Martifer Solar SA

PVTRIN Training course

Handbook for Solar Installers

www.pvtrin.eu
PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers ii
 Soitec

CONTENTS
3.7. Exercises 88
INTRODUCTION v

1. SOLAR BASICS 2 4. INSTALLATION – SITEWORK 94

1.1. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Energy 2 4.1. Working safely with PV 94

1.2. PV System 5 4.2. Installation plan 102

1.3. PV Technologies 7 4.3. Electrical components installation 105

1.4. Types of PV systems and 4.4. Equipment Installation 109

Applications 10 4.5. Mechanical Components
1.5. Benefits of PV technology 12 Installation 121

1.6. Exercises 14 4.6. Grid-connected PV Systems 126

4.7. Stand-alone PV System 128
2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES 18
4.8. Mounting system and building
2.1. On Site Visit 18 installation. 129
2.2. System Sizing and Design 27 4.9. Completing the PV installation 132
2.3. Simulation software 41 4.10.Installation checklist 137
2.4. Economics and Environmental 4.11.Exercises 139
Issues 46
2.5. Standards and regulations 50 5. CASE STUDIES – BEST PRACTICES 144
2.6. Databases 54 5.1. PV installation in Aurinkolahti
Comprehensive School 144
2.7. Exercises 58
5.2. PV plant on the Kungsmad School 146
3. BAPV and BIPV 68 5.3. Solar power plant BERDEN 148
3.1. Mounting and building 5.4. PV system on school in Šmartno
integration options 68 ob Dreti 149
3.2. BIPV and BAPV on roofs 70 5.5. Athens Metro Mall 150
3.3. PV on façades 73 5.6. Roof and wall mounted system in
3.4. Glass roofs, shading systems and Finland 152
other applications 76 5.7. Blackpool Centre for Excellence in
3.5. Design Parameters and the Environment 153
Performance Factors 80
6. EXAMPLE INSTALLATION OF A SMALL
3.6. Examples from the residential SCALE PV ON A BUILDING 158
sector 85
6.1. Description of the building 158

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers iii

 6.2. Software Tool – PV*Sol 158 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 231
6.3. Pre-site visit calculations 159 PVTRIN PARTNERS 232
6.4. Site visit 160
6.5. PV system dimensioning 160
6.6. Estimation of shadings 165
6.7. Estimating energy production 165
6.8. Financial calculation 166
6.9. System Installation 168
6.10.Small-scale installation safety
plan 171
6.11.Exercises 173

7. MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING 176
7.1. Maintenance plan 176
7.2. Common mistakes and failures 180
7.3. Diagnostic procedures 184
7.4. Customer Documentation 186
7.5. Maintenance checklist 186
7.6. Exercises 189

8. QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND

CUSTOMER CARE 192
8.1. Quality principles 192
8.2. EU standards for PV 193
8.3. Customer care 194
8.4. Exercises 197

9. GLOSSARY OF TERMS 199

10.ANNEXES 205

FURTHER READING 215

LIST OF TABLES 219

LIST OF FIGURES 221

REFERENCES 227

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers iv

INTRODUCTION
Solar power can create thousands of jobs.
In 2010, the European PV industry directly employed over 150,000 people. According to the
Advanced Scenario of the European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), 3.5 million full-time
jobs in the global PV sector will have been created by 2030; half of which will focus on system
installation and maintenance. In the European Union (EU), the PV industry could employ 465,000
people by 2015, 900,000 by 2020, and as many as 1,000,000 by 2040.

The application of PV technologies will require highly-qualified technicians for PV installation,

repair and maintenance. Furthermore, the main agents in the sector (manufacturers, developers,
investors) seek certified skills and quality assurance in all phases of a PV installation (design,
installation and maintenance). However, a shortage of skilled workers may weaken projected
growth in the PV market.

It is therefore obvious that quality installations call for skilled technicians and appropriate training.
Certification schemes add a further quality assurance that the installer possesses the capability
(organisation, competence and equipment) to complete PV installations in a safe and effective
way. Currently, the availability of certification schemes for PV installers varies greatly between
Member States. Many countries have not validated certification schemes and although training
courses for PV installers are often available, these courses have different eligibility requirements
and qualifications.

Among its other objectives, the EU Renewable Energy Directive (2009/28/EC) obliges Member
States to set up mutually recognized certification schemes. In response to the challenges of this
sector, appropriate training systems and certification schemes -to validate the competence of the
installers- need to be developed, in order to ensure the efficient installation and operation of the
PV systems that are installed.

Within this context, the scope of the European PVTRIN initiative, supported by the Intelligent
Energy Europe programme of the European Commission, focuses on the development of an
appropriate training and certification scheme for technicians involved in the installation and
maintenance of small-scale PV systems. PVTRIN aims to establish the basis for the adoption of a
mutually recognised certification scheme in EU Member States. As part of the PVTRIN activities,
appropriate specific training materials have been developed to help technicians gain additional
knowledge and skills. This will enable their successful participation in training programmes to gain
higher levels of qualification, based on the requirements of the RES Directive and relevant national
regulations.

The PVTRIN scheme will offer installers:

• High quality training courses: to advance in their profession and to update their knowledge
and technical skills

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers v

 • Flexible training opportunities: an e-learning platform, “24/7” technical assistance, useful
technical guides and practical training material and tools
• Employability: recognition and competitive advantage in the profession, based on a
certification scheme that follows acknowledged quality standards
• Mobility: certification that provides a “passport” to the EU job market.

The PVTRIN Handbook for Solar Installers has been designed to cover the key areas of knowledge,
skills and competences for technicians who wish to participate actively in PV installation and the
maintenance of small-scale PV systems. Based on a task analysis of the PV system installation
process, agreed during the PVTRIN scheme development with the key stakeholders, the manual
covers the following topics:
1. Solar energy basics
2. Design principles
3. BAPV and BIPV
4. Installation-Safety
5. Maintenance and troubleshooting
6. Case studies-best practices
7. Example installation of a small scale PV in building
8. Quality management and customer care @ChrisRudge

The scope of this publication is designed to equip PV installers with practical knowledge and best
practice recommendations; it also presents a number of useful references and encourages the
installer to acquire a deeper understanding of all the critical aspects in efficient design,
installation, troubleshooting and maintenance of a PV system.

This Handbook should be used as supporting document that provides theoretical knowledge, in
order to help trainees -along with a number of selective supplementary resources and tools-
better prepared for the certification examination. It references other key publications and
standard texts applicable to PV projects, and should therefore be treated as a supplement and
used in conjunction with these other references and tools. The training process includes
theoretical and practical training units combined with appropriate levels of self study.

Trainees should be aware that in-depth knowledge of the information that is presented, which
includes an understanding of National Regulations and relevant legislations, as well as appropriate
field experience, are generally required for the successful completion of the PVTRIN certification
process.

Important note:
The Handbook is not intended to be either exhaustive or definitive and cannot guarantee to cover all possible
situations in depth. It has been prepared on the basis of current knowledge of the relevant technology,
quality standards, security practices and regulations. Technicians are advised to exercise their own
professional judgment and to consult all current building regulations, health and safety codes, standards and
other applicable guidelines, as well as up-to-date information on all the materials and products that they
may use.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers vi

 SOLAR BASICS 1

Tecnalia

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 1

 FIGURE 1.
1. SOLAR BASICS EXAMPLE OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT. (Source: EPIA)

1.1. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Energy

1.1.1. The sun as an energy source

The sun is the most important source of

energy for all natural processes on Earth. It is
a vital source of energy for the survival of all
plant and animal species and provides heat
for many critical processes such as
photosynthesis.

Modern methods of energy production on

Earth use solar energy, in the everyday sense
of the word – in either a direct or an indirect
way. Indirect forms of solar energy are
biological material from the past that has
been transformed into fossil fuels (oil and
coal), as well as wind power, hydropower and
bio-energy.

Solar photovoltaic installations generate a

electric energy direct form of solar energy.

1.1.2. What does PhotoVoltaic (PV) 1.1.3. Solar irradiance (radiation)

mean?
Large quantities of statistical data on solar
energy availability are gathered globally. For
Photovoltaic (PV) systems contain cells that
example, the US National Solar Radiation
convert sunlight into electricity. Inside each
database has collected data for 30 years on
cell there are layers of semi-conductive
solar irradiance and meteorological
material. Light falling onto the cell creates an
conditions from 237 sites in the USA. The
electric field across the layers, causing
European Joint Research Centre (EJRC) also
electricity to flow. The intensity of the light
collects and publishes solar irradiance data
determines the amount of electrical power
from 566 sites in Europe.
that is generated by each cell.

A photovoltaic system can operate in the

absence of bright sunlight and can generate
electricity on cloudy and rainy days from
reflected sunlight.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 2

 1
SOLAR BASICS

It is important to distinguish between the - Global In-Plane Irradiance: the total amount
following five different types of solar of radiation (both DNI and DIF) received
irradiance data (3TIER,2011): from above by an inclined surface.
- Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI): the amount The irradiance data that is used will vary
of solar radiation received per unit area by a according to the type of PV system in use. PV
surface that is always held at a systems should be designed in such a way
perpendicular (or normal) angle to the rays that they capture as much sunlight as
that fall in a straight line from the position possible. Their orientation and inclination are
of the sun at any given position in the sky. therefore of critical importance. As a
consequence, global in-plane irradiance is
- Diffuse Irradiance (DIF): the amount of
suggested for power output calculations.
radiation received per unit area by a surface
(not in a shaded or in shadows) that does
not arrive on a direct path from the sun, but FIGURE 3.
SOLAR IRRADIATION AROUND THE WORLD. (Source: Gregor
has been scattered by molecules and Czisch, ISET, Kassel, Germany, 2007)
particles in the atmosphere or reflected off
the ground and may arrive from all
directions.
- Albedo Irradiance: A third type of radiation
called albedo, is direct or diffuse radiation,
reflected from the soil or nearby surfaces
(snow, lakes, building walls, and so on).

FIGURE 2.
TYPES OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE. (Source: Tknika, 2004)

1.1.4. Angle definition

A good understanding of the sun’s path is
necessary to estímate solar irradiance levels
and the resulting yields of a PV system.
At any place on Earth, it is possible to identify
the sun’s position in terms of solar elevation
and solar azimuth. Generally, a PV installer
- Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI): the total will define the south as γ = 0° and indicate
amount of shortwave radiation received the angles to the east and west with a
from above by a horizontal surface. It negative and a positive sign, respectively.
includes both Direct Normal Irradiance Following this definition, the East is given as γ
(DNI) and Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance = -90° and the West as γ = 90°.
(DIF).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 3

1.1.5. Solar altitude and spectrum 1.1.6. Ground reflection
The solar elevation angle α is measured from An albedo value should be used to calculate
the horizontal, the value of which will alter irradiance on an inclined plane, to take into
with the daily course of the sun and annual account the reflectivity of the surrounding
seasonal changes. The value of this angle has, area. The albedo value depends upon the
among other parameters, an impact on the properties of the ground. For a reflective
solar irradiance level. surface like snow, the albedo can reach a
level as high as 0.9. In general, an albedo
As it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere,
value of 0.2 can be assumed.
solar irradiation is deflected by contaminant
particles and pollutants and is absorbed by 1.1.7. Measurement of solar radiation
molecules in the air. As a consequence, it has
a lower irradiation level when the sunlight Solar irradiation can be measured directly by
reaches the PV system. using pyranometers and photovoltaic sensors
FIGURE 4.
or indirectly by analysing satellite images
SOLAR AZIMUTH AND ALTITUDE. (Source:
www.mpoweruk.com , 2011)
Pyranometers are high precision sensors
using a thermocouple measuring the
temperature difference between an absorber
surface and the environment. These types of
devices are very accurate, but slow to
respond because they work on a thermal
basis. Measurement accuracy of 0.8% can be
achieved on an annual average.
PV sensors are based on a calibrated solar cell
and are less accurate than pyranometers due
to their intrinsic spectral sensitivity. However,
their advantage is that they cost significantly
Air Mass (AM) caracterises the thickness of less than pyranometers. Their annual average
the atmosphere through which the sunlight accuracy is in the region of 2% to 5%. PV
has to pass to reach the ground. AM = 1 sensors in conjunction with data loggers are
when the solar elevation is perpendicular to often used for monitoring larger PV systems.
the Earth (α = 90°). This value corresponds to FIGURE 5.
the solar elevation at the equator at noon SSR 11 SOLAR RADIATION SENSOR (PYRANOMETER). (Source:
during the spring equinox, and never occurs Hukseflux, 2011)

under latitudes in Europe.

The relationship between solar elevation α
and air mass is defined by the following: AM
= 1/sinus(α).
For Europe, an air mass factor of 1.5 is used
as the average annual value, but an air mass
of 4 is reached during December, when the
sun is at a flatter angle.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 4

 1
SOLAR BASICS

1.1.8. Enormous potential 1.2. PV System

There is more than enough solar irradiance
available to satisfy global energy demands. The key parts of a solar PV energy generation
On average, each m2 of land on the Earth is system are:
exposed to enough sunlight to generate - Photovoltaic cells and modules to collect
1,700 kWh of energy every year using sunlight,
currently available technology. The total solar - An inverter to transform direct current
energy that reaches the Earth’s surface could (DC) to alternate current (AC),
meet existing global energy needs 10,000 - A set of batteries and charge controller for
times over. stand-alone PV systems,
- Other system components.
While only a certain part of solar irradiance
can be used to generate electricity, this All system components, excluding the PV
‘efficiency loss’ does not, unlike fossil fuels, modules, are referred to as the Balance of
actually waste a finite resource. System (BOS) components.

1.2.1. PV cells and modules

Where there is more sunlight, more power
can be generated. The sub-tropical areas of
The solar cell is the basic unit of a PV system.
the world offer some of the best locations for
Cells are connected together to form larger
solar power generation. The average energy
units called PV modules. Thin sheets of EVA
received in Europe is about 1,200 kWh/m2
(Ethyl Vinyl Acetate) or PVB (Polyvinyl
per year (GHI). This compares with 1,800 to
Butyral) are used to bind cells together and to
2,300 kWh/m2 per year in the Middle East
provide weather protection. The modules are
(GHI).
normally enclosed between a transparent
EPIA has calculated that Europe’s entire cover (usually glass) and a weatherproof
electricity consumption could be met, if just backing sheet (typically made from a thin
0.34% of the European land mass (an area polymer or glass). Modules can be framed for
the size of the Netherlands) were covered extra mechanical strength and durability.
with photovoltaic modules. International
Energy Agency (IEA) calculations show that if
4% of the World’s very dry desert areas were
used for PV installations, then total global
primary energy demand could be met.

There is enormous untapped potential. Large

areas such as roofs, building surfaces, fallow
land and desert could be used to support
solar power generation. For example, 40% of
the European Union’s total electricity
demand in 2020 could be met, if all suitable
roofs and façades were covered with solar
panels (Sunrise project 2011)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 5

FIGURE 6. PV MODULE CELL CONNECTION.
(Source: Tknika,2004)

FIGURE 7. SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

CONFIGURATIONS. (Source: DTI, 2006)

300 to 350 Wp, depending on the size of the

Modules can be connected to each other in
module and its technology. Low wattage
series (known as a string) to increase the total
modules are typically used for stand-alone
voltage produced by the system. The strings
applications, where power demand is also
are connected in parallel so as to increase the
generally low.
total system current.
Modules may be sized for quick installation
on any potential site. They are robust,
The power generated by PV modules varies reliable and weatherproof. Module producers
from a few watts (typically 20 to 60 Wp) up to usually guarantee a power output of 80% of

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 6

 1
SOLAR BASICS

the Wp, even after 20 to 25 years of use. The power optimisers, transformers, combiner
working life of a module is typically in the boxes, switches, etc.
region of 25 years and may even last for more
than 30 years.
1.3. PV Technologies
1.2.2. Inverters
PV technologies are classified as first, second
Inverters convert DC power generated by a or third generation. First generation
PV module to AC power. This makes the technology is the basic crystalline silicon (c-
power output compatible with the electricity Si). Second generation includes Thin Film
distribution network and most common technologies, while third generation includes
electrical appliances. An inverter is essential concentrator photovoltaics, organics, and
for grid-connected PV systems. Inverters are other technologies that have yet to be
available in a wide range of power classes commercialised on a large scale.
from a few hundred watts (normally for
stand-alone systems), to several kW (the 1.3.1. First generation (Crystalline
most frequently used range) and even 2,000 silicon technology)
kW (central inverters) for large-scale systems.

