrier Upper FM signal
Side side
band band
Frequency modulation
The sketch shows frequency modulation; not that when
the a.f. signal is positive, the carrier frequency increases
0.993 MHz 1 MHz 1.007 MHz but it decreases when the a.f. signal is negative.
Band-width In FM, each a.f. modulating frequency produces a large
(2 × 0.007 MHz = 14 kHz) number of side frequency (not two as in AM) but the more
they differ from the carrier the more is the decrease in their
The bandwidth of a signal is the range of frequencies amplitudes. In theory, therefore, the band width of an FM
the signal occupies. For intelligible speech it is about system should be extremely wide but in practice the ‘out-
3 kHz (e.g. 300 Hz to 3400 Hz as in the telephone system), side’ side frequency can be omitted without noticeable
for high-quality music it is 16 kHz approx. and for distortion. The bandwidth may be taken as roughly
television signals around 8 MHz. The bandwidth of the ±(fc + fm) where fc is the deviation and fm is the highest
carrier and sidebands in the figure is 14 kHz. modulation frequency. The BBC uses a 250 kHz bandwidth
which is readily accommodated in the v.h.f. (very high
Frequency Modulation (FM) frequency) radio broadcasting band and also allows fm to
When the modulating wave is super imposed on a high have the full range of audio frequencies. This accounts of
frequency carrier wave in a manner that the amplitude of the batter sound quality of FM radio.
modulated wave is same as that of the carrier wave, but its Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): This is the process by
frequency is modified in accordance with the amplitude of which an analog signal is changed into a digital one before
the modulating wave, the process is called frequency it is transmittd by cable or radio wave.
modulation.
In this case the frequency of the r.f. (radio frequency
carrier, not the amplitude, is changed by the a.f. signal. The
change or ‘deviation’ is proportional to the amplitude of Analogue
the a.f. at the any instant. signal
For example, if a 100 MHz carrier is modulated by a
Voltage
1V 1 kHz sine wave, the carrier frequency might swing
15 kHz either side, if 100 MHz, i.e., from 100.015 to
99.985 MHz, and this would happen 1000 times a
second. A 2V 1 kHz signal would cause a swing of ±30 kHz
at the same rate; for a 2V, 2 kHz signal the swing remains
at ±30 kHz but it occurs 2000 times a second. By
international agreement, the maximum deviation allowed
is ±75 kHz. Time
134
PAM signal
Voltage
Pulse amplitude
modulated Time
signal
Voltage
High frequency analog signal
PAM signal
Voltage
Time
Time
Low frequency analog signal
The amplitude of the analog signal is ‘sampled’ at
regular time intervals to find its value and a pulse amplitude The highest frequency of intelligible speech in the
modulated (PAM) signal is obtained. The values are telephone system in 3400 Hz and a sampling system
measured on a scale of equally spaced voltage levels. Each frequency of 8000 Hz is chosen, i.e., samples are choosen
level is represented in binary code by the appropriate pattern at 125 s intervals, each sample lasting for 2 to 3 s. An
of electrical pulses, i.e., by a certain bit-pattern of electrical 8-bite code (giving 28 = 256 levels, represented by
pulses, i.e., by a certain bit pattern. A 3-bit code, can 00000000 to 11111111) is used and so the number of bits
represent up to eight levels (0 to 7); four bits would allow that have to be transmitted per second, called the bit-rate,
sixteen levels to be coded. The bit-pattern is sent as a series is 8 × 8000 = 64000 = 64 kilobits/s.
of pulses, called a pulse code modulated (PCM) signal. In general, we can write
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 bit rate = no. of bits × sampling frequency
For good quality, music where frequencies up to about
16 kHz must be transmitted, the sampling frequency is 32
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 kHz and a 16-bit code (216 = 65236 levels) is used. The
bit-rate is therfore 16 × 32 = 512 kbits/s. For television
signal which carry much more information, a bit-rate of
70,000,000 = 70 Mbit/s is required.
The accuracy of the representation increases with the
number of voltage levels and the sampling frequency. The Modulation Factor (m) for AM: It is the ratio of half
latter should be at least twice as great as the highest the difference between the maximum and minimum
frequency of the analog signal since it is sampled least amplitudes to the average amplitude. When multiplied by
often. 100, this gives percentage of modulation.