1.2.3. Batteries and charge controllers Crystalline silicon cells are made from thin
slices (wafers) cut from a single crystal or a
Stand-alone PV systems need to store energy block of silicon.
for future use in a battery. The two standard
The type of crystalline cell depends on how
types in widespread use are lead-acid or
the wafers are produced. The main types of
lithium-ion batteries. New high-quality
crystalline cells are:
batteries, designed specifically for solar
applications are now available with a working - Mono crystalline (mc-Si),
life of up to 15 years. The final duration of a - Polycrystalline or multi crystalline (pc-Si),
battery depends on its management. - Ribbon and sheet-defined film growth
(ribbon/sheet c-Si).
Batteries are connected to the PV array via a
The most common cells are 12.7 x 12.7 cm (5
charge controller. The charge controller
x 5 inches) or 15 x 15 cm (6 x 6 inches) and
prevents the battery from overcharging and
produce 3 to 4.5 W – a very small amount of
from discharging. It can also provide
power. A standard c-Si module is made up of
information on the state of the system and
about 60 to 72 solar cells and has a nominal
enable metering and payment in relation to
power ranging from 120 to 300 Wp
electricity consumption.
depending on size and efficiency.
1.2.4. Other system components
The typical module size is 1.4 to 1.7 m²,
In addition to the modules and inverter, a although larger modules are also
large number of other system components manufactured (up to 2.5 m²). These are
can be added to the system. All these typically utilised for Building Integrated
components are known as the Balance of Photovoltaic (BIPV) applications.
System (BoS). The most common
components are mounting structures, Crystalline silicon is the most common and
tracking systems, electricity meters, cables, mature technology representing about 80%
of the present-day market. Between 14 and

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 7

22% of the sunlight that reaches the cells are Multi-junction Thin Film silicon (a-Si/µc-Si)
turned into electricity. For c-Si modules,
efficiency ranges between 12 and 19%. Multi-junction Thin Film silicon consists of an
a-Si cell with additional layers of a-Si and
1.3.2. Second generation (Thin films) micro-crystalline silicon (µc-Si) applied to the
substrate. The µc-Si layer absorbs more light
Thin-film modules are constructed by from the red and near-infrared part of the
depositing extremely thin layers of light spectrum. This increases efficiency by up
photosensitive material on to a low-cost to 10%. The thickness of the µc-Si layer is in
backing such as glass, stainless steel or the order of 3 µm, meaning thicker but also
plastic. Once the deposited material is more stable cells.
attached to the backing, it is laser-cut into
Cadmium telluride (CdTe)
multiple thin cells.
CdTe Thin Films cost less to manufacture and
Thin-film modules are normally enclosed have a module efficiency of up to 11%. This
between two layers of glass and are makes it the most economical Thin Film
frameless. If the photosensitive material has technology currently available.
been deposited on a thin plastic film, the
module is flexible. This creates the Copper, indium, gallium,
opportunity to integrate solar power (di)selenide/(di)sulphide (CIGS) and copper,
generation into the fabric of a building (BIPV) indium, (di)selenide/(di)sulphide (CIS)
or end-consumer applications.
CIGS and CIS offer the highest efficiencies of
Standard Thin Film modules have lower all Thin Film technologies. Efficiencies of 20%
nominal power (60 to 120 Wp) and their size have been achieved in the laboratory, which
is generally smaller. However, there is no are close to the levels achieved with c-Si cells.
common industry agreement on optimal The manufacturing process is more complex
module size for Thin Film technologies. As a and less standardised than for other types of
result they vary from 0.6 to 5.7 m² depending cells. This tends to increase manufacturing
on the technology. Very large modules are of costs. Current module efficiencies are in the
great interest to the building sector as they range of 7 to 12%.
offer efficiencies in terms of handling and
1.3.3. Third generation photovoltaics
price.
Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV)
Four types of Thin Film modules are
commercially available: Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) utilise
lenses to focus sunlight on to solar cells. The
Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
cells are made from very small amounts of
The semiconductor layer is only about 1 µm highly efficient, but expensive, semi-
thick. Amorphous silicon can absorb more conductor PV material. CPV cells can be
sunlight than c-Si structures. However, a based on silicon or III-V compounds
lower flow of electrons is generated which (generally gallium arsenide or GaA).
leads to efficiencies that are currently in the
range of 4 to 8%. An increasing number of CPV systems use only direct irradiation. They
companies are developing light, flexible a-Si are most efficient in very sunny areas which
modules perfectly suitable for flat and curved have high amounts of direct irradiation.
industrial roofs.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 8

 1
SOLAR BASICS

The concentrating intensity ranges from a variable lighting conditions. Possible

factor of 2 to 100 suns (low concentration) up application areas include low-power
to 1000 suns (high concentration). consumer electronics (such as mobile phone
Commercial module efficiencies of 20 to 25% rechargers, lighting applications and self-
have been obtained for silicon based cells. powered displays), outdoor recreational
Efficiencies of 25 to 30% have been achieved applications, and BIPV.
with GaAs, although cell efficiencies well
above 40% have been achieved in the In addition to the above-mentioned third-
laboratory. generation PV technologies, a number of
novel technologies are at present under
The modules have precise and accurate sets development:
of lenses which need to be permanently
- Active layers can be created by introducing
oriented towards the Sun. This is achieved
quantum dots or nanotechnology particles.
through the use of a double-axis tracking
This technology is likely to be used in
system. Low concentration PV can be also
concentrator devices.
used with one single-axis tracking system and
- Tailoring the solar spectrum to
a less complex set of lenses.
wavelengths with maximum collection
Other third generation PV efficiency or increasing the absorption
level of the solar cell. These adjustments
After more than 20 years of research and can be applied to all existing solar cell
development, third generation solar devices technologies.
are beginning to appear on the market.

Many of these new technologies are very

promising. Organic PV cells represent an
exciting development. These include both
fully organic PV (OPV) solar cells and hybrid
dye-sensitised solar cells (DSSC).

Third generation technologies that are

beginning to reach the market are called
“emerging” and can be classified as:
- Advanced inorganic Thin Films such as
spherical CIS and Thin Film polycrystalline
silicon solar cells.
- Organic solar cells which include both fully
organic and hybrid dye-sensitised solar
cells.
- Thermo-PhotoVoltaic (TPV) low band-gap
cells which can be used in Combined Heat
and Power (CHP) systems.
Third-generation PV products have significant
competitive advantages in consumer
applications, because of their substrate
flexibility and ability to perform under dim or

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 9

FIGURE 8. OVERVIEW OF EFFICIENCY OF PV
TECHNOLOGIES. (Source: EPIA 2011, Photon International, February 2011, EPIA analysis)

1.4. Types of PV systems and Modern PV systems are not restricted to

rectangular and flat panel arrays. They are
Applications flexible and may be curved and shaped to the
design of the building. Innovative architects
PV systems provide clean power for small or and engineers are constantly finding new
large applications. Many installations are ways to integrate PV into their designs,
already generating energy around the world creating buildings that are dynamic, beautiful
in individual homes, housing developments, and provide free, clean energy throughout
offices and public buildings. their working life.

Today, fully functioning solar PV installations

operate in both urban and remote
environments, where it is difficult to connect
to the grid or where there is no energy
infrastructure. PV installations that operate in
isolated locations are known as stand-alone
systems. In built areas, PV systems can be
mounted on top of roofs (known as Building
Adapted PV systems – or BAPV) or can be
integrated into the roof or building façade
(known as Building Integrated PV systems –
or BIPV).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 10

 1
SOLAR BASICS

FIGURE 9. DIFFERENT CONFIGURATION OF

SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS. (Source: EPIA)

1.4.1. Grid-connected systems

When a PV system is connected to the local +Large industrial PV systems can produce
electricity network, any excess power that is enormous quantities of electricity at a single
generated can be fed back into the electricity point respectful of the environment. These
grid. Under a FiT regime, the owner of the PV types of electricity generation plants can
system is legally entitled to payment for the produce from many hundreds of
power generated in this way. This type of PV kilowattshours (kWh) to several
system is referred to as being ‘on-grid.’ megawattshours (MWh).

Most solar PV systems are installed on homes The solar panels for industrial systems are
and business premises in developed areas. By usually mounted on frames on the ground.
connecting to the local electricity network, However, they can also be installed on large
owners can sell their excess power, feeding industrial buildings such as warehouses,
clean energy back into the grid. When solar airport terminals or railway stations. The
energy is not available, electricity can be system can make double-use of an urban
drawn from the grid. space and put electricity into the grid where
energy-intensive consumers are located.
Solar systems generate Direct Current (DC)
while most household appliances utilise
Alternating Current (AC). An inverter is
installed in the system to convert DC to AC.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 11

TABLE 1. 1.4.2.2. Off-grid industrial applications
TYPICAL TYPE AND SIZE OF APPLICATIONS PER MARKET
SEGMENT FOR GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS. (Source: Solar
Generation VI, EPIA and Greenpeace) Off-grid industrial systems are used in remote
areas to power repeater stations for mobile
Type of
application
Market segment telephones (enabling communications),
Residential Commercial Industrial Utility- traffic signals, maritime navigational aids,
scale remote lighting, highway signs and water
10kWp- 100kWp-
<10 kWp 100 kWp 1MWp >1MWp
treatment plants among others. Both full PV
Ground- and hybrid systems are used. Hybrid systems
X X
mounted are powered by the sun when it is available
Roof-top X X X and by other fuel sources during the night
Integrated and extended cloudy periods.
to X X
façade/roof
Off-grid industrial systems provide a cost-
effective way to bring power to areas that
1.4.2. Stand-alone, off-grid and hybrid remain unconnected to existing grids. The
systems high cost of installing cabling makes off-grid
solar power an economical choice.
Off-grid PV systems have no connection to an 1.4.2.3. Consumer goods
electricity grid. An off-grid system is usually
equipped with batteries, so power can still be PV cells are now found in many everyday
used at night or after several days of low electrical appliances such as watches,
irradiance. An inverter is needed to convert calculators, toys, and battery chargers (for
the DC power generated into AC power for instance embedded in clothes and bags).
use in appliances. Moreover, services such as water sprinklers,
road signs, lighting and telephone boxes
Most standalone PV systems fall into one of often rely on individual PV systems.
three main groups:
- Off-grid systems for the electrification of
rural areas, 1.5. Benefits of PV technology
- Off-grid industrial applications,
- Consumer goods. PV technology exploits the most abundant
source of free power from the Sun and has
1.4.2.1. Off-grid systems for rural the potential to meet almost all of mankind’s
electrification energy needs. Unlike other sources of energy,
PV has a negligible environmental footprint,
Typical off-grid installations bring electricity can be deployed almost anywhere and
to remote areas or developing countries. utilises existing technologies and
They can be small home systems which cover manufacturing processes, making it cheap
a household’s basic electricity needs, or and efficient to implement.
larger solar mini-grids which provide enough
power for several homes, a community or
small business use.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 12

 1
SOLAR BASICS

1.5.1. Environmental footprint 1.5.4. PV jobs

The sector needs a diverse and qualified
The energy it takes to make a solar power
workforce to meet the challenge of this
system is usually recouped by the energy
market expansion. Close to 220,000 people
costs saved over one to three years. Some
were employed in the solar photovoltaic
new generation technologies can even
industry at the beginning of 2010. This
recover the cost of the energy used to
number includes employment along the
produce them within six months, depending
entire value chain world-wide: production of
on their location. PV systems have a typical
PV products and equipment needed for their
life of at least 25 years, meaning that each
production, development and installation of
panel will generate much more energy than it
the systems, operation and maintenance, as
costs to produce.
well as the financing of solar power plants
and R&D.

1.5.2. Improving grid efficiency While manufacturing jobs could be

concentrated in some global production
PV systems can be placed at the centre of an hubs, the downstream jobs (related to
energy generation network or used in a installation, operation and maintenance,
decentralised way. Small PV generators can financing and power sales) are, for the
be spread throughout the network, moment, still mainly local.
connecting directly into the grid. PV systems PV will provide an increasing number of jobs
may be connected to batteries, in very during the next decades. To estimate the
remote areas where grid connections would employment potential, one can use an
be too expensive. assumption of 30 jobs per MW installed
resulting in a forecast of 1.7 million jobs
worldwide by 2020. However, the need for
1.5.3. Making cities greener quality installations calls for skilled labour
and appropriate education, especially for
With a total ground floor area of over 22,000 qualified and certified installers. Electricians,
km2, 40% of all building roofs and 15% of all roofers, and other construction workers bring
façades in the EU of the 27 are suitable for PV their knowledge together in a new kind of job
applications. This means that over 1,500 GWp description that might be called the “solar
of PV could, in theory, be installed in Europe, installer”.
which would generate about 1,400TWh
annually, representing 40% of total electricity
1.5.5. No limits
demand by 2020. PV can seamlessly integrate
into the densest urban environments. City
There are no substantial limits to the massive
buildings running lights, air-conditioning and
deployment of PV. Material and industrial
equipment are responsible for large amounts
capability are plentiful and the industry has
of greenhouse gas emissions, if the power
demonstrated its capacity to increase
supply is not renewable. Solar power will
production very quickly to meet growing
have to become an integral and fundamental
demand. This is evident in countries such as
part of tomorrow’s positive energy buildings.
Germany and Japan that have implemented
proactive PV policies.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 13

1.6. Exercises 2. Which of the following irradiance
parameter is the most important when
1.6.1. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Energy calculating the PV system power output:
a) The Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI)
1. For the city of Chania (φ=35,3) calculate b) The Diffuse Irradiance (DIF)
the monthly average total solar radiation c) The Albeldo Irradiance
on a tilted panel (β=10ο and β=55ο ) facing d) The Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)
south in December and in June. For the e) The Global In-Plane Irradiance
calculations pick as representative the 10th
of each month. Which is the optimum tilt 3. A PV cell is made of :
(10ο or 55ο) if the PV system will operate a) A conductor material
only in winter? The panel’s albedo is 0.25. b) An insulator material
Use the values in TABLE 2. c) A semi-conductor material

TABLE 2.
INDICATIVE MONTHLY VALUES 4. What is the principal role of the inverter in
a PV system:
Monthly
average
a) To prevent the batteries from
Average total solar overcharging and discharging
monthly radiation Number b) To convert DC power generated by PV
Month
Clearness on a of days modules to AC power
index (k) horizontal
surface
(kWh/m )
2
1.6.2. PV system
January 0,4 62 31
1. Which material is not used as an
February 0,45 80 28 encapsulant in a PV module?
March 0,49 124 31 a) PVB
b) PVC
April 0,56 167 30
c) EVA
May 0,62 212 31
June 0,63 220 30 2. Usually, the module producers guarantee
July 0,64 225 31 a power output of 80 % of the Wp after:
a) 10 to 15 years
August 0,64 203 31 b) 20 to 25 years
September 0,61 159 30 c) 25 to 30 years
October 0,52 116 31
1.6.3. PV technologies
November 0,5 71 30
December 0,42 53 31 5. Which cell technology is not part of the
first generation?
a) Cadmium Telluride solar cells
b) Mono crystalline silicon solar cells
c) Ribbon crystalline solar cells
6. What are the common characteristics of a
first generation solar cell?

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 14

 1
SOLAR BASICS

a) 22.5 cm² and 4.5 Wp

b) 1.7 m² and 250 Wp
c) 20 m² and 3000 Wp

7. A thin-film module is generally smaller

than a crystalline silicon module.
a) True
b) False

8. Which technology has achieved the

highest efficiency in laboratory among the
thin-film technologies?
a) a-Si
b) a-Si/µc-Si
c) CIGS
d) CdTe

1.6.4. Types of PV systems and

applications

9. A grid-connected installation consists of

three components:
a) Generator, storage battery and power
supply.
b) Generator, converter and power
supply.
c) Generator, converter and storage
battery.

10.Off-frid PV systems are always small home

systems.
a) True
b) False

1.6.5. Benefits of PV technology

11.PV will never produce an important part of

the final European electricity consumption
because there are not enough roofs
available.
a) True
b) False

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 15

 DESIGN PRINCIPLES 2

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 17

 During the site assessment the installer
2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES should collect information that will be used
to estimate the output of the system and its
2.1. On Site Visit cost. Information should be detailed on the
following issues:
Before starting the planning and design of a
PV system, the installer should conduct a site - the available surface area,
visit and check whether the site is suitable or - the potential location of the array,
not for the installation. The installer should
- possible location of auxiliary equipment,
have maps, inclinometer, solar siting device,
camera, tape measure and compass to - the wire runs,
complete this task (SEIS, 2006). Depending on - shading,
the location and the conditions, safety gears - terrain features (ground mounted PVs),
may also be required. - orientation, inclination angle in case of a
FIGURE 10. roof applied PV system.
STEPS ON A SITE VISIT (Source: ReSEL TUC)
If the roof structure appears to be
Check potential inadequate to support the PV array the
locations. Search for weather installer should ask for the advice of an
data & extreme
conditions.
engineer.

Health and safety risks to be considered

Perform shadow
analysis, check for During the onsite visit the installer should
obstacles, terrain examine possible health and/or safety risks
peculiarities.
Choose optimum location, that may occur during installation of the PV
check for risks. system. The installer should check for ways of
In case of BAPV, accessing the site when working at heights
check available and identify possible risks such as falling
surfaces.
Identify customer objects. Moreover, when considering the
needs. Check if the wire runs, the installer should decide on
system will be used in appropriate equipment, in order to safely
summer, winter or
Define best throughout the year. connect the system to the grid. In case of
technologies &
slippery glazed tiles or damaged roofing, a
mounting
methods. decision should be taken over whether the
Estimate best orientation
and tilt.
roof is appropriate for the installation. These
safety measures must be followed at all costs
when working on roofs. The PV installer
Check for the BOS should also bear in mind the prevailing
location.
Check potential paths weather conditions and avoid installing the
for grid connections. system on icy or windy days, if installation
Check for prospective presents difficulties.
Check for potential
regulation barriers.
wire runs.

Prepare a draft cost estimate

and advise customer if the
investment is worthwhile.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 18

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

2.1.1. Customer needs northern zones have less solar energy

available than southern zones (FIGURE 11).
Τhe installer should have a clear picture of Solar maps, illustrating the solar potentials at
customer needs, before deciding whether the different European locations, are available
installation is feasible and starting to design from the Photovoltaic Geographical
the system. Information System (PVGIS).
During the first on-site visit, the installer PV systems shall be designed to withstand all
should discuss important issues with the weather conditions, such as lightning, wind
customer concerning the amount of money up to 80 miles/h, and extreme temperatures;
expected to be spent on the system, existing conditions that may gradually reduce the
subsidies or Feed-in-Tariff (FIT) schemes and energy productivity of the system.
the size of the system. The selected system
should meet the owner’s needs and PVs are more efficient at lower temperatures,
expectations. so they should be installed at a distance from
roofs, ground etc. in order to be ventilated.
The installer should be prepared to answer
FIGURE 11.
any questions about the proposed system SOLAR RADIATION IN EUROPE (Source: PVGIS, 2011)
and to provide alternative choices based on
various factors including site considerations
and customer needs.
Some frequently asked questions are:
- What is PV?
- How does a solar cell work?
- What are the advantages & disadvantages
of PV system?
- Is my site/roof suitable for a PV system?
- What is the lifetime of a PV system?
- How much energy will the PV system
produce per year? 2.1.3. Shading
- What happens to the power supply on
On-site visits involve the assessment of
cloudy days?
whether and to what extent the location of
- Do PV systems have a high operating cost? the PV system will be shaded. Shading may
- What kind of maintenance is required? be one of the most important environmental
- Are there any available grants, tax parameters and one of the most critical
reductions or FITs? parameters for energy loss in a PV array
- What is the payback period? (PVResources, 2011). A detailed description
of the surroundings is required to perform
the shading calculations.
2.1.2. Climate conditions Shading is crucial especially between 08:00
The more solar radiation and the more and 17:00. A minimum of six hours of un-
uniformly it falls on the array, the higher the shaded operation is required for optimal
efficiency of the system. Site location is of system performance (PVResources, 2011).
great importance for system efficiency;

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 19

An un-shaded surface can only be found if the In addition, the PV module may be damaged
ground is flat and no obstacles are nearby. In due to shading, if too many cells are
case objects (trees, electricity poles, buildings connected in series. This type of damage can
etc.) are far away from the potential PV field, be avoided, if bypass diodes are used
it may be assumed that there will be no (Wenham et al, 2007).
shading. However, in most cases, various
objects exist in the surrounding area that Types of shading
cannot be removed (Quaschning & Hanitsch, Shading of PVs can be categorised by the
1998). following categories:
In a large number of BIPV systems in Europe, - temporary,
shading leads to annual yield reductions of - resulting from the location,
between 5% and 10% (Drifa et al, 2008). - self-shading,
Potential shading sources can be trees and - resulting from buildings (DGS, 2008).
bushes, neighbouring buildings and self- Temporary shading may be owing to fallen
shading by the building itself in case the PV is leaves, snow, air pollution and dirt. The losses
sited in urban areas. Even small obstacles caused by this type of shading are estimated
such as chimneys, satellite dishes, telephone at 2-5% and may be overcome through
poles etc. should not be neglected during site proper arrangement and angle of the panels.
assessment. Different optimization The effect of this type of shading can be
techniques may be used to minimize the further reduced by cleaning the PV array with
influence of PV array shading, if it cannot be water. A 15⁰ tilt ensures that the solar panel
avoided (PVresources, 2011). will remain free from temporary shading.
When the PV system is sited in a field, the Shading, resulting from the location, is
most common cause of severe shading is a caused by surrounding objects; obstacles of
tree or a group of trees (DTI, 2008). Shading this type range from tall trees to
depends on the height of the tree, the neighbouring buildings. The PV installer has
distance from the array and the direction of to identify if there are any obstacles which
the tree with respect to the array. Trees that will shade the array and should examine
are between east and south-east or between whether shading can be avoided by moving
west and south-west of the array will cause them. However, if this is not possible the
greater problems than those to the south, shading effect can be minimized, if taken into
since the sun is lower in the sky in those account during the initial design stage.
directions (DTI, 2008). If possible, the trees
should be restricted in height so that they do In any case, the installer may advise the
not shade the array. customer on how to avoid this type of
shadowing (e.g. to trim the trees causing the
Partial-shading of even only one cell of a 36- problem).
cell module can significantly reduce its power
output. PV Cells are connected in series; such
that a cell that fails to function properly will
result in reduced power for the whole array.
Even if half of a cell is shaded, the result is
proportionally the same as if half of a row is FIGURE 12.
SHADING FROM NEIGHBOURING OBSTACLES (Source: Energia
shaded. The decrease in power will be the e Domotica, Flickr, 2011)
same and proportional to the percentage of
the shaded area (Sunglobal, 2011).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 20

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

In this case (Kirchensteiner, 2010):

Lmin= 2 x H
H: the height of the obstacle
Lmin is calculated for the Winter Solstice.
Based on the thickness of the object d, the
optimum distance Lmin can be calculated using
the similar triangle relations of the sun
tangents which touch the object (FIGURE 14).
The optimum distance Lopti from the modules
is determined as:

As a rule, at a lower tilt angle, there is less

shading and the area can be better Ls: distance Earth to sun = 150x106 km
exploited. However, in that case, the solar ds: (diameter of sun = 1.39 x 106 km
yield drops throughout the year. For this
reason, a tilt angle of 30° is usually chosen at d: diameter of the obstacle, m.
Central European latitudes (Solarpath, 2011). The previous equation can be simplified to:
Based on the height of the obstacle, draft
estimation of the minimum distance (Lmin), so
that the PV will not be shaded, is presented
in the following figure (FIGURE 13). FIGURE 14.
Lmin, BASED ON THE THICKNESS OF THE OBJECT (Source: ResEL,
TUC)
FIGURE 13.
MINIMUM DISTANCE OF PVS FROM OBSTACLES TO AVOID
SHADING (Source: ResEL, TUC)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 21

Self-shading of a PV array is usually a Step 3:
designer fault. The installer has to minimize
Using the sextant measure the height of each
shading losses through optimisation of the tilt
obstacle.
angles and the distances between the
module rows. Step 4:
An easy way to calculate the minimum Note the height of each obstacle on the solar
distance between arrows is presented below map, (FIGURE 16)
(Kirchensteiner, 2010). FIGURE 16.
SUN ORBIT DIAGRAM WITH SURVEYED SURROUNDINGS
It is recommended that the spacing between (Source: ResEL, TUC)
rows should avoid shading between 09:00
and 15:00 at the Winter Solstice. At that date
the sun is at its lowest angle (e.g. about 23⁰
in Greece).
FIGURE 15.
MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN ARROWS (Source: ResEL, TUC)

Step 5:
The installer rotates 15⁰ degrees, with its
back to the north, and repeats steps 5, 3 and
4 until it faces the west.
Step 6:
The minimum distance Lmin (FIGURE 15) is The spots are connected on the solar map
estimated by the following equation. and the area under the line is shaded. A
Lmin = (sina/tanβ+cosa) x L suitable area for a PV system should not be
shaded between 09:00 and 15:00.
The estimation of whether a site is
appropriate or not, may also performed with
the help of a solar map of the region under 2.1.4. Array orientation and tilt
investigation, a compass and a sextant for
measuring heights in degrees. Orientation of the PV array is one of the most
important aspects of site assessment.
The following steps should be followed:
Most PV systems are mounted in a fixed
Step 1:
position and cannot follow the sun
Stand in the middle of the proposed field. throughout the day. In that case, the optimal
Step 2: orientation in the northern hemisphere is due
south.
Using the compass locate the East.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 22

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

The highest efficiency of a PV module is 2.1.5. Μοunting methods

achieved when its surface is perpendicular to
the sun’s rays. In the northern hemisphere, 2.1.5.1. Building Mounts
the sun rises to its greatest height at noon on The most common mounting methods
the Summer Solstice and sinks to its lowest (NABCEP, 2009) are:
angle at noon on the Winter Solstice. These
elevations vary in accordance with the a. Integrated mounting
latitude of each location. The PVs are integrated into the building and
PVs should be tilted toward the sun’s average are referred to as BIPV (Building Integrated
elevation, equal to the latitude of the array’s Photovoltaics, see chapter 3). BIPV are
location, to capture most of the solar energy usually constructed along with the building
throughout the year. elements, although in some cases they may
be built later. Integral mounting is where the
However, for off-grid systems designed to modules are integrated into the roofing or
perform best in winter, the array should be exterior of the building itself. Three areas of
tilted at an angle of latitude (φ) + 15⁰. If the the building where PV modules can easily be
array is designed to perform best in summer, integrated are as follows:
then the array should be tilted at an angle of
latitude (φ) − 15⁰ (TABLE 3). - the roof,
- the façade,
- the sun screening components.
TABLE 3.
OPTIMUM TILT FOR THE PV PANEL (NORTH HEMISPHERE) -
(Source: Markvart & Castafier, 2003) FIGURE 17.
β=φ Throughout the year PV PANELS FOR SUN SCREENING. (Source: ReSEL, TUC, 2010)

β = φ + 15⁰ Performs best in winter

β = φ - 15⁰ Performs best in summer
In humid climate areas, solar radiation is
diffused because of water droplets in the
β = φ - 15⁰ atmosphere (the PV panel faces the sky and
a larger amount of diffuse radiation is
received)
β = 5 - 10⁰ In areas with a latitude of less than 20o
around the equator
β = 0⁰ In areas with very little sunshine in order to
exploit diffuse radiation

If the PV array is mounted on a building

where it is difficult for the panels to face the
South, then it can be oriented towards the
East or West but under no circumstances
towards the North as its efficiency will then
be very limited (NCSC, 2001).
For better results, the installer may consult
one of the software packages presented in
chapter 2.3.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 23

b. Rack mounting In the case of stand-off mounted PVs, air
circulation behind the modules will reduce
PV panels are based on a metal framework,
the PV module operating temperature,
which allows easy attachment and
making them more efficient.
detachment of the panels. In most cases,
panels are mounted above and parallel to the FIGURE 19.
PANELS MOUNTED ON A FLAT ROOF (Source: Flickr, Entersolar,
roof surface. The rack mount is usually 2011)
offered with the panel, by the PV
manufacturer.
FIGURE 18.
PV MODULES ON INCLINED ROOF (Source: Flickr, Sun Switch,
2011)

2.1.5.2. Ground Mounts

In rural environments, ground mounted PVs
are erected. Ground-mounted PV systems
c. Stand-off mounting involve a steel or aluminum frame, fixed to a
concrete foundation on the ground. The
The panels are supported by a frame built requirements of the frame are to provide a
ontop of the roof. The difference between rigid attachment that will resist gravitational
stand-off and rack-mount PVs is that the waves, wind or impact forces.
angles can be adjusted. Usually, the PV
panels are not parallel to the roof. In this case, fencing is often required to
protect the panels from vandalism. The
This type of mounting may not be planning process should ensure that fencing
aesthetically acceptable; however the will not create any further shading.
efficiency of PVs on stand off mounting is
higher than on rack mounting. The advantage of ground mounted panels is
that they may be easily oriented directly to
Some types of building mounted PVs (e.g. south, at the optimum tilt angle, resulting in
solar tiles) are not as efficient as other more efficient installations and maximum
solutions, as PV cells are more efficient at energy production throughout the year.
lower temperatures and when they are Panels are easier to maintain and may, if
suitably ventilated; the installer has to make required, be replaced.
allowance for sufficient space at the back of
the module. At the system design stage, the However, ground mounted panels are more
installer should, as far as possible, search for expensive than roof-mounted panels because
ways to reduce overheating. As a general of the cost of concrete posts and rigid frames.
rule, roof mounted systems should have at Furthermore, these systems suffer from
least 50mm free space beneath them visual pollution.
(NABCEP, 2009).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 24

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

Solar trackers are often used to improve the FIGURE 21.

TRACKING SYSTEM (Source: ReSEL, TUC)
efficiency of this type of system.
FIGURE 20. G
ROUND MOUNTED PV PANELS IN CRETE (Source: ReSEL, TUC)

2.1.6. BOS Locations

Balance-of-system (BOS) is the auxiliary
equipment which is related to supporting and
security structures, inverters, disconnects
PV arrays with trackers collect a higher
and overcurrent devices, charge controllers,
amount of energy than those installed at a
batteries, and junction boxes (NABCEP,
fixed tilt. The relationship between the
2009).
annual solar radiation captured by a tracking
system and a fixed tilt panel inclined at the Some of the components may need to be
angle of latitude is increased by more than installed in weather resistant or rain-tight
30% in locations with predominantly clear sky enclosures, if they are not rated for wet and
(Markvart & Castafier, 2003). outdoor exposure. The installer should
estimate the dimensions of the required
There are two types of tracking systems (DGS,
space to install all components during initial
2008):
planning; the environmental conditions
- Single-axis tracking: The array can be tilted specified by the manufacturer should be also
automatically along a single axis from east maintained.
to west. Output may be increased by
Considering the BOS location, the installer
approximately 20%, compared to a fixed
should try to avoid sites exposed to direct
array.
sunlight, strong winds and to choose a place
- Dual-axis tracking: The array can track the protected from rain and dampness. If the
sun along the north-south and the east- system includes batteries, it is essential that
west axes. Power output is higher in they are not exposed to extreme cold, which
comparison to a fixed array: approximately will reduce their effective capacity.
40% in Northern Europe, and 35% in Moreover, the ideal installation site for
Southern Europe. However, the tracker’s inverters is a cool, dry, dust free area, close
moving parts require maintenance; to the PV array, the junction box and the
potential failures, may decrease reliability batteries (if present), in order to minimize
and increase maintenance costs. cable length and size (DGS, 2008).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 25

2.1.7. Load Description 2.1.8. Performance ratio
In case a stand-alone system has to be During the on-site visit, the installer may be
installed, the load has to be documented in asked for an initial estimate of the system’s
detail. Autonomous systems can only be sized annual yield and the size of area required.
effectively for predictable loads; random load
An approximate estimate of the necessary
estimations may result in uncertain reliability
surface is calculated as: 10m2 = 1 kWp; a
of supply by the system.
rough estimate of the cost of a grid
The installer may also consult tables with connected PV system is 2,800-3,600 €/kWp.
indicative consumption values for different
A rough estimate of production may be
appliances, following identification of the
implemented using the Performance Ratio
customer’s energy needs.
(PR). PR expresses the performance of the
TABLE 4. system in comparison with an ideal ‘lossless’
VALUES OF TYPICAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION (Source: Markvart
& Castafier, 2003) system of the same design and rating at the
same location (reference yield), (Pearsall &
Average Average Annual Hill, 2001).
rated usage energy
power (h/day) consumption Typical PR values are 60-75% however higher
(W) (kWh/year) values can be achieved. Rough array sizing
Lighting
can be done using estimates of the PR, as
Bedroom 94 1.0 36 follows (SEAI 2010):
Dining room 165 2.3 136
- Assumption of PR value: 0.7 (typical),
Hall 78 1.7 49
- Determination of the solar irradiation on
Family room 106 2.0 77
the actual array.
Kitchen 95 3.2 109
Living room 124 2.4 109
Outdoor 110 2.9 116 For example: 1,000 kWh/m2/y x 0.15 (module
Bathroom 138 1.9 96
efficiency) x 0.95 correction factor for tilt and
azimuth or 142.5 kWh/m2/y.
Other Appliances
Refrigerator 649
- The output of the PV system, is estimated at
0.7 x 142.5 kWh/m2/y = 99.8 kWh/m2/y.
Freezer 46 5
(SEAI, 2010).
Washing 0.375 4 loads 78
machine kWh/load per week
Dish washer 0.78 One load 283
kWh/load per day
Based on this value, the installer may also
Electric oven 2.300 0.25 209 estimate the annual income of the
Coffee machine 301 installation, taking into account the national
Microwave 120
electricity price/kWh.
Vacuum cleaner 14
Audio 36
equipment
TV 100 5 182
PC 25

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 26

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

2.2. System Sizing and Design (current at maximum power) and VMPP
(voltage at maximum power point).
2.2.1. Basics The I-V characteristic curve is valid under
standard conditions of sunlight and device
I-V curve
temperature.
A current-voltage (I-V) curve presents the
applicable combinations of current and It is assumed that there is no shading on the
voltage output of a PV (FIGURE 22). device. Standard sunlight conditions on a
clear day are assumed to be 1kW/m2,
The PV module produces its maximum otherwise known as peak sun conditions.
current when there is no resistance in the
circuit. This maximum current is known as the
short circuit current (Isc). When the module is Filling factor
shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero
(ANU, 2011). The Filling Factor FF informs us of the extent
to which a module deviates from its ideal
The maximum voltage occurs when there is a operation (FIGURE 22). It represents the ratio
break in the circuit. This is called open circuit of the MPP to the product of VOC and ISC. The
voltage (Voc). Under this condition the filling factor for a good module is around
resistance is infinitely high and there is no 0.75.
current. The range between these extreme
conditions, are presented on the I-V curve.
FIGURE 22. Effect of temperature
I-V CURVE OF A SOLAR CELL (Source: ReSEL, TUC)
The operating temperature of PV cells is
determined by the ambient air temperature,
the characteristics of the encapsulation and
the intensity of sunlight falling on the
module, the wind and other variables.
Temperature increase leads to a reduction in
Voc, resulting in reduced cell output.
FIGURE 23.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON I-V CURVE (Source: ReSEL, TUC)

The available power (W) from the PV, at any

point of the curve, is the product of current
and voltage at that point.
The point on the curve’s knee is where the
maximum power output is achieved. This is
called the Maximum Power Point (MPP) and
the points describing this curve point are IMPP

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 27

Interconnecting PV modules FIGURE 25.
PARALLEL CONNECTION (Source: ReSEL, TUC)
PV modules can be interconnected in series,
where the negative terminal of one module is
connected to the positive terminal of the
next module.
In series connections the voltage is
cumulative:
V total = V1 + V2+ ... + Vn
and the current remains constant:
Itotal = I1 = I2 = … = In
The modules in FIGURE 24 have an open-
circuit voltage of 12V each, and 2 modules
amounting to 24V. A series and parallel connection (mix
V total = 12V + 12V=24V and Itotal = 3A connection) of different modules can also be
FIGURE 24.
implemented (FIGURE 26).
SERIES CONNECTION (Source: ReSEL, TUC)
In this case
Vtotal = V1 + V2 = 24V and Itotal = I1 + I2 = 6A
FIGURE 26.
SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTION (Source: ReSEL, TUC)

In parallel connections the current is

cumulative:
I total = I1 + I2+ ... + In 2.2.2. Inverters
and the voltage remains constant: An inverter converts the DC voltage of the
modules to the two-phase or three-phase AC
Vtotal = V1 = V2 = … = Vn voltage of the grid. Inverters usually have a
In cases where a high current is demanded Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
for specific applications, then the modules where the PV operates at its highest
are generally connected in parallel. efficiency. However, the voltage and current
generated by the PV modules must fit within
For the modules connected in parallel
the inverter range. If PV modules are
(FIGURE 25)
connected in series, their voltage is added to
Vtotal = 12V and Itotal = 3A+3A =6A give the total voltage, whereas if they are

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 28

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

connected in parallel, the current is added to FIGURE 27.