Voltage Digital signal Sampling
Analogue signal
level (binary code) time
6 6 1 1 0 t1
5 5 1 0 1 t2
4 4 1 0 0 t3
3 3
2 2 t4
0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 t5
0 0 0 0 0 t0 , t6
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
135
(VM Vm ) / 2 VM Vm modulated wave. Dotted line shows this average
m= voltage fluctuations. If fed to the diaphragn of a
(VM Vm ) / 2 VM Vm
speaker, while the modulated wave will not cause
m = modulation factor vibrations, the rectified modulated wave will not
VM = maximum amplitude of the voltage of the cause vibrations, the rectified modulated wave will
modulated wave obviously cause vibrations in the diaphragm.
Vm = minimum amplitude of the voltage of the (ii) It separates out the signal from the carrier. This
modulated wave recovering is done by a filter circuit. A filter is a
selective network of resistors, inductors, or capacitors
Vm which offers comparatively little opposition to certain
Vm frequencies or to direct current, while blocking or
attenuating other frequencies. Thus it is a device or
program that separates data, signals, or materials in
accordance with specified criteria. it is called an
Demodulation or Detection: As stated already, extractor or mask also.
demodulation means to recover the input signals from the
modulated wave. These input signals can be audio or visual BANDWIDTH OF SIGNALS
or of some other type. A demodulator or detector circuit
performs two essential function. The message signal in any communication system may be
voice, music, picture etc. Difference signals have different
(i) It rectifies the modulated wave. Half-wave rectifier is
ranges of frequencies. The range over which the frequencies
used as shown in the sketch.
in an information signal vary is call bandwidth.
Bandwidth is equal to the difference between the
V
highest and lowest frequencies present in the signal.
The type of the communication channel needed for a
given signal depends on the band of frequencies to be
transmitted.
t
Modulated wave BANDWIDHT OF TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
The bandwidth of transmission medium is defined as the
V difference the heightest and lowest frequencies that system
allows to pass through it i.e., it pass band.
t The bandwidth of a transmission system must be
Rectified modulated wave
sufficiently large to pass all the significant information
frequencies. When a television cable transmission has a
Thus, the average of voltage fluctuation is zero in pass band from 50 kHz to 5000 kHz, so that it has a
the modulated wave, it is not zero in the rectified bandwidth of 4500 kHz or 4.5 MHz.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
(Block Diagram Only)
Information Message Transmitter Communication Received Message User of
Transmitter Receiver
Source Signal Signal Channel Signal Signal Information
Noise Communication System
EXERCISE
1. Choose the correct options regarding frequency B. The frequency is modulated wave varies as
modulation amplitude of modulating wave
A. The amplitude of modulated wave varies as C. The frequency of modulated wave varies as
amplitude of carrier wave frequency of modulating wave
136
D. The frequency of modulated wave varies as of A. 5 B. 10
modulating wave frequency C. 15 D. 18
2. An audio signal 15 sin 2 (1500 t) amplitude modulates 12. Through which mode of propagation, the radio waves
60 sin 2 (105) t. The depth of modulation percentage is can be sent from one place to another?
A. 25% B. 20% A. Sky wave propagation
C. 50% D. 40% B. Space wave propagation
3. An AM wave is given by V = 150 [1 + 0.5 sin 12860 C. Ground wave propagation
t] sin (5.26 × 10 5 t). What will be modulating D. All of the above
frequency? 13. In AM wave the modulation index is 100%. If the
A. 2.04 kHz B. 5.4 kHz carrier is suppressed the percentage saving in power
C. 12.5 kHz D. 50 kHz will be
4. A carrier wave of peak voltage 12 V is used to transmit A. 66.6% B. 50%
a message signal. What should be the peak voltage C. 75% D. None of these
of the modulating signal in order to have a modulation 14. A 1000 kHz carrier wave is modulated by an audio
index of 75% signal of frequency range 100-5000 Hz. Then,
A. 4 V B. 6 V bandwidth of channel is
C. 9 V D. 12 V A. 5 kHz B. 10 kHz
5. In a FM system, a 7 kHz signal modulates 107.6 MHz C. 15 kHz D. 20 kHz
so that the frequency deviation is 50 kHz. The carrier 15. The velocity of all radio waves in free space is
swing will be 3 × 10 8 m/s. The frequency of a radio wave of
A. 7.143 B. 8 wavelength 150 m is
C. 10 D. None of these A. 1 MHz B. 2 MHz
6. The sky wave propogates a 10 MHz signal, what C. 2 kHz D. 20 kHz
should be the m inim um electron density in 16. If total power content of an A.M. wave is 2.64 kW at
ionosphere? 80% modulation, then power content of each side
A. 2.3 × 106 m –3 B. 1.2 × 1012 m –3 band are
C. 1.0 × 1022 m –3 D. 1.2 × 1014 m –3 A. 1.32 kW B. 2.64 kW
7. A radar has a power of 1 kw and is operating at a C. 660 watt D. 320 watt
frequency of 10 GHz. It is located on a mountain top 17. The maximum usable frequency in F-layer with
of height 500 m. The maximum distance up to which original frequency of 50 MHz will be