PV MODULES CONNECTED TO A CENTRAL INVERTER (Source:
give the total current (Salas et al, 2009). ReSEL, TUC)

Three inverter families, related to specific PV

system designs, can be defined (Myrzik &
Calais, 2003): central inverters, module
integrated inverters and string inverters.

a. Central inverters
Central inverters were the most commonly
used in the 1980s for PV grid connected
systems. However, several drawbacks
observed in the systems that used them (risk
of electrical arc in DC wiring, poor
adaptability to customer requirements) lead b. Module integrated inverters
to the introduction of the modular system The smallest possible grid connected PV
technology which was more reliable and system unit is a PV module with a module-
cheaper. integrated inverter, so that mismatching
losses and DC wiring are minimized.
In the low voltage concept (<120V), several
However, this technology also has efficiency-
modules are connected in series in a string.
related drawbacks, due to its low power
As only a few modules are in series the effect
ratings. Wattage costs are also high.
of shading will be less in comparison with
longer strings. However, the reason that the FIGURE 28.
PV MODULES CONNECTED TO MODULE INVERTERS (Source:
concept is not commonly used is the high ReSEL, TUC)
currents and the resulting high ohmic losses
that can be limited with the use of high cable
sections (DTI, 2008).
In the high voltage concept (>120V), smaller
cable sections can be used as a result of the
lower currents, however the high shading
losses due to the long strings is an essential
drawback.
In the master slave concept, one of the
inverters is superior to the others and
regulates the operation of the rest of the c. String inverters
chain. With increasing irradiance, the power
A compromise between the concept of the
limit of the master device is reached and the
module integrated inverter and the central
next inverter (slave) is connected. When the
inverter, the string inverter was placed on the
radiation levels are low, higher system
market in the mid 90s and is the most
efficiencies are enabled compared to cases in
popular inverter in use today.
which all inverters are permanently operating
(Myrzik & Calais, 2003). The efficiency of a string inverter may range
from 94-97%. Thus, researchers now focus on
new PV system concepts, in order to increase
efficiency and reduce the costs of the PV
plant.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 29

FIGURE 29. Maximum number of modules
PV MODULES CONNECTED TO STRING INVERTERS (Source:
ReSEL, TUC) At low temperatures, the module voltage
increases (FIGURE 23). The highest voltages
are recorded for open-circuit voltages at low
temperatures. If the inverter is switched off
on a sunny winter day, it could lead to an
excessively high open-circuit voltage when
switched on again that might damage the
inverter. In order to avoid damage, the
highest voltage must be lower than the
maximum DC input voltage of the inverter
(DGS, 2008).
So the maximum number of series-connected
modules is given by the following equation:
Sizing the inverter
The nominal AC power of the inverter is the
power that the inverter can supply Vmax(INV): maximum input voltage of the
continually at an ambient temperature of 25° inverter,
± 2°C.
Voc-Tmin: open-circuit voltage of the module at
The DC power rating of the inverter (PINV DC) the minimum module temperature.
is approximately 5% higher than the
In most cases, the Voc-Tmin value is not
inverter's nominal AC power (DTI, 2008).
provided by the manufacturer. However, it
The power range can be specified for the can be calculated, if the values of Voc at STC
sizing range: (25⁰C) and the voltage temperature
0.8 PPV < PINV DC < 1.2 PPV coefficient TC are available. Thus, the Voc-
Tmin is given by the following equation:
PPV : the PV array power rating in Wp
Voc-Tmin = Voc -STC + ΔΤ x Tc
The relationship between the installed power
of the PV generator and the maximum ΔΤ: difference between the minimum
inverter power is known as the inverter sizing ambient temperature and the temperature of
factor CINV and can be calculated by the 25⁰C (STC).
following equation (Velasco et al, 2006): Tc: voltage temperature coefficient in V/⁰C,
which means that for every ⁰C that the
temperature of the module drops below
25⁰C, then the module voltage will increase
PINV AC: the inverter’s nominal AC power. by the same value.
A typical value of CINV would be in the range
0.83 < CINV < 1.25, but it seems to be cost
effective for CINV >1.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 30

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

Minimum number of modules 2.2.4. Sizing of cables

The maximum temperature reached on a PV
Three crucial parameters have to be taken
panel is used to determine the minimum
into account when sizing the cables:
number of modules in a string.
- cable voltage ratings,
On a sunny day in summer, the PV will have a
lower voltage than 25 oC (STC) because of the - current rating of the cable,
increased temperatures. If the operating - minimization of cable losses.
voltage of the system drops below the
minimum MPP voltage of the inverter, it
Voltage ratings
would not feed the maximum possible
power, and it could even switch itself off. Voltage ratings of cables are in general
greater than the PV system, however in large
Hence, the system should be sized in systems the voltage rating must be checked,
accordance with the minimum number of taking into account the maximum open-
series-connected modules in a string, which is circuit voltage at the lowest temperature of
derived from the following equation: the PV array.
The cable cross-section is sized according the
maximum current. The maximum current of
VMPP (INV-min): minimum input voltage of the the module or string cable is given by the
inverter at the MPP following equation:
VMPP- Tmax: voltage of the module at the MPP Imax = ISC PV - ISC String
at the highest temperature.
ISC PV : PV generator short-circuit current
If V MPP-STC is given, the value of VMPP at
ISC String: the short-circuit current of one string
different temperatures can be calculated by
the following equation:
VMPP-T = VMPP-STC + ΔΤ x Tc String fuses
String fuses can be used to protect cables
from overloading and are usually used for
2.2.3. Number of strings systems with more than four strings.
The maximum PV array current must not The permitted current rating of the cable
exceed the maximum inverter input current. should be at least equal to or greater than
The maximum number of strings may the trigger current of the string fuse.
therefore be estimated by the following
Iz Cable ≥ Ia String fuse
equation (DGS, 2008):
The fuse has to be triggered at twice the
string short-circuit current at STC:
2 ISC String > In String fuse > ISC String
Imax INV: maximum permitted DC input current
of the inverter In order to avoid false trips,
In string: maximum string current. In String fuse ≥ 1.25 In String
In String fuse: nominal current of the fuse, A
In String: nominal string current, A

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 31

Minimizing cable losses
The need for as little cable loss/voltage drop
as possible represents one of the main n: number of strings of the PV generator
objectives, when sizing the cable cross-
sections. Where the PV systems lead to different string
cable lengths, the following equation is used:
It is recommended that the voltage drop in
the direct voltage circuit should be less than
1% of the nominal voltage of the PV system
at STC in order to limit the power loss The DC main cable and the DC bus cables
through all DC cables to 1% at STC. Losses of from PV sub-arrays must be able to carry the
1% can be maintained with standard cable maximum occurring current produced by the
cross-sections, for PV systems with inverters PV array. The DC main cable is in general
operating with a higher DC input voltage sized to 1.25 times the PV array short-circuit
(VMPP > 120V). (DGS, 2008) current at STC
However, in PV systems with inverters, which Imax = 1.25 ISC PV
are operating at an input voltage of below
The cross-section of the cable must be
20V, the voltage drop exceeds 1% with string
selected according to the permitted current
or module cables, even when using a 6mm2
carrying capacity of the cable. It is again
cable. This mainly occurs when there is a long
assumed that there will be a cable loss of 1 %
distance between the inverter and the PV
in relation to the nominal power of the PV
generator. In these systems, a 1% voltage
array.
drop in the string cables and an additional 1%
drop with the DC main cable are acceptable. The cross-section of the DC cable is given by:
The recommended cross-section with 1%
losses (at STC) can be selected by using the
following equation: LDC cable: simple wiring length for module and
string cabling, m
In: nominal current of the PV module, A
LM: simple wiring length for module and
PPV: nominal power of the PV module, Wp
string cabling, m
PM: line loss of the DC main cable, W
IST: string current, A
κ: electrical conductivity, m/Ω mm2
VMPP: string voltage, V
ν: loss factor ν= 1 %, or ν = 2 % with the low
κ: electrical conductivity, m/Ω mm2 (copper
voltage concept.
κcu = 56, aluminium êal = 34)
The value is then rounded up to the next
The value then is rounded up to the next
highest value for standard cable cross-
highest value for standard cable cross-
sections.
sections.
The following equation is used to calculate
The following equation is used to calculate
the overall losses in all modules and string
the overall losses (W) in all modules and
cables for the selected cable cross-section.
string cables for the selected cable cross-
section.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 32

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

Calculation of the cross-section of the AC systems can isolate shaded or damaged

connection cable is done by assuming a strings and prevent the other strings from
voltage drop of 3% in relation to the nominal loosing reverse current, if there is a short
grid voltage. The cross-section AAC cable is then circuit in one of the modules.
estimated by the following equation:
Furthermore, in battery charging systems, the
blocking diodes can block reverse flow of
current from the battery through the module
at night. As the module potential drops to
zero during night, the battery could discharge
with a single-phase feed all night backwards through the module. This
LAC cable: simple line length of the AC connect could be harmful to the module and would
ion cable, m result in the loss of the energy stored in the
battery bank. When diodes are placed in the
In AC: AC nominal current of the inverter, A circuit between the module and the battery
cosφ: power factor (between 0.8 and 1.0) they block any leakage flow at night.

Vn: nominal grid voltage, single phase: 230V 2.2.6. Earthing

Earthing or grounding is the procedure
In case of a three-phase feed: whereby one or more parts of an electrical
system are connected to the ground, which is
considered to have zero voltage (Markvart &
Castafier, 2003).
Earthing procedures may vary depending on
Vn: nominal grid voltage, three phase: 400V the different local codes. An equipment-
grounding conductor is a conductor that does
not normally carry current and is connected
The cable loss PAC c able for the selected cable to the ground. This type is used to connect
cross-section is then estimated: the exposed metal surfaces of electrical
equipment together and then to the ground,
in order to prevent electrical shocks and
allow overcurrent devices to operate
in a single-phase feed, and properly when ground faults occur.
PV systems should have equipment-
grounding conductors that connect all of the
in a three-phase feed. exposed metal surfaces of the system to a
grounding electrode (the metallic device used
for earthing that makes actual contact with
the ground).
2.2.5. Blocking diodes
However grounded conductors have to be
Blocking diodes are used in PV arrays to used only for systems with a system voltage
prevent reverse currents (Markvart & of over 50V. In this case, the voltage should
Castafier, 2003). be calculated for low temperatures as the
Blocking diodes when placed at the head of open-circuit voltage will be higher than the
separate series-wired strings in high voltage

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 33

open-circuit voltage marked on the back of A Protective Earthing (PE) conductor can
the PV module at STC (Wiles, 1999). discharge the DC conductors in case of a
direct strike; thereby limiting damage to the
A nominal 24V system has a rated open-
low voltage grid or to the inverters.
circuit voltage of about 44V at 25°C. That
means the voltage could exceed 50V at Wiring usually runs on the outside of a
below-zero temperatures (see § Maximum building from the roof to the power grid. In
number of modules) and current-carrying this case both the PE and the DC wires have
conductors should be connected to the to be exposed outside.
grounding electrode.
For small PV plants on buildings with lightning
2.2.7. Lightning protection protection, the plant may be entirely
protected by the existing lightning system.
Where the PV system is located outside the For this to be so, all parts of the PV generator
protection zone of a building, a protection have to be located in the mesh of the
device is needed to protect it against lightning protection system. The mesh
lightning strikes (FIGURE 30). consists of a ridge wire and two wires on
The system can be damaged even if the each side (FIGURE 31).
lightning does not strike it directly. Lightning
protection may be achieved through several FIGURE 31.
measures: SMALL PV IN LIGHTNING SYSTEM MESH. (Source: Schletter
Solar, 2005).
- use of a single ground electrode;
- connect all the metallic parts of the electric
equipment to the ground;
- arrange the cables to avoid loops that can
produce over-voltage generation;
- install lightning protectors connected to the
protected equipment (IEA PVPS, 2003).

FIGURE 30.
EXAMPLES OF PROTECTION (Source: IEA PVPS, 2003)

A safety distance, between the PV plant and

all parts of the lightning protection system,
has to be maintained. In practice, a distance
of more than 0.5m has proven adequate
(FIGURE 31).
The minimum distances in large PV systems
between plant and lightning protection can
not always be followed. The plant may not
cover existing lightning protection
conductors, because surge currents could get
into the building through the generator, in

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 34

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

case of a lightning strike, and cause severe FIGURE 33.

ROLLING SPHERE METHOD. (Source: OBO-Betterman, 2010)
damage.
In this case:
- Lightning protection connections may be
replaced by High Voltage Insulated (HVI)
conductors, so that minimum distances are
maintained.
- Additional connections and devices to
protect building and plant (Schletter Solar,
2005).

If the minimum distance (>0.5m) cannot be

maintained, the PV generator and the
lightning protection system are connected, in
order to limit the consequences of
sparkovers. The connection (Cu) should have When several interception rods are used to
a cross-section of at least 16mm2. protect the panels the penetration depth
FIGURE 32. between them must also be taken into
LARGE PV SYSTEM ON ROOF. (Source: Schletter Solar, 2005).
account (TABLE 5).
TABLE 5.
PENETRATION DEPTH BY LIGHTNING PROTECTION CLASS
ACCORDING TO VDE 0185-305. (Source: OBO-Betterman,
2010)
Distance of Penetration depth Lightning
interception protection
system (d) class I class II class IIÉ
in m Lightning protection sphere: R =
20 m 30 m 45 m
2 0.03 0.02 0.01
3 006 0.04 0.03
4 0.10 0.07 0.04
5 0.16 0.10 0.07
10 0.64 0.42 0.28
15 1.46 0.96 0.63
In this case, it would be better to have a
20 2.68 1.72 1.13
connection between the mounting frame and
the potential equalisation of the house. If
such a connection is built, it should also have
a cross-section of a least 16mm2 Cu.
(Schletter Solar, 2005).
The rolling sphere (FIGURE 33) is a method of
testing the protection areas against a direct
lightning strike. A sphere is rolled over a
model of the system and all the contact
points represent possible points for direct
lightning strikes (OBO-Betterman, 2010).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 35

2.2.8. Stand-alone PV system sizing Indicative values for the above-mentioned
magnitudes are presented in TABLE 6.
Sizing Stand-alone PV arrays
TABLE 6.
The equation that may be used to size a INDICATIVE VALUES (Source: Antony, 2007)
stand-alone PV system (Antony et al, 2007) is: Factors Indicative values
0.98 due to 2% cabling losses from the PV to
nPV BAT
battery.

0.98 due to 2% losses in a good quality charge

nCC
WPV: peak wattage of the array, Wp controller.