it can detect object located on the surface of the earth A. 181 MHz B. 150 MHz
(Radius of earth = 6.4 × 106 m) is C. 250 MHz D. 300 MHz
A. 50 km B. 63 km
C. 80 km D. 40 km 18. The number of AM broadcast stations that can be
accommodated in a 300 kHz bandwidth for the highest
8. A modulated wave has maximum amplitude of modulating frequency 15 kHz will be
750 mV and minimum amplitude of 250 mV. Then A. 10 B. 5
percentage modulation is
C. 7 D. 12
A. 33% B. 50%
C. 75% D. 100% 19. An amplitude modulated wave in modulated to 5%.
What is the saving power, if carrier as well as one of
9. A bandwidth of 15 MHz is available for transmission.
the side bands are suppressed?
If maximum signal frequency used for modulating
A. 23.5% B. 43.4%
the carrier is 15 kHz. Then the number of stations
C. 94.4% D. 65.4%
which can broadcast without any inference with each
other in this band is 20. A transmitting antenna at the top of tower has a
A. 300 B. 400 height 32 m and that of the receiving antenna is
C. 457 D. 500 50 m. The maximum distance between them for
10. A FM wave is given by V = 20 sin (6 × 108 t + 4 sin satisfactory communication the of sight mode is
860 t). The modulating frequency will be [Radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m]
A. 136.9 Hz B. 500 Hz A. 32.5 km B. 45.5 km
C. 150 Hz D. None of these C. 54.6 km D. 11.2 km
11. How many AM broadcast stations can be accommdated 21. The wave propagation is suitable for radiowaves of
in a 100 kHz bandwidth, if the highest frequency frequency
modulating a carrier is 5 kHz? A. up to 2 MHz
137
B. from 2 MHz to 20 MHz 30. A TV tower has a height of 100 m. What is the
C. from 2 MHz to 30 MHz maximum distance upto which the TV transmission
D. from 2 MHz to 40 MHz can be received? (R = 8 × 106 m)
A. 50 km B. 60 km
22. A TV tower has height of 200 m. How much population
C. 40 km D. 6 km
is covered by TV broadcast, if the average population
density around the tower is 100 km –2 (Radius of the 31. A microwave telephone link operating at the central
earth = 6.4 × 106 m) frequency of 10 GHz has been established. If 2% of
A. 2.74 × 106 B. 4.5 × 106 this is available for microwave communication
C. 1.25 × 10 6 D. 5.72 × 106 channel, then how many television channels can be
simultaneously granted if each telephone is alloted a
23. A signal wave of frequency 12 kHz is modulated with
bandwidht of 8 kHz?
a carrier wave of frequency 2.51 MHz, the upper and
A. 1.2 × 105 B. 3.2 × 106
lower side band frequencies are respectively 3
C. 1.5 × 10 D. 2.5 × 104
A. 2512 kHz and 2488 kHz
B. 2522 kHz and 2510 kHz 32. The maximum distance upto which TV transmission
C. 2512 kHz and 2508 kHz from a TV tower of height h can be received is
D. 2502 kHz and 2478 kHz proportional to
A. h 2 B. h 3/2
24. The TV transmission tower in the Lucknow has height
C. h D. h 1/2
of 240 m. The distance upto which the broadcast can
be received (Radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m) is 33. The EM wave is transmitted to the height equal to
A. 50 km B. 55 km 150 km with maximum frequency 300 kHz and critical
C. 75 km D. 105 km frequency 100 kHz. What is the skip distance?
A. 848.4 km B. 372.5 km
25. The frequency of EM waves employed in space
C. 422.6 km D. 721.3 km
communication vary over a range of
A. 104 Hz to 1011 Hz 34. A modulated carrier wave has maximum and minimum
B. 105 Hz to 1012 Hz amplitudes of 800 mV and 200 mV. Find the
C. 106 Hz to 1012 Hz percentage modulation.
D. 107 Hz to 1010 Hz A. 50% B. 60%
C. 40% D. 70%
26. The sound waves after being converted into electrical
waves are not transmitted as such become 35. A 100 kHz bandwidth is to accommodation