E: daily energy requirement, Wh nBAT 0.90 due to 10% battery losses.

nDIST 0.98 due to 2% cabling losses.
G: average daily number of Peak Sun Hours 0.90 due to 10% losses in a good quality
nINV
(PSH) in the design month for the inverter.
inclination and orientation of the PV array nSTC 0.12-0.14 for Poly-Si PV panels
Reduction in efficiency of about 1% per year:
fa
nsys : total system efficiency. after 5 years fa =0.95
0.95 for panels regularly cleaned
0.90 for panels lightly dusted
fd
0.80 for horizontal dirty panels
The total system efficiency can be calculated Indicative value 0.88
as follows: ft = 1- [(Ta +TPV)-25] . 0.004
ft Ta: mean monthly ambient temperature, oC
nsys = nPV x nPV BAT x nCC x nBAT x nDIST x nINV TPV: temperature on the PV panel , oC
nPV : module efficiency, 0.99 due to 1% losses from the blocking
fdio
diodes.
nPV BAT: losses due to voltage drop in cables
from PV array to battery,
The month used to size the system is the
nCC : losses in a charge controller, month with the lowest daily average solar
radiation during the operational period of the
nBAT: battery losses,
system (December, if the system is used
nDIST: losses in distribution cables from PV throughout the year).
battery to loads,
The number of peak hours is for the
nINV : losses in inverter. inclination and orientation of the PV array. If
the only available information is solar
radiation on a horizontal plane, then a tilt and
The module’s efficiency can be estimated by orientation correction factor should be
the following equation: applied.
nPV = nSTC x fa x fd x ft x fdio
Batteries
nSTC: module’s efficiency at STC, Stand-alone PV systems use battery backup.
fa: de-rating aging factor, The most common types are lead-acid
batteries, as these are cheap, reliable and
fd: de-rating factor for dirt/soiling, have relatively good energy storage density.
ft: temperature de-rating factor, Lead battery cells consist of two lead plates
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid which
fdio: de-rating diode factor.
create a voltage of about 2V between the
plates. The cells are then connected in series
to produce 12V batteries.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 36

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

The ideal charging cycle of a battery has the Very good lead acid batteries may work for
following stages: up to 4,500 cycles at 30% Depth Of Discharge
(DOD), equivalent to a lifetime of 20 years
- the battery is charged at constant current
(Kirchensteiner, 2011).
until the voltage reaches a predefined
value, Batteries are generally installed in an
- the voltage is held constant while the insulated enclosure, separated from controls
charging current diminishes, or other PV system components that may
have cooling/heating mechanisms, in order to
- the charging voltage is reduced after a
protect them from excessive variations in
suitable period of time to avoid excessive
temperature. The enclosure should also be
gassing and loss of electrolyte.
designed to limit direct exposure to sunlight.
However, ideal charging cannot be achieved When temperature swings are reduced, the
in a PV system, if the available power is battery will perform better, have a longer life,
constantly changing. and require less maintenance (Dunlop, 1997).
In stand-alone systems, the battery cycle The nominal capacity of the battery is given
takes place over 24 hours, charging during by the following equation (Markvart &
the daytime and discharging at night. Typical Castafier, 2003):
daily discharge may range from 2-20 % of
total battery capacity. Qn = In . tn

The design of the PV system should consider In: constant discharge current, A
ways of preventing potential problems such tn: discharge time, h
as sulphation, stratification and freezing
(Markvart & Castafier 2003).
- Sulphation occurs if the battery is Battery sizing
discharged, if the voltage falls below the The battery has to store energy for many
discharge cut-out voltage (deep discharge), days and must not exceed the DODmax while
and if there is a significant reduction in the in use (Antony et al, 2007).
acid concentration.
The following equation can be used:
- Stratification occurs when acid forms layers
of different densities throughout the
battery cycles. Batteries that are regularly
deep discharged and then fully recharged, Q: minimum battery capacity required, Ah
concentrate lower density acid at the
E: daily energy requirement, Wh
bottom; while batteries with regular
shallow cycling which are not 100% A: number of days of storage required
recharged concentrate lower density acid at V: system DC voltage, V
the top.
- Freezing in a lead-acid battery occurs as the T: maximum allowed DOD of the battery
battery is discharged; the acid becomes usually on battery data sheet (indicatively 0.3
more ‘watery’ and the freezing point is -0.9)
raised, which can cause severe problems if ninv: inverter efficiency (1.0 if no inverter is
the battery is operating under sub-zero used)
temperatures.
ncable: efficiency of the cables delivering the
power from battery to loads.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 37

Diodes - Low voltage disconnect hysteresis (LVDH)—
Blocking diodes protect the battery from the voltage span between the LVD and the
short circuiting and also prevent it from load reconnect voltage. If the LVDH is set
discharging through the modules when there too low, the load cycles on and off rapidly at
is no light. Diode voltage droppers can also a low state of battery charge, implying
be used to ensure that the batteries will not possible damage to the load or controller,
supply voltages in excess of the load and extending the time it takes to charge
(Wenham et al, 2007). the battery fully. If set too high, the load
may remain off for an extended period until
Charge controllers the array fully recharges the battery.
Charge controllers, are required in stand-
alone systems to protect batteries against FIGURE 34.
limiting discharge and overcharge levels. CHARGE CONTROLLER SET POINTS (Source: Dunlop, 1997)

Main characteristics (FIGURE 34) of the

control charger (Wenham et al, 2007) are:
- Regulation set point (VR): maximum
allowable voltage. The control charger will
either interrupt charging or regulate the
current delivered to the battery the set
point is reached (Dunlop, 1997).
- Regulation hysteresis (VRH): the difference
between VR and the array reconnect
voltage. If the hysteresis is set too high,
interruptions to charging will be too long. If
VRH is set too low, then the array will cycle
on and off rapidly. The voltage level VR –
VRH is called VRR.
There are two main charging regulation
- Low voltage load disconnect set point (LVD):
methods (Wenham et al, 2007):
defines the voltage at which the load will be
disconnected to prevent over-discharging a) Interrupting (on/off) regulation. The
(DODmax). Over-discharging the battery can controller leads all available PV current to the
make it susceptible to freezing and shorten battery during charging. On reaching the
its operating life maximum allowable voltage, the controller
- Load Reconnect Voltage (LRV) Set Point: switches off the charging current. When the
The battery voltage at which a controller voltage falls to VR – VRH, the current is
allows the load to be reconnected to the reconnected.
battery. Once the controller disconnects the b) Constant voltage regulation. The controller
load from the battery at the LVD set point, can modify the VR set-point by sensing the
the battery voltage rises to the open-circuit battery condition or using a low VR in order
voltage. When additional charge is provided to avoid excessive gassing, coupled with
by the array, the battery voltage is raised provision for an occasional gassing
further and as soon as the battery voltage ‘equalisation’ charge.
and state of charge are sufficiently high, it
reconnects to the load. The two charging regulation may be applied
via shunt or series arrangements.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 38

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

The shunt (parallel) regulator has a switch It is preferable, in view of the cost, to
that is open when the battery is charging and oversize the controller, as if it fails during
closes when the battery is fully charged. operation, the costs of servicing and
replacing several elements of the system will
The series regulators are connected in series
be significantly higher.
between module and battery. These
regulators are usually simple and cheap. Under certain circumstances, the maximum
power current measured at STC could be
much higher and the peak array current could
FIGURE 35.
be 1.4 times the nominal peak rated value.
SHUNT CHARGE CONTROLLER (Source: DGS LV, 2008)
Thus the peak array current ratings for charge
controllers should be sized for about 140% or
the nominal peak maximum power current
ratings for the modules or array.
The total current from an array is calculated
by the number of modules or strings in
parallel, multiplied by the module current. It
is better to use the short-circuit current (Isc)
instead of the maximum power current (IMPP),
so that the shunt type controllers that
operate the array under short-circuit current
To limit the charging current, the regulator conditions are safe.
adjusts the transistor resistance according to
The followings should be taken into
the battery voltage. Series regulators are
consideration during the inverter selection
mainly used in small systems (Kirchensteiner,
procedure:
2010).
FIGURE 36.
- system voltage,
SERIES CHARGE CONTROLLER (Source: DGS LV, 2008) - PV array and load currents,
- battery type and size,
- environmental operating conditions,
- mechanical design and packaging,
- overcurrent, disconnects and surge
protection devices,
- costs, warranty and availability (Wenham et
al, 2007).

The Maximum Power Point Regulator

Charge controllers should be sized according The MPP regulator searches for the best
to the voltages and currents expected during operating point of a module and ensures that
operation of the PV system. the module delivers the maximum possible
power under all conditions.
The controller should be able to handle
typical voltages and currents, but also peak The MPP regulator samples the output of a
conditions from the PV array. cell and applies a resistance (load) to obtain
maximum power for any environmental

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 39

conditions. The procedure defines the the batteries may not be properly charged
current which the inverter should draw from because of the resistance RC (ohms). As cable
the PV, in order to obtain the maximum resistance increases, so too does the voltage
possible power. drop according to the following formula:
ΔV =I x RC

Stand-alone inverters ΔV: voltage drop, V

Battery storage is used in a PV stand-alone I: current in the cable, A
system along with the operation of several
RC: resistance of the cable (Ù), which depends
loads using DC. Stand-alone inverters enable
on the cable length and the cross-section.
the use of conventional loads of 230V AC, on
a DC system.
Three inverter types are available: the Basic formula for calculating cross-section:
rectangular, the trapeze and the sinus
inverter (Kirchensteiner, 2010).
A stand-alone inverter is expected to comply P: consumer power, W
with the following requirements (Daniel et al,
2009): AM: cross-section, mm2

- very good conversion efficiency, even in a L: cable length, m

partial load range, κ: electrical conductivity, m/Ω mm2
- high overload capability for switch-on and
starting sequences,
- tolerance against battery voltage Combiner Box
fluctuations, The conductors used to wire the PV array
- economical standby state with automatic come into the combiner box, where they are
load detection, connected via a power distribution block to
larger ones that run to the charge controller
- protection against short-circuit damage on
and batteries. The purpose is to carry the
the output side,
electrical energy from the PVs to the
- surge voltage protection, batteries with a minimum voltage drop. A
- bi-directional operation so that batteries combiner box also permits a combination of
can be charged from AC generators, if multiple PV source circuits (sub-arrays,
necessary. panels, or series strings) into a single DC
source, and provides a method of removing a
module or sub-array from the array without
Cable selection and sizing interrupting the rest of the system. It also
Cables for domestic use are always made of allows for safe operation of the system in
copper. The main requirements for wiring a case of a problem with a source circuit that
module are temperature resistance, UV leads to a high current.
resistance, moisture resistance, flexibility, In summary, the basic steps that the
ease of handling and size for low voltage technician should follow, in order to install a
drops. PV system, are presented in FIGURE 37 and
Every cable incorporates a voltage drop. This FIGURE 38.
is a problem in stand-alone systems because

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 40

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

FIGURE 37. The technician should be aware of the

DESIGN OF AN AUTONOMOUS SYSTEM (Source: ReSEL, TUC)
required procedure and the necessary
permits, in order to comply fully with the
Estimation of the loads conditions set by the relevant planning
and appliances and authorities or the Regulatory Energy
the daily energy
requirements Authorities.
Module sizing For example, the installer should be aware if
a building is listed, as in some cases PVs
Sizing the battery cannot be applied to buildings which are
designated architectural, historical or cultural
heritage; specific permission should therefore
Select the optimum inverter be issued by the competent authority. BIPVs
are subject to complicated planning
procedures in some EU Member States.
Select the Moreover, conditions for access to a low
appropriate wiring
voltage grid have yet to be regulated and
procedures for grid-connections have yet to
be implemented in other Member States.
FIGURE 38.
DESIGN OF A GRID CONNECTED SYSTEM However, these barriers may easily be
(Source: ReSEL, TUC) overcome if the installer is knowledgeable of
permit procedures, rules on grid connections
Estimated roof and technical standards, grid connection
size needed for procedures and grid capacity issues.
the system Check that the
module fits the
Regulations vary within the EU. Some
roof information on this issue is presented in
chapter 2.5.
Check the module
voltage

Module
2.3. Simulation software
configuration
Array configuration
There is a great variety of software tools for
sizing and simulation of performance of grid-
connected and stand-alone PV systems. Some
Check inverter
compatibility of them are very complicated; others are user
friendly, others may lack accuracy or
reliability. The installer is advised to access
the results to ensure consistency.

2.2.9. Legal Aspects Indicative software solutions regarding PV

analysis and planning and site analysis are
Administrative permits can represent a briefly presented in this chapter (TABLE 7).
barrier to the implementation of a PV system.
These procedures may involve obtaining
building permits, environmental impact
assessments, grid connection licenses,
electricity production licenses etc.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 41

TABLE 7. A demo may be downloaded from the
PV SIMULATION TOOLS
relevant website. An on line easy-to-use tool
PV analysis and planning
is also available for draft estimations.
PV*SOL http://valentin-software.com
PV F-CHART www.fchart.com
PVSYST www.pvsyst.com
PV- www.mauisolarsoftware.com FIGURE 39.
DesignPro ON LINE PV*SOL TOOL
PVPlanner http://solargis.info/doc/4)
Nsol!-GT www.nsolpv.com
Solar Pro www.lapsys.co.jp/english /products/pro.html

RETScreen www.retscreen.net
PVGIS http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
pvgis/apps4/pvest.php
Solar Sizer www.solarray.com
PVselect www.pvselect.com
Performance http://www.volker-
Calculation quaschning.de/software/pvertrag/index_e.ph
Educational http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~Andres.Cuevas
Sun applets /Sun/Sun.html
Site Analysis
ECOTECT http://usa.autodesk.com/adsk/
servlet/pc/index?siteID=123112&id
=12602821
Shadows http://www.shadowspro.com/

PV F-CHART (http://www.fchart.com)
2.3.1. PV analysis and planning The program provides monthly-average
performance estimations for each hour of the
software
day to calculate the long-term average
PV*SOL (http://valentin-software.com) performance of utility interface systems,
battery storage systems, systems with no
PV*SOL consists of a multi-product software
interface or battery storage. Each system is
suite appropriate for the design, simulation
described using two sets of parameters
and financial analysis of PV systems, from
(system and economics). The system set
small off-grid residential systems to large
contains the parameters that describe the
commercial grid-connected and utility-scale
optical, thermal and electrical performance
systems. The calculations are based on an
of the system. PV F-Chart contains weather
hourly data balance and the results may be
data for over 300 locations, hourly load
presented in graphic form, in a detailed
power demand profiles for each month,
project report or in summary form. PV*SOL
statistical load variation, buy/sell cost
products are among the most widely used.
differences, time-of-day rates for buy/sell,
PV*SOL programs include: and life-cycle economics.
- PV*SOL basic,for the design of PVs<300kW,
- PV*SOL Pro, for the analysis of
PVs<100MW,
- PV*SOL Expert, containing all the
capabilities of PV*SOL Pro plus the added
capability of 3D array design and detailed
shade analysis.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 42

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

FIGURE 40. actual performances and perform close

INPUT DATA EXAMPLE ON DEMO VERSION OF PV F-CHART
comparisons with the simulated variables.
An evaluation mode is available and may be
downloaded for monthly trial use, free of
charge.

PV-DesignPro (www.mauisolarsoftware.com)
The PV-DesignPro has been designed to
simulate PV energy system operation on an
hourly basis for a year, based on the user’s
selected climate and system design. There
are three versions of the PV-DesignPro
FIGURE 41.
OUTPUT OF EXAMPLE ON DEMO VERSION OF PV F-CHART
program: “PV-DesignPro-S” for standalone
(BASED ON FIGURE 40) systems with battery storage, “PV-DesignPro-
G” for grid-connected systems with no
battery storage, and “PV-DesignPro-P” for
water pumping systems.

PVPlanner (http://solargis.info/doc/4)
PVPlanner is used for planning and
optimization of PV systems using climate and
geographic data and new generation
algorithms. The software can estimate PV
electricity potential (in daily or monthly
basis), PV conversion losses and performance
ratio.
PVSYST (www.pvsyst.com)
This software is suitable for grid-connected, Nsol!-GT (www.nsolpv.com)
stand-alone and DC-grid systems, and offers Nsol!-GT is a sizing software, specifically
extensive meteorological and PV-components optimised for grid-tied PV systems. It includes
database. It offers 3 levels of PV system databases for solar resource, PV modules,
study, corresponding to the different stages and grid-tied PV inverters. The software
of the development of a real project: allows rapid and accurate system design and
i) Preliminary design: system yield performance analysis. It also includes a basic
evaluations are performed using only few economic payback analysis, including value
parameters. for system rebates, tax credit and production
credits.
ii) Project Design: aiming to perform a
thorough system design using detailed hourly Nsol! V.4.6 includes modules for standalone
simulations. PVs, PV-generator hybrids and grid-tied PV.
The standalone version includes the “Loss-Of-
iii) Measured data analysis: importation of
measured data is allowed to display tables of

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 43

Load-Probability” statistical analysis. A demo on commercial buildings and houses, or
version is available for download. stand-alone battery storage systems for
FIGURE 42. lighting. The software is available in multiple
EXAMPLE FOR ATHENS ON DEMO VERSION NSOL. languages and includes project and climate
databases for free downloads.

PVGIS
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/apps4/pvest.
php
The PV Geographical Information System is
an information service of the European
Commission, Institute for Environment and
Sustainability. This is a research,
demonstration and policy-support instrument
for geographical assessment of solar energy
resources. It provides a map-based inventory
of solar energy resource and assessment of
the electricity generation from PV systems in
Solar Pro Europe, Africa, and South-West Asia. It is a
www.lapsys.co.jp/english/products/pro.html free, easy-to-use tool available online.
Solar Pro develops and supports virtual
simulations for PV systems, allowing the
In addition to the above, there are numerous
computation of solar power from module
others online free tools, such as:
arrays. It also performs shade analysis and
includes the influence of shading in the sizing
process, in order to check optimal settings Solar Sizer (www.solarray.com) adds up the
and module designs. The software calculates electrical requirements of predefined
the amount of generated electricity based on appliances and assists the selection of
the latitude, longitude and the weather appropriate components, such as PV
conditions of the installation site. The modules, inverters, controllers and batteries.
calculated data are presented in graphical
form so they can be used for reports and
sales presentations of the PV system. PVselect (www.pvselect.com), a tool for
pairing and comparing PV Modules and
inverters.
RETScreen (www.retscreen.net)
The RETScreen Software - Photovoltaic Power
Model is used to evaluate energy production Performance Calculation for Grid-connected
and savings, costs, emission reductions, PV Systems (www.volker-quaschning.de/
financial viability and risk for central-grid, software/pvertrag/index_e.php), a tool
autonomous and grid connected PV systems. estimating the output of a system installed
on a building based on several characteristics
RETScreen models a wide variety of projects, of the location, the roof and the PR of the
from large scale multi-array central power panel
plants to distributed power systems located

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 44

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

Educational Sun applets FIGURE 44.

BIPV VISUALIZATION ON EXISTING BULDING IN CHANIA USING
(http://users.cecs.anu.edu.au/~Andres.Cueva ECOTECT (Source: Papantoniou and Tsoutsos, 2008)
s/Sun/Sun.html), enables the draft design of
a PV panel by providing as input the
locations’ latitude and monthly irradiation
data, as well as PV panels’ characteristics. The
model displays monthly energy production.
FIGURE 43.
ONLINE TOOL FROM THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Shadows
Shadows is a useful program for solar energy
engineering and assists in the design of
sundials and astrolabes. It simulates, displays,
and animates the shadows of different
objects at different locations.
Several other energy simulation software
packages such as TRNSYS and EnergyPlus Shade Analysis,
have extensive modules for detailed PV
A tool to estimate shading losses for panels at
systems simulations.
different locations and orientations with
different tilts and slopes.

2.3.2. Software tools for site analysis www.honeybeesolar.com/shade.html.

For further details on the above simulation
ECOTECT software, the installer may visit the relevant
Ecotec performs an entire building energy website and/or contact the supplier or the
analysis in 3D. Furthermore, the position and software developer indicated in the software
path of the sun as well as solar radiation on references.
windows and surfaces, over any period of the
year, may be estimated and visualized.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 45

2.4. Economics and Environmental Recently many governments have provided
capital grants or FITs to encourage people to
Issues install domestic PVs.
TABLE 8.
2.4.1. Economic Aspects SHARES IN THE TOTAL SYSTEM PRICE (Source: EPIA 2011)

PV modules 40-60%,
Market for PVs
Inverter 8-10%
The high cost of power from PV panels has
been a major obstacle to market penetration. Engineering and procurement 7%

However, today, the constant reduction in Germany and Spain, especially, have given a
costs each year is an encouraging sign (Lynn, significant boost to the PV market,
2010). introducing FITs which provide an additional
PV module prices are reduced by 22% each push to the “learning curve”. As cumulative
time the cumulative installed capacity (in world production increases and prices fall,
MW) is doubled (FIGURE 45). less developed “sunny” countries are more
likely to install domestic PV systems.
FIGURE 45.
PV MODULE PRICE EXPERIENCE CURVE (US$/Wp & MW) The advantage of small domestic systems is
(Source: EPIA, 2011)
that the power is generated on-site, and
losses through transmission and distribution
are limited. On-site generation can be an
essential financial advantage that is often
overlooked in cost analysis.
However, PV system costs need to be further
reduced in order rival the cost of
conventional sources of electricity. According
to the European Photovoltaic Industry
Association (EPIA, 2011) this may be achieved
through: technological innovation,
production optimisation, economies of scale,
increased performance ratio of PV, extended
lifetime of PV systems, development of
standards and specifications.
Owing to economies of scale, the
Estimating the cost of PV Systems
manufacturing costs and retail prices of PV
modules and systems has decreased When investing in a PV system, it is helpful to
significantly. start by estimating the expected cash flows
over the lifetime of the system (20-25 years).
The price of inverters has also fallen over
recent years, following the same trend as the The initial capital cost can be considered the
PV modules. Several years ago the share of largest share of the expenditure of a PV
the panels in the total system cost was 60- system’s negative cash flow.
75% and it is now estimated at 40-60%, This value is affected by many factors (eg:
depending on the technology. cost of natural building, plant engineering,
integration, bureaucratic, etc.); the system
designer has to perform an analytic

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 46

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

assessment, in order to provide a precise Cost estimate for battery bank: € ___
value.
2.c. If an inverter is used, multiply the size of
At a rough estimate, the average value of a the array (1.c.) by € 0.7/W.
grid connected system is around 3,000
Cost estimate for inverter: €____
€/kWp. This value takes into consideration
the cost of replacing the inverter which has Subtotal: € ___
an average lifetime of 12-15 years; its cost is 2.d. Multiply the subtotal above by 0.2 (20%)
approximately 8-10% of the plant’s value. to cover BOS costs (wire, fuses, switches,
The installer may estimate the cost of a PV etc.).
system following the next steps (Infinite Cost Estimate for BOS: €____
Power, 2009):
Total estimated PV system cost: € _____
Step 1. Determination of the load, available (2a+2b+2c+2d)
sunlight, array size, battery size:
1.a. Determine the energy load required in
A number of free, on-line tools, such as “PV
Wh/d. Multiply the number of W the load will
payback” (Sunearthtools.com, 2011): and
consume by the hrs/day the load will operate
“Solar Energy” from the Energy Bible.com
(see also TABLE 4 in Chapter 2.1.7). Multiply
(Energybible, 2011) facilitate estimates of the
the result by 1.5.
payback period in relation to the selling price
Total Wh per day required: __ Wh (€/kWh). Most of the softwares presented in
chapter 2.3, allows more precise estimations
1.b. Determine the hr/day of available
based on detailed input data.
sunlight at the site.
FIGURE 46.
Total available sunlight: ___hrs/day ESTIMATING THE COST OF PV SYSTEMS (Source: ReSEL,TUC)

1.c. Determine the PV array size. Divide the STEP 1

energy demand (1.a.) by the number of Determination of the load, available sunlight,
available sun hours per day (1.b.) array size, battery size
a. Determine the energy load in Wh/d
Total array size required: ___W b. Determine the hr/day of available sunlight
c. Determine the PV array size
1.d. Determine the size of the battery storage d. Determine the size of the battery storage (if
(if battery is required). Multiply the load (1.a.) required)
by 5 (result is Wh). Then divide by the battery
voltage (eg, 12 volts) to get the Ah rating of
the battery capacity. STEP 2
Calculate the cost of the PV system’s components
Total battery capacity required: ___Ah a. Estimate the PV array cost
b. Estimate the battery cost
Step 2. Calculate the cost of the PV system c. Estimate the inverter cost
needed for this application: d. Estimate BOS cost
2.a. Multiply the size of the array (1.c.) by
€3.0/W
Cost estimate for PV array: € ___ STEP 3
Define the total PV system’s cost
2.b. If a battery is used, multiply the size of
Add the subtotals 2a + 2b + 2c + 2d
the battery bank (1.d.) by €0.7/Ah.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 47

Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Einput: is the energy input during the module
IRR is the actual annual rate of profits on an life cycle,
investment. It equates the value of cash Esaved: annual energy savings due to electricity
returns with cash invested. The formula is: generated by the PV module.
Investment cost =

The EPBT depends on:

i: internal rate of return - cell technology, type of encapsulation,
t: each time interval frame and array support,
n: total time intervals - PV system application type (grid-connected
or stand alone) and,
This magnitude is essential in order to explain
- PV system performance as determined by
the concept of time value of money. Thus €1
irradiation and the performance ratio.
today will worth more than €1 in the future.
Eg. in the case of 5% interest rate, €1 today
will worth €1.05 in 1 year ( ). ¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la
referencia. illustrates the EPBT for different
PV technologies. The calculations assume
If a project costs €1,000 to set up and technologies for average southern European
generates cash flows of €100, €500 and insolation (1700 kWh/m2/yr), 75%
€1,500 in years 1-3, the hurdle rate which this performance ratio for roof-top installations,
project should earn in order to create value is and 80% performance ratio for utility ground-
calculated as : mounted installations.
The EPBT values of future PV technology will
be significantly improved. Recent
developments in PV technology will result in
In this case, i = 32.8% decreased energy requirements in
component production, leading to greater
So the IRR may be defined as the hurdle rate
potential for fossil energy replacement.
for which the present value of a project’s
cash flows equals zero. Any project should FIGURE 47.
V ENERGY PAYBACK TIMES OF PV TECHNOLOGIES (Source:
have an expected return greater than the IRR, Sovacool, 2008)
in order to be worthwhile (Hopkins, 2009).

2.4.2. Environmental Issues

Energy payback time (EPBT)

The EPBT is the time in which the energy
input during the PV system life-cycle
(production, installation, disassembling and
recycling) is compensated by electricity
generated by the PV system.
The EPBT is defined by the equation
(Sunearthtools, 2011):
EPBT = Einput/Esaved

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 48

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

Emissions In case of ground mounted PVs, land use may

be quantified by the following metrics
Emissions of greenhouse gases are expressed
(Turney & Fthenakis, 2011):
in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2 equiv).
TABLE 9. - land area “transformation” per nameplate
LIFECYCLE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION ESTIMATES FOR “peak” capacity (km2 GWp−1), and
ELECTRICITY GENERATORS. (Source: Sovacool, 2008).
- land area “occupation” per unit of electrical
Technology Description Emissions
(g CO2/kWhe)
energy generated (km2yr TWh−1).
Wind 1.5 MW onshore 10 “Transformation” focuses on the one-time
processions that change the physical nature
Biogas Anaerobic digestion 11
of the land, (installation of the plant) whereas
Hydroelectric 300 kW run-of-river 13
Solar 80 MW parabolic
“occupation” measures the period that the
thermal trough 13 land is being used (including time needed to
Biomass various 14-35 recover). The restoration time is highly
variable depending on the disrupted
Solar PV Polycrystaline silicon 32
ecosystem.
Geothermal 80 MW hot dry rock 38

Nuclear various reactor types 66

PV plants are designed for 30+ years of
various combined operation. As the lifetime of a PV plant gets
Natural gas cycle turbines 443 longer, the land transformation per capacity
various generator
Diesel and turbine types 778
remains unchanged; however, the land
various generator occupation per generated energy unit
Coal types with scrubbing 960 decreases. PV installations have the lowest
various generator
types without
land occupation compared to other RES and
Coal scrubbing 1050 compared to coal and nuclear fuel cycles; for
example, the coal power life-cycle requires
mining that increases land occupation. PV
A detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has to
plants cover an average of 25 km2/GWp. A
be performed, in order to estimate emissions
30-year old plant occupies 15% less land than
during the lifetime of the PV system, which
a coal power plant of the same age. As the
includes extraction and purification of raw
age of the power plant increases, the land
materials, manufacturing processes,
use intensity of PV power becomes
installation, and many years of operation;
significantly smaller than it does for coal
also recycling or disposal of waste products.
power (Turney & Fthenakis, 2011).
Values may differ (24gCO2-equiv/kWh),
(Moskowitz & Fthenakis, 1991) for PV Raw Materials
systems as regards the PV modules type, Silicon, the material of which most PV panels
methods and materials used for the are made, is one of the most common
manufacture of the BOS components etc. elements in Earth. It is a nontoxic element;
however, several hazardous chemicals are
Land use used during the production process of the
Land use is often mentioned as an important solar cells. The basic environmental and
issue for RES applications. One of the health issues arising from manufacturing are:
advantages of PVs in urban areas is that they
- the dispersion of kerf dust, from the sawing
are installed on the rooftops of buildings,
of silicon ingots into wafers,
avoiding field occupation all together.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 49

- exposure to solvents, such as nitric acid, Water consumption
sodium hydroxide and hydrofluoric acid, PV systems do not require water during their
used in wafer etching and cleaning. operation; this fact makes them suitable in
places where water is scarce. Some water is
used during the production process; 85% for
Solar cells are welded by Cu wire and are Sn
material extraction and refinement, and 15%
coated. Some PV manufacturers use solders
for the module assembly (EPIA, 2011).
containing lead and other metals, which if
released into the environment may cause Small quantities of water may be also used
environmental and human health risks. for washing panels which is more necessary
in sandy fields or in Southern European
Other environmental risks include the release
countries were sand storms are common.
of hazardous gases from fires at the
manufacturing facilities and deposition of The estimation for the water needed for
lead into soil and, eventually the water table. washing the panels, in large scale PV plants, is
Similar concerns arise when a fire breaks out 2-4m3/MW/year (Turney & Fthenakis, 2011).
at a PV plant.

2.5. Standards and regulations

Recycling
The PV cell counts for only a small fraction of 2.5.1. International Standards and
the total materials required to produce a Regulations
solar panel.
TABLE 10.
There are several standards that regulate PV
MASS BASIC FRACTIONS OF A PV MODULE (Source: Sander, system functioning and supervision or
2007) standards for advising, planning and
Components Share implementation of such systems. See below
Outer glass cover 65%
for a list of the most important standards,
Aluminum frame ~20%
Ethylene vinyl acetate encapsulant ~7.5% including safety regulations, which have to be
Polyvinyl fluoride substrate ~2.5% considered during PV system
Junction box 1% implementation.
Solar cell 4%

Proper decommissioning and recycling of PV

panels ensure that potentially harmful
materials are not released into the
environment; the need for virgin raw
materials is also reduced. When batteries are
used, they have to be decommissioned and
recycled at the end of their life. The most
appropriate use of “dead” batteries is to
reuse the lead they contain or recycle them.
Recycling technologies exist for almost all
types of PV products and most manufacturers
are engaged in recycling activities.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 50

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

FIGURE 48. Standards for batteries, over-voltage

STANDARDS FOR PV SYSTEMS INSTALLATION (Source:
PVResources, 2011) protection components and other system
components are presented in TABLE 11.
Nr Description
IEC 60364-7-712 Electrical installations of buildings – TABLE 11.
Part 7-712: Requirements for special STANDARDS FOR BOS (Source: PVResources, 2011)
installations or locations – Solar PV Nr Description
power supply systems.
IEC 61194 Characteristic parameters of stand- N 50524 Datasheet and nameplate information of
alone PV systems PV inverters
IEC 61702 Rating of direct coupled PV pumping EN 50521 Connectors for PV systems – Safety.
systems IEC 61173 Overvoltage protection for PV power
IEC 61724 Photovoltaic system performance generating systems – Guide
monitoring – Guidelines for IEC 61683 PV systems – Power conditioners–
measurement, data exchange and Procedure for measuring efficiency
analysis IEC 61427 Secondary cells & batteries for PV
IEC 61727 PV systems – Characteristics of the systems. General requirements and
utility interface methods of test
IEEE Std. 937 Recommended practice for installation
IEC 61683 Photovoltaic systems – Power and maintenance of lead-acid batteries
conditioners – Procedure for for PV systems
measuring efficiency
IEEE Std. Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-
IEC 62093 Balance-of-system components for 1013 Acid Batteries for PV Systems
PV systems – Design qualification
IEEE Std. Recommended practice for determining
natural environments
1361 performance characteristics and
IEC 62116 Test procedure of islanding suitability of batteries in PV systems
prevention measures for utility-
interconnected PV inverters
IEC 62124 PV Stand-Alone Systems – Design 2.5.2. National Standards and
Qualification and Type Approval
IEC/TS 62257, Recommendations for small
Regulations
renewable energy and hybrid systems
for rural electrification Greece
IEC/TS 62257-7-1 Recommendations for small
renewable energy and hybrid systems There are no officially adopted requirements
for rural electrification – Part 7-1: concerning PV system equipment in Greece.
Generators – PV arrays However, technical agents that want to
IEC/TS 62257-8-1 Recommendations for small
renewable energy and hybrid systems registered to on the list organized by the
for rural electrification – Part 8-1: Centre for Renewable Energy Sources (CRES)
Selection of batteries and battery
management systems for stand-alone
have to use panels and inverters to meet
electrification systems minimum standards acknowledged at EU
IEC/TS 62257-9-5 Recommendations for small level.
renewable energy and hybrid systems
for rural electrification – Part 9-5: For PV panels
Integrated system – Selection of
portable PV lanterns for rural - IEC-EN 61215 η 61646,
electrification projects
IEC/TS 62257-9-6 Recommendations for small - IEC 61730 – Class A (Class II insulation)
renewable energy and hybrid systems
for rural electrification – Part 9-6: These certificates are provided by accredited
Integrated system – Selection of PV
Individual Electrification Systems (PV-
laboratories.
IES)
For Inverters
Grid connected PV systems –
IEC 62446 Minimum requirements for system - Confirmation of protection against
documentation, commissioning tests
and inspection islanding, according to VDE 0126-1-1 or
IEEE Std 1526 IEEE Recommended Practice for equivalent method
Testing the Performance of Stand-
Alone PV Systems

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 51

- Protection against voltage and frequency TABLE 12.
PRICES FOR ENERGY PRODUCED BY PV
limits (hypertension, hypotension,
hyperfrequency) Interconnected Non-
System Interconnected
- Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) current Year-month
Euros/MWh
Islands
output less than 5%, manufacturer
>100kW ≤100kW of any capacity
compliance certificate (optional).
2010 February 400.00 450.00 450,00
- In case of electronic converters without
iron, core transformer the maximum 2010 August 392.04 441.05 441,05
injected DC to the grid must be less than 2011 February 372.83 419.43 419,43
0.5% of the nominal output current of 2011 August 351.01 394.88 394,88
converter, manufacturer compliance
2012 February 333.81 375.53 375,53
certificate (optional)
2012 August 314.27 353.56 353,56
These requirements are necessary in order to
2013 February 298.87 336.23 336,23
fulfill the conditions of proper operation
referred in the contract signed between the 2013 August 281.38 316.55 316,55
PPC and producer. 2014 February 268.94 302.56 302,56

In Greece there are no statutory regulations 2014 August 260.97 293.59 293,59
for the installation of PV systems. PV From 2015
1.3 *mts(ν- 1.4*mts(ν-
technicians follow the basic guiding principles and after, for
1)1.4*mts(ν-1) 1)1.5*mts(ν-1)
each year (v)
that appear in the ELOT 384 “Requirements
for electrical Installations” (Hellenic mts(ν-1): marginal tariff system the previous year ν-1

Organization for Standardization, ELOT).