A. they are heavily absorbed by the atmosphere broadcast’s simultaneously. What is the maximum
B. they travel with the speed of sound modulating frequency permissible for each station?
C. the frequency is not constant A. 9 kHz B. 3 kHz
D. the height of antenna has to be increased several C. 5 kHz D. 8 kHz
times. 36. A sinusoidal voltage amplitude modulates another
27. The sky wave with the frequency 55 MHz is incident sinusoidal voltage of amplitude 2 kV to result in two
on D-region of the earth’s atmosphere at 45°. The side bands, each of the amplitude 20 V. The
angle of reflection is (electron density for D-region is modulation index is
400 electron/cc) A. 0.02 B. 0.03
A. 30° B. 60° C. 0.04 D. 0.01
C. 45° D. 15° 37. A message signal of 12 kHz and peak voltage 20 V
28. Maximum usable frequency (MUF) is F-region layer is used to modulated a carrier wave of frequency
is x, when the critical frequency is 60 MHz and the 12 MHz and peak voltage 30 V. The modulation
angle of incidence is 70°. Then x is index and lower side band frequency are
A. 175 MHz B. 140 MHz A. 0.67, 11.988 kHz B. 0.35, 12.350 kHz
C. 190 MHz D. 225 MHz C. 4.9, 9.875 kHz D. 2.8, 13.819 kHz
29. If the heighest modulating frequency of the wave is 38. The maximum peak to peak voltage of an AM wave
5 kHz the number of stations that cen be in 16 mV and the minimum peak to peak voltage is
accommodated in a 150 kHz bandwidth is 8 mV. Then modulation factor is
A. 12 B. 15 A. 0.22 B. 0.33
C. 18 D. 20 C. 0.44 D. 0.11
2731 (Physics)—18
138
39. The critical frequency for the sky wave propagation 40. The maximum amplitude of an AM wave is found to
on a day when the electric density per cubic metre of be 15 V while its minimum amplitude is found to be
ionosphere is 5.4 × 1011 per/m 3. 3 V. The modulation index is
A. 3.5 MHz 2 1
A. B.
B. 4.7 MHz 3 3
C. 6.6 MHz 3 4
C. D.
D. 0.89 MHz 5 5
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
B A A C A B C B D A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A D A B B D A A C B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A A B B B A A A B C
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
D D A B C A A B C A
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
1. The frequency modulation is define as the process of 2
10 10 6
changing the frequency of carrier wave (modulated Nmax = 1.2 × 1012 m –3.
wave) in accordance with audio frequency signal. 9
E m 15 1 7. The range of radar on the surface of the earth
2. As, m = 0.25
E c 60 4
Depth of modulation % = 25 h
3. We know, in general
V = E[1 + m sin m t] sin c t R
Modulating frequency R
12860
fm = m 2.04 kHz
2 2 3.14 Range = (R h) 2 R 2 2Rh h 2
4. Amplitude of the carrier wave, A c = 12 V 1
Modulation index, m = 75% = 0.75 2Rh 2 6400 km
2
Amplitude of the modulating wave = A m
= 80 km
Am
As, m= A E C(max) E C(min)
c 8. As, m = 100
Am = mAc = 0.75 × 12 = 9 V E C(max) E C(min)
Frequency deviation 750 250
5. Carrier swing = = 100 50%
Modulating frequency 750 250
50 9. BW required per station
= 7.143
7 = 2fm(max) = 2 × 15 kHz
6. The critical frequency of a sky wave for reflection = 30 kHz
from the layer of atomsphere is fC = 9 (Nmax)1/2
15 MHz
= 10 × 106 = 9 (Nmax)1/2 No. of stations = 500
30 kHz
139
10. Modulating frequency, 2
ma (0.5) 2
m 860 19. Psb = PC = PC 0.0625 PC
fm = 136.9 Hz 2 24
2 2 3.14
m2 (0.5)2
11. Given, total BW = 100 kHz Also, P = PC 1 a PC 1
2 2
fmax = 5 kHz
= 1.125 PC
Any station being modulated by a 5 kHz signal will
produce an upper side frequency 5 kHz above its (1.125 PC 0.0625 PC )
% saving = 100
carrier and a lower-side frequency 5 kHz below its 1.125 PC
carrier, there by requiring a bandwith of 10 kHz.