According to the Public Power Corporation For PV systems of up to 10kWp, in the
(PPC), PV systems up to 100kW are domestic sector and in small businesses, the
connected to low voltage, via single phase PPC (Public Power Corporation) will buy the
power supply for up to 5kW and three-phase energy produced for 0.55 €/kWh. This price is
power supply for 5kW-100kW systems. guaranteed for 25 years. The producer –
The default settings of the protection voltage consumer continues to buy power from the
limits and frequency should be as follows: PPC (about 0.10-0.12 €/kWh). Revenues from
energy sales are not taxed.
Interconnected System: Voltage: -20% to
+15% of nominal frequency: +/- 0.5Hz Moreover, following the approval of RES
legislation (Law 3851/2010) and the
Non-Interconnected Islands: Voltage: -20% to subsequent Ministerial Decisions, some
+15% of nominal frequency: from 51 Hz to important changes have been applied in the
47.5Hz. normative framework overcoming certain
The pricing of electric energy produced by administrative barriers.
photovoltaic stations as it applies, is carried
out based on the data in the following table:
More specifically:
- A production license is not required for
systems <1 MWp.
- Rooftop systems of any size do not require
environmental permits and procedures

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 52

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

have become easier for ground-mounted PVTRIN Project (Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus,
systems. Greece, Romania, Spain).
- Residential systems can be installed in all Furthermore, the PV LEGAL project has
regions developed a database comparing the
- Applications previously excluded (such as administrative procedures for PV installations
façades, louvers, warehouses, carports, etc) in the 12 EU Member States (Bulgaria, Czech
are feasible in the residential sector. Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
- PV systems on historical buildings can now Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, the
be deployed under a special authorisation Netherlands and UK). Three different types
procedure. are examined:
- Installation of PV systems on prime - small-scale installations on residential
agricultural land is now allowed with certain buildings
limitations. - small to medium-scale installations on
- A 150 €/kWp bank guarantee is needed for commercial buildings
ground-mounted systems up to 1 MWp, - medium to large-scale ground-mounted
before a grid connection contract may be installations on open lands.
signed.
The database identifies the administrative
The above data came into force in September steps necessary to obtain permission for
2011, and may be subject to change. constructing, grid-connecting and operating
of PV systems that could be a very helpful
Installers are strongly advised to look for the tool for both the installer and the customer.
latest legislative and normative framework PV LEGAL is funded by the European
before they start developing a PV project. Commission’s Intelligent Energy for Europe
Valid legislation, supporting mechanisms and programme (PV LEGAL, 2011).
applicable rules are published at the
following links:
- Public Power Corporation: www.dei.gr
- Regulatory Authority for Energy:
www.rae.gr
- Hellenic Transmission System Operator S.A:
www.desmie.gr
- Ministry of Environment, Energy and
Climate Change: http://www.ypeka.gr/
- Hellenic Association of Photovoltaic
Companies: http://www.helapco.gr/
- Solar Energy Producers' Association:
www.spef.gr

TABLE 14 and TABLE 15 present the current

legislation, administrative issues and
supporting mechanisms (valid on September
2011) for the countries participating in the

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 53

2.6. Databases
A number of databases have been developed
that offer useful information on different
aspects of a PV installations. Indicative links
are listed to following table (TABLE 13).
TABLE 13.
PV DATABASES

Links Description
Information on solar power
and its applications. Large-
www.pvresources.com/ scale PV power plants
database on report
simulation tools
Data on best practices, urban
www.pvdatabase.org/
PV projects, BIPV products
National reports and
www.iea-pvps.org/
statistics on PV market
Detailed information on the
administrative processes
that need to be followed in
www.pvlegal.eu
order to install a PV system
in each of the participating
countries.
Information on
production equipment, solar
http://www.enf.cn/database components (eg. inverters,
/panels.html batteries), solar materials,
solar panels, sellers,
solar system installers
Extensive database with
http://www.posharp.com
characteristics of many PV
/photovoltaic/database.aspx
panels
Database of all commercially
available solar panels with
http://pvbin.com/ functionality to search and
sort by different data
parameters
http://www.nrel.gov/pv/
performance_reliability/failu Information about failures
re_database.html observed in PV installations.
Database including over 750
PV facilities and covering the
http://www.semi.org/en/Sto
PVindustry value chain from
re
Poly-Si to module
/Marketinformation/photov
manufactures. Resource for
oltaics/CTR_028755
key business and technical
contacts
Climatological database for
solar energy applications: a
meteorological database
www.meteonorm.com containing comprehensive
climatological data for solar
engineering applications at
all points of the globe

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 54

TABLE 14. ADMINISTRATIVE ISSUES (Source: PVTRIN, 2011)

Greece Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Romania Spain

Permission issued by the Planning Permission based on an PV systems on existing buildings Directive 2/2006 issued to Permission is required for CTE-HE5: Technical Building
and Architectural Commission is assessment of the impact are viewed as simple additions to guide Planning Authorities in all modifications to the Code” reproduces the
required in case of PV installation. on the environment is existing buildings, such that no relation to the principles, building from the contents of CPD
a). in areas characterized as “areas of required. Installation of location permit is needed, thus criteria and procedures, for Urbanism department of (Construction Products
natural beauty” and any RES systems in PVs can be easily installed on the permitting RES installations each municipality – Law Directive) and international
b) in areas where listed buildings are protected areas is very roofs, façades etc. However, and to apply building permit no.10/1995 on “Quality technical standards with
found, as well as traditional limited. For the installation during a procedure for eligible controls to applications that construction” regard to target
Building regulations relevant to PV installation

settlements. of PV systems on arable producer status, confirmation are related to their integration. performances.
PV installation is permitted on land a special permit is that there is no need for Circular 3/2008 includes The restrictions apply to It establishes the minimum
building roofs and façades, veranda required. location/construction permits specific provisions that are historical areas and solar photovoltaic electric
covers and shelters. (Law for Protected from local (municipality) office related to the installation of buildings. capacity to be installed in
A PV array should not: Territories, Regulation No for construction permits is small scale photovoltaic certain types of buildings,
-create a space of main or auxiliary 2 for construction works needed. systems in buildings or on the Law no.10/1995 on regulates the size of the
usage or semi open areas on arable lands) Some protected areas could be ground and clearly states in “Quality construction” facilities and the layout of
-hinder the access in communal There are no specific excluded. which cases the application for amended by the modules, and gives
areas architectural requirements The recommendation is that planning permit is not Governmental Decree no. maximum values for losses
-exceed the frame -in penthouses for the installation of PV static calculations and electric required. 498 /2001, Law no. 587 depending on the type of
(enclosed area on top of a building) on buildings. The systems design be made before installing The 2006 Law on Regulation of /2002 and Law no. 123 installation: general case,
-be installed at the end of the well should be designed PV modules on roofs. Energy Efficiency in Buildings /2007. Permission is superposition and
hole according to the rules for Only a limited number of (L.142(I)/2006) – PPR 446/2009 required for all architectural integration
-On sloped roofs, PV panels must be electrical installations that municipalities/counties foresee for new buildings foresees the modifications to the
placed following the inclination of the guarantee safe the use of PV on buildings in their provision of PVs for future building from the Local urban legislation;
housetop exploitation. The design territorial plans. installation. In agreement with Urbanism department of
-In case PV panels are placed on the should be approved from Use of alternative energy sources the Electricity Authority, a each municipality. The
roof of the building, the distance the relevant authorities. (including PV) must be prepared bigger electricity panel board restrictions apply to
from the parapet of the roof should (Regulation No 1 from for every new building; however, and cable from the panel board historical and religious
be at least 0.50 m for safety reasons. 27.05.2007 for designing, none have to be incorporated in to the likely future location of buildings.
For PV installation on buildings > installation and the final plan. an RES-e installation should be
100kWp, approval of small scale maintenance of low installed
construction work is required. voltage electrical
installations in buildings).
Planning Planning permission is not required Yes, as for all electrical For smaller PV plants: not - only for PV parks 20-150kW& Yes Yes
permission for the installation of photovoltaic systems. required. For large PV plants: PVs on buildings over 100kW
required for systems on buildings (less than Local Spatial Planning office has
PV 100kW). to change use of the land, and
installation accept it in Spatial Plan (long and
complicated procedure)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 55

 Requirement There is a limit for installations ≤ 100 The Bulgarian distribution - ≤4.6 kW – one phase Connecting RES to the There are no regulations Compliance with the
s for Grid kW. PV systems greater than this grid has no specific connection electricity network follows the for private owners, only following regulations
connection have to connect to the medium requirements for the - > 11.04 kW –3 phase Regulation regarding the for producers that have a RD661/2007: it regulates the
voltage network. connection of a PV plant. connection connection of users to public license for activities of transport,
PV systems >2MW have to be Regulation №6 from - PV plants ≤ 100 kW interest electricity networks producing/distributing distribution and electricity
connected to the high voltage 09.06.2004 “Connection of Directly connected to a low- and following the specifics of electricity commercialization.
network. producers and users of voltage line (0.4 kV) the Electricity Law no. 13/2007 All the necessary steps are -RD 1578/2008: minimal
electrical energy to the - PV plants ≤ 500 kW are with subsequent updates by described in the requirements for the
transmission and connected at low voltages GD 90/2008. “Guidelines protection against electrical
distribution grids” (0.4 kV) to connection points at for the producer of risk
the transforming station electricity RD 1663/2000: Low Voltage
- PV plants ≤ 10 MW are from renewable energy Regulation
connected at medium voltage sources (e-res)” . - OM 5/9/1985: High Voltage
(up to 35 kV) to the connection Regulation.
point at the transforming station - RD 1110/2007, unified
- All power plants are required to measurement points of the
have approval from DSO electrical system.

Links for - Public Power Corporation: - Ministry of Regional - Ministry of Economy and - Cyprus Energy Agency - Ministry of Regional - Ministry of Industry,
current www.dei.gr Development and Public Ministry for Construction: http://www.cea.org.cy Development and Energy and Tourism
legislations - Regulatory Authority for Energy: Works - http://oie.mingorp.hr Tourism www.mdrt.ro http://www.ffii.nova.es/p
www.rae.gr www.mrrb.government. - Ministry of Environmental - - Romanian untoinfomcyt/formulario-
- Hellenic Transmission System bg Protection, Physical Planning Energy Regulatory lseg01.asp
Operator S.A: www.desmie.gr - State Energy and Water and Construction: Authority: http://anre.ro - The National Energy
- Ministry of Environment, Energy Regulatory Commission www.mzopu.hr Commission
and Climate Change: www.dker.bg - Ministry of Economy, Labour http://www.cne.es/cne/c
http://www.ypeka.gr/ - Ministry of Economy and Entrepreneurship: ontenido.jsp?id_nodo=51
- Hellenic Association of and Energy - http://oie.mingorp.hr 0&&&keyword=&auditori
Photovoltaic Companies: www.mi.government.bg - Hrvatska Elektroprivreda (HEP a=F
http://www.helapco.gr/ Group): www.hep.hr - Technical Building Code:
- State Gazette
http://dv.parliamnet.bg www.codigotecnico.org
- - Official State Gazette
(BOE): www.boe.es

Note: TABLE 14 and TABLE 15 present the current legislation, administrative issues and supporting mechanisms (as of September 2011) for the countries participating in the PVTRIN
Project. Use the above links to access current legislation.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 56

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES
TABLE 15. SUPPORTING MECHANISMS FOR PV INSTALLATION (Source: PVTRIN, 2011)

Greece Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Romania Spain

Supporting PV systems ≤100 kWp: According to the new RES Law (2 /05/2011): FIT from RES&PVs 0,32- Natural persons & Six green certificates for FIT 0.1385€ / kWh (2011)
mechanisms and 0.45€ / kWh Electricity PV installations will be supported 0,52 €/kWh depending of organizations, not involved in each 1MW produced and
incentives for the PV systems ≤100kWp: 0. by high tariffs for 15 years that will be the size of PV plant. Cap economic activities delivered by the 50% of the IBI, reduction
installation of PV 40€ / kWh. defined every year by the State Energy and on total of 1 MW of PV (residential): producers of electricity between 0-100% of the urban
Water Regulatory Commission. Since 1/07/ plant. Grid connected from solar energy. canon and reduction from 0-
2011 the tariffs from PVs are: Level of FITs will changed, <7kW : FiT 0.35€/kWh (15ys, 95% of the ICIO.
BIPV: <30 kWp on roofs or façades: 0.31 as well as cap with new no grant) Depending on the region: Soft
€/kWh Law on Renewables that is Stand –alone loans, Tax incentives, Regional
BIPV: 30 -200 kWp on roofs or façades: 0.30 drafting, and is expected <7kW: 55% grant investments, VAT devolution
€/kWh to be in power by the end < 20 kW (organizations): 55%
BIPV >200 kWp on roofs/façades: 0.30 €/kWh of 2012. grant (max €44,000)
For ground PVs <30 kWp: 0.29 €/kWh For updated information: Natural persons &
For ground PVs 30 -200 kWp: 0.29 €/kWh Ministry of Economy: organizations, involved in
For ground PVs >200 kWp: 0.25 €/kWh http://oie.mingorp.hr/ economic activities:
The Kozlodui National Fund administrated Grid connected
by EBRD offer loans. Usually RES owners are 21-150kW : FiT 0.31€/kWh
granted a 20% discount from the principal (20ys)
sum of the loan after the completion of the Stand –alone< 20 kW: 40%
project. USAID program guarantees 50% of grant (max €36,000)
the credit. depending on the enterprise
Supporting PV systems < 10kWp in the The Kozlodui National Fund administrated The above specific category. < 20 kW : 0.2979€/kWh (2011)
mechanisms and domestic sector and in by EBRD. supporting mechanism will In the cases of stand-alone 20 kW–2 MW: 0.2095€/kWh
incentives for the small businesses: 0.55 € / The USAID program and some banks (credit be implemented in new systems there is a maximum (2011)
installation of kWh. lines). Law on Renewable as amount of grant i All this under the
BIPV Programs for regional development somewhat higher FIT. Comment: Likely to be consideration of not fulfilling
http://oie.mingorp.hr changed in 2012. the total quota of “allowed”
installations.
Links for current - Ministry of Environment, -Ministry of Commerce, - Ministry of Regional
legislation Energy and Climate Industry and Tourism: Development and
- Ministry of Economy,
Change: www.ypeka.gr/ www.mcit.gov.cy Tourism www.mdrt.ro
Labour and
- Hellenic Association of Cyprus Institute of Energy:
Entrepreneurship:
PV Companies: www.cie.org.cy
http://oie.mingorp.hr
www.helapco.gr/
- Solar Energy Producers'
Association: www.spef.gr
Note: TABLE 14 and TABLE 15 present the current legislation, administrative issues and supporting mechanisms (valid on September 2011) for the countries participating in the PVTRIN
Project. Use the links above to see the current legislations.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 57

 ninv = 0.9
2.7. Exercises
ncable = 0.97
2.7.1. Case studies
The minimum required battery capacity, Ah
Case Study 1
Sizing a 24VDC system voltage home
i. Loads, appliances and daily energy
requirements
TABLE 16.
APPLIANCES AND DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
Loads and Power Total hrs of Daily For a 24VDC home system, 2 batteries with
Appliances rating of power use/d energy
appliances required ay (h) require- 24V/150Ah connected in parallel will be
(W) (W) ment (Wh) chosen for a total of 24V/300Ah.
Fluorescent 12W 60W (5 3 180Wh
lamps lamps)
TV 100W 100W 1.5 150Wh
iv. Inverter
Microwave 640W 640W 0.5 320Wh
Refrigerator 80W 80W 3 240Wh The system requires an inverter, as there are
Lighting 50W 50W 1 50Wh
only AC appliances in the house. The total
outside power required for AC appliances is 940W so
TOTAL 930W 940Wh a 1,500W inverter with 24VDC input will be
recommended.