= 94.4%
Total BW
Thus, no. of stations = 20. As, dmax = 2RhT 2Rhg
BW per station
100 10 3 =
= = 10 stations 2 6.4 10 6 32 2 6.4 10 6 50
10 10 3
= 45.5 × 103 m = 45.5 km
12. Radio waves can be transmitted from one place to
another as sky wave, or space wave or ground wave 21. The radioactive of frequency 2 MHz to 30 MHz are
propagation. used in sky wave propagation as they are reflected by
13. When carrier is suppressed the percentage saving is the ionosphere of earth’s atmosphere.
22. Given, h = 200 m, Re = 6.4 × 106 m
1 1
Psaving = 0.666 66.6% Average population density = 1000 km –2
m2 (1)2
1 1 = 1000 × (1000 m)–2
2 2
= 10–3 m –2
14. Bandwidth = 2 × frequency of modulation
= 2 × 5000 Hz = 10,000 Hz The TV transmission range, d = 2h R e
= 10 kHz. A = d2 = 2 hRe = 2 hRe
15. Velocity of EM waves in free space and wavelength = 2 × 3.14 × 200 × 6.4 × 106 m 2
v = 3 × 108 m/s and = 150 m Population covered by TV broadcast
v 3 10 8 = 2.74 × 109 m 2
Frequency of radio waves = = 2.74 × 109 × 10–3
150
= 2 × 106 Hz = 2 MHz = 2.74 × 106
23. Given, C = 12 kHz
m2 (0.8)2
16. As, PUSB = PLSB = PC PC and S = 2.51 MHz = 2510 kHz
4 4
The USB frequency = S + C = 2510 + 12
2 2
where, PC PT = PT
2 2 = 2522 kHz
2m 2 (0.8)
The LSB frequency = S – C = 2522 – 12
2
= 2.64 103 2000 W = 2510 kHz
2
2 (0.8)
(0.8)2 24. As, d = 2hR 2 240 6.4 10 6
PUSB = PLSB = 2000 W
4 = 55 × 103 m = 55 km
= 320 watt. 25. The frequency employed in space communication
17. As, MUF = fc sec i, i = 74° for F-layer vary over a range of 104 Hz to 1011 Hz.
= 50 × 106 × 3.62 = 181 MHz. 26. The sound waves after being converted into electrical
waves are not transmitted as such become they are of
B.W. short frequency and heavily absorbed by the
18. No. of stations
= atmosphere.
2 Highest modulating frequency
300,000 27. For D-region, v = 55 × 106 Hz, i = 45°
= 10
2 15000 and N = 400 × 106 m –3
140
36. Amplitude of each sideband
81.45 N 81.45 400 106
As, = 1 1 1 Ac
v2 (55 106 )2 =
2
sin i 2 kV
Also, = or sin i = sin r = sin r 20 V =
sin r 2
or i = r = 45°
2 20 2 20 2
28. We have, MUF = C sec i = 6 × 106 × sec 70° = = = 0.02
2 kV 2 100 100
1
= 60 106 175.43 10 6 Hz 37. Given Am = 20 V, A = 30 V, fm = 12 kHz
0.342
and fc = 12 MHz = 1200 kHz
= 175 MHz
A m 20
Total bandwidth (i) Modulation index, = 0.67
29. No. of stations = A c 30
Bandwidth/station
(ii) USB = fc + fm = 12000 + 12 = 12012 kHz
150 kHz
= 15 = 12.012 MHz
2 5 kHZ
(iii) LSB = fc – fm = 12000 – 12 = 11988 kHz
30. As, d = 2hR 2 100 8 10 6 = 11.988 kHz
= 4000 m = 40 km 38. The situation is shown in Fig.
31. Microwave frequency used in television link Clearly, Emax = 16/2 = 8 mV
= 10 GHz = 10 × 109 Hz = 1010 Hz and E min = 8/2 = 4 mV
Frequency available for microwave communication
E
= 2% of 10 GHz
Emax
2
= 1010 0.2 10 9 Hz
100 + Emin t
16 mV 8 mV
No. of microwave telephone channels
– Emax
0.2 10 9
= 2.5 10 4
8 10 3
E max E min 8 4 1
32. As, d = 2Rh m= 0.33
E max E min 8 4 3
So, d h1/2
39. We, have, fc = 9(Nmax)1/2
33. Given, h = 150 km, v = 300 kHz , C = 100 kHz
2
where fc critical frequency electron density/m 3
2
v 300
As, D skip = 2 h 1 2 150 1 = 5.4 × 1011/m 3
c 100
fc = 9(5.4 × 1011)1/2 Hz
= 848.5 km = 9 × 7.34 × 105 Hz
34. Here, A max = 800 mV, A min = 200 mV fc = 6.6 MHz
A max A min 800 – 200 40. As, AC + Am =
15
As, = 100 100 = 60%
A max A min 800 200 and AC – Am 3=
35. If f is the maximum permissible modulation frequency. 2AC =
18, 2Am = 12
AC =
9 and Am = 6
100 kHz
Then, 10 f = 5 kHz Am 6 2
2f As, m = .
AC 9 3
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