The house roof has an inclination of 50° and

is orientated 60° southwest. The system is v. Wiring
designed for January and a 3-day storage
capacity is foreseen. In the case where the cable length is 8m,
made of copper and the drop voltage is 10%:
ii. Module sizing (see also chapter 2.2.8)
G = 5.0 PSH
nSYS = 0.6
E =940Wh daily energy requirement.

Hence, the minimum system size is 314 Wp. This result will be rounded to the next
standard value of 6 mm2.
iii. Sizing the battery (see also chapter 2.2.8) The standard cross-section sizes are 2.5mm2;
4mm2; 6mm2; 8 mm2; 10 mm2; 12mm2; 14
V = 24VDC system voltage. mm2 ; 16 mm2; 18 mm2; 20 mm2; 22 mm2; 24;
A = 3 days 26 mm2; 28 mm2; 30 mm2; 32 mm2.
E = 940Wh
T = 0.5

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 58

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

An 80Wp mono-crystalline PV module of Modules should be checked, if laid out on

about 12VDC (a nominal voltage rate of 12V) portrait format or landscape format, which
with a nominal current of 4.5A is selected. will depend on the length and the width of
the roof.
If we divide 314 by 80, we have 3.9, so 4
modules will be connected in series-parallel.
This means that the 2 modules are connected
ii. Check if the module fits the roof
in series and the 2 strings are connected in
parallel. The total voltage is 2 x 12 V = 24VDC - In portrait format
and the current is 4.5A x 2 =9.0A. Roof length 9.0m
= 9.35
The current produced by the module Module = 0.962m
and
determines the charge controller. In this case width
it is 9A. The charge controller has a minimum Roof width 5.0m
of 9A. We can choose a greater one (15A) in Module = 1.550m = 3.23
case of any foreseen expansion. length
The above calculation leads to a total of 9 x 3
= 27 modules; the maximum number of
Case Study 2 modules laid in portrait that could fit onto
the roof is 27 (9 modules and 3 strings or
Sizing a 5.5kWp PV system on a sloping roof opposite); more than enough space for the
(length 9.0 m, and width 5.0 m). 24 modules.
TABLE 17.
PV -MODULE CHARACTERISTICS
- In landscape format
Parameter Value
-
Maximum power Pmax 230
-
Voltage at Max. power VMPp 29.8V
Current at Max.power IMP 7.71A -
Open Circuit Voltage VOC 35.8V 5 x 5 is approximately 25, so maximum 25 (5
Sort Circuit Current ISC 8.34V modules and 5 strings) modules can also fit in
landscape format.
Max. System Voltage 1000V
Voltage (VOC) -0.35%/oC The modules can be laid in both formats, but
Temperature coefficient
Current (ISC) o
0.060%/ C
it is better to choose the format in which
most modules may be laid out, so that the
Length x Width x Depth mm 1,550x962x40
Weight kg 18.5
system can be extended in the future. The
portrait format is therefore selected.
1.550m x 0.968m = 1.500m2 for 230 Wp. This
is equivalent to 6.5 m2 /kWp iii. Checking the module voltage
Voltage temperature coefficient: - 0.35% x
i. Roof size Voc/°C= -0.0035 x 35.8 = - 0.125V/°C
5.5kWp x 6.5 m2/kWp =35.75m2 VMPP – 25°C = 29.8V
Total modules: 5,500Wp/230Wp = 23.9 thus VMPP – 10°C = 29.8 + 15x 0.125 = 31.67V
24 modules should be consider for total VMPP -70°C = 29.8 – 45 x 0
power output of 24 x 230 W= 5,520Wp
Voc -10°C = 35.8 + 15 x 0.125 = 37.67 V

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 59

iv. Inverter selection Voc -10°C = 6 x 37.67= 226V, this is below the
maximum inverter input voltage (400V) also
Inverter nominal power is between 90% and
acceptable Voc
100% of (array) this is between 90% x 5,520=
4,968W and 5,520W (this range is chosen The current at the MPP of the module is
because in case of good sunny days with 7.71A, which is acceptable and below the
radiation at the STC or over the STC, the maximal input current of the inverter (12.6
inverter should not be undersized), so 4 A).
inverters (TABLE 18) can be chosen for a
This is a string-inverter concept. The array
string-inverter concept.
has a total wattage of 5,520kWp which
TABLE 18. consists of 24 modules, each with 230 Wp.
INVERTER CHARACTERISTICS
The array is configured in 4 strings of 6
Parameter Units Value modules.
Max DC power W 1,400

Max DC voltage V 400

V-voltage range, MPPT V 96-320V
2.7.2. Multiple Choice Questions
Max Input Current A 12.6

1. What is meant by the Standard Test

Condition (STC)
v. Module configuration
a) Radiation: 1,000W/m2, temperature:
Maximum number of modules on a string: 25°C, and Air Mass: 1.5
b) Radiation: 1,000W/m2, temperature:
20°C, and Air Mass: 1.5
c) Radiation: 1,024W/m2, temperature:
25°C, and Air Mass: 1.5
Minimum number of modules on a string: d) Radiation: 1,000W/m2, temperature:
18°C, and Air Mass: 1.0

2. If a PV cell produces 0.5 V, then four PV

Therefore the maximum number of modules cells connected in series will produce:
is 8 on a string and the minimum is 4. a) 2.0 V
b) 0.5 V
c) 2.5 V
vi. Array configuration and inverter d) 1.0 V
compatibility
4 strings of 6 modules with 1 inverter on each 3. The total power across four PV cells of
string, will be implemented. The voltage 0.5V connected in series when Acell = 1A
compatibility has to be checked. is:
VMPP -70°C = 6 x 24.18V = 145V, this is a) 2.0 W
acceptable as it is above the lower voltage of b) 0.5 W
the MPP-range (96V) VMPP c) 2.5 W
d) 1.0 W
VMPP – 10°C = 6 x 31.67V = 190 V, this is also
acceptable as it is below the upper limit of
the MPP voltage range (320V) VMPP

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 60

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

4. If a PV cell delivers a current of 0.6A and d) changing its direction to north

there are three PV cells in parallel then
the current flowing through the load is:
10.Solar PV systems can be:
a) 2.0 A
a) connected to the power grid
b) 0.6 A
b) used to sell power to the grid
c) 1.8 A
c) a stand-alone source of electricity
d) 1.0 A
d) all answers a, b, c

5. The total power across three PV cells of

11.In a series connection:
0.5V connected in parallel when Icell = 0.6
a) the positive terminal is connected to
A is:
the positive terminal
a) 2.0 W
b) the negative terminal is connected to
b) 0.9 W
the negative terminal
c) 0.3 W
c) the positive terminal is connected to
d) 1.0 W
the negative terminal
d) all of the above
6. If 24 PV cells (0.5V) are connected in series
and parallel (6 cells and 4 rows), the total
12.A stand-alone PV system can provide
voltage across the load is:
electricity when no sunlight is present
a) 2.0 V
with:
b) 2.4 V
a) batteries
c) 12.0 V
b) inverter
d) 3.0 V
c) a battery charge controller
d) a and c
7. If the height of an obstacle is 3m the
minimum distance (Lmin) so that the PV
13.An inverter is required on a PV system if:
will not be shaded is:
a) batteries are used
a) 4.0 m
b) DC power is needed
b) 6.0 m
c) AC power is needed
c) 3.0 m
d) if the load is very large
d) 1.0 m

14.If a PV system is tied into the electric

8. “Increase in temperature leads to an
utility grid:
increase of n VOC resulting to increased cell
a) it does not have to use batteries
output”.
b) it needs batteries
a) The statement is right
c) no inverter is required
b) The statement is wrong
d) it cannot provide AC
c) VOC does not depend on temperature

15.The available surface area of a building is

9. The efficiency of a PV cell may be
108m2 (length=12.0m and width =9.0m),
improved by:
and the area required by a panel is
a) adjusting the light facing angle all day
length=1.64m and width =0.98m. If 55 PVs
b) placing colored acetates on the cell
are to be installed the optimum layout will
c) cooling the cell
be:

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 61

 a) landscape format 2.7.3. True–False questions
b) portrait format
c) there is no difference 1. A Tracking system which follows the sun’s
d) neither format is appropriate daily migration can boost production by
up to 8%.
16.Wh-efficiency is always less than Ah- a) True
efficiency in a battery. b) False
a) True
b) False 2. If half of a cell is shaded, the reduction in
c) We cannot know output is the same as when even half a
row is shaded.
17.A 100 W refrigerator can operate using a a) True
150 W inverter without any problems. b) False
a) True
b) False 3. The maximum voltage occurs when there
c) We cannot know is a break in the circuit.
a) True
18.A 24V back-up power system is supplied b) False
via a single, 4mm2 solar cable, 15m long,
from a 200 W module. Is the cross-section 4. Deep discharge improves the life
sufficient? expectancy of a Pb-acid battery.
a) Yes a) True
b) No b) False
c) We cannot know
5. Temporal overcharge of a battery
19.To improve the efficiency of the whole improves the homogeneous of the
system as of the planning procedure, the catalyst.
designer should? a) True
a) Install the modules in a way that they b) False
will be well ventilated
b) Keep the cables as long as possible
6. When sizing the cables, the permitted
c) Keep the tilt of the panels less than 15°
current rating of the cable should be at
d) None of the above
least equal or greater than the trigger
current of the string fuse.
20.A string concept with 8 inverters is a) True
planned for the PV system with 12kWp. b) False
What DC output should each inverter
have? Between…
7. The efficiency of string inverters range
a) 1.35 and 1.5 kW
from 50-60%.
b) 0.67 and 1.42 kW
a) True
c) 1.35 and 1.42 kW
b) False
d) None of the above

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 62

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

8. The cost of the panels in about 70-80% of 2.7.4. More Practice

the cost of the total system.
a) True 1. A PV system uses 720 silicon PV cells
b) False connected in an array which supplies up to
120 V.
9. A safety distance of 0.10m between the 1i.How many PV cells are connected in
PV plant and all parts of the lightning series if 120 V are needed and one cell
protection system has to be maintained. delivers 0.5 V?
a) True a) 240
b) False b) 120
c) 360
d) 60
10.The lifetime of the system is 10-15 years.
a) True 1ii. What is the number of the rows
b) False connected in parallel?
a) 2
11.The material of which the PV cells are b) 6
made is toxic and hard to be found on c) 4
Earth. d) 3
a) True, in most of the cases
b) False, in most of the cases 1.iii When the light intensity is 1,000
W/m2, the total power output from the PV
array is 360W. What is the energy
12.Αll available online software applications efficiency of the PV cells? Each PV cell is a
for PV system dimensioning provide square measuring 118mm by 118mm.
accurate calculations and reliable data. a) The energy efficiency of the cells is
a) True 3.0%
b) False b) The energy efficiency of the cells is
2.8%
13.The most expensive components of an c) The energy efficiency of the cells is
autonomous PV system are the batteries. 3.6%
a) True d) The energy efficiency of the cells is
b) False 4.8%

1iv. What type of silicon PV material are

14.A rough estimation of the average value of the PV cells made from?
a PV system is approximately 8,000 a) a-Si
€/kWp. b) poly-Si
a) True c) mono-Si
b) False

2. Which type of charge controller is the

15.An approximate required surface can be most appropriate for a PV system with 30
estimated, bearing in mind that: 10m2 = modules and a total power of 47Wp
1kWp
connected to a 24V battery? The modules
a) True
are connected via 15 branches of 2 panels
b) False
per series and the maximum voltage of

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 63

 each module is 17V. Take into account c) it converts DC voltage of the modules
that 6 lamps each of 60W and a CD player to a higher value of DC voltage
of 160W will be in operation at the same d) it converts AC voltage of the modules
time. to DC voltage of the grid
a) A 24V – 65A charge controller e) it converts AC voltage of the modules
b) A 12V – 65A charge controller to a higher value of AC voltage
c) A 24V – 45A charge controller
d) A 1V – 45Acharge controller
7. Name 3 of the most common failures
where a PV system may lose energy.
3. 130 kWh of energy are required to Explain the reason for these losses
manufacture 1 m² Poly-Si module. How a) Shading (reduced irradiance on the
long will it take for this module to panel)
generate an equivalent amount of energy, b) temperature decrease (reduced Impp)
given that solar irradiation in Greece is c) temperature increase (reduced Voc)
1,350 kWh / (m² x yr)?
a) fault orientation (reduced irradiance
a) the energy payback of the PV system is
on the panel)
approximately 8 years.
d) short wiring (increased resistance)
b) the energy payback of the PV system is
approximately 6 years.
c) the energy payback of the PV system is 8. What is the role of a blocking diode?
approximately 1.5 years.
d) the energy payback of the PV system is b) Blocking diodes protect the battery
approximately 4.5 years. when there is no light
c) Blocking diodes break the electrical
4. Briefly explain how PV panel efficiency is circuit if too much current is present
influenced by temperature variations. d) Blocking diodes search for the best
operating point of a module
e) Blocking diodes connect the frame of
an electrical device to the ground

9. What are the main requirements of a

stand-alone inverter?
5. What is the optimum panel inclination for
e) low overload capability for switch-on
a panel sited in Crete (φ=35.16°)?
and starting sequences,
a) φ= 35,16ο
a) intolerance against battery voltage
b) φ= 55,16ο
fluctuations,
c) φ= 15,16ο
d) φ= 60,00ο b) very good conversion efficiency, even
in partial load range,
6. How does an inverter work?
a) it converts AC voltage of the modules c) one-directional operation
to a higher value of AC voltage d) all the above
b) it converts DC voltage of the modules
to AC voltage of the grid

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 64

 2
DESIGN
PRINCIPLES

10.Which is the part of the PV system that

ensures max output power from the PV
module?
a) MPP Tracker
b) Blocking diode
c) Bypass Diode
d) Fuse

11.Under which circumstances a PV system

could cause environmental damage?
a) PV system are in general harmful for
the environment
b) There is no way that a PV system can
cause damage to the environment
c) Release of hazardous gasses in case of
a fire breaking out in a system
d) In case it is sited over an aquifer

12.Why should the PV systems be recycled?

Which is the main reason?
a) gain some money from selling raw
materials
b) potentially harmful materials are not
released into the environment
c) to avoid unnecessary aesthetical
impacts of useless systems

13.Name 3 parameters on which a PV

system’s energy payback time is
depending on.
a) cell technology
b) the colour of the wiring
c) type of encapsulation
d) line with the current fashion
e) frame and array support

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 65

 BAPV and BIPV 3

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 67

 Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are
3. BAPV and BIPV photovoltaic products (sheets, tiles, glasses,
etc.) that are used instead of conventional
3.1. Mounting and building building materials in parts of the building
envelope such as roofs, skylights, or façades.
integration options
They are usually installed in new buildings,
3.1.1. BAPV and BIPV but they could also be installed in existing
buildings during their renovation. The
Building-applied photovoltaics and building- advantage of BIPV is that the costs of
integrated photovoltaics are PV modules construction are reduced, as these modules
installed in buildings to serve as a principal or replace traditional building materials. On the
additional energy source. The installation of a other hand, solutions with BIPV modules are
PV system in a building is a very sustainable usually more aesthetic.
solution, as roofs and façades are used FIGURE 51. BIPV ON ROOF. (Source: SEC )
instead of additional land.
Building-applied photovoltaics (BAPV) are
photovoltaic installations fixed over the
existing elements of a building envelope such
as roofs, skylights, façades, balconies and
shelters.
FIGURE 49. F
BAPV ON FALT ROOF. (Source: SEC )

3.1.2. Building integration options

BAPV and BIPV can be installed in all type of
buildings: dwellings, houses, schools, all types
of public buildings and industrial buildings as
well in urban structures such as bus/parking
shelters.
FIGURE 50.
BAPV ON PITCHED ROOF. (Source:SEC ) The key components of a grid-connected
system are:
• The PV modules,
• The inverter,
• The current meter.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 68

 3
BAPV and BIPV

FIGURE 52. ALTERNATIVES FOR INTEGRATING PVs IN

BUILDINGS (Source: PURE project. Roman et al,2008)

The criteria for reliable integration of PV Several issues should be taken into
modules in buildings are: consideration at the urban planning stage for
seamless integration of PV systems in
• Natural integration,
buildings:
• Architectural solutions,
• Pleasant composition of materials and - For PV on sloped roofs, the streets should
colours, be oriented east-west, such that they have
• In line with the context of the building, south oriented slopes.
• Innovative design. - For PV integrated in façades, the optimal
orientation should be chosen, depending on
the open spaces.
- Shading from other buildings or trees
should be taken into account and
minimised.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 69

 FIGURE 53.
3.2. BIPV and BAPV on roofs OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS ON FLAT ROOFS
(Source: ECN)
PV elements can be installed on all types of
roofs – flat, pitched, and domed roofs.

3.2.1. PV modules on flat roofs

The installation of PV modules on flat roofs is
an excellent choice, as the modules can be
oriented and inclined in the best position.
When installing PV modules on a flat roof,
several aspects should be taken into account:
• The structure of the roof,
• The elements of the roof such as
chimneys, exits, skylights, etc.,
• The orientation of the building.
• The material covering the roof.

FIGURE 53 illustrates different options for the

integration of PV systems on flat roofs (ECN).
When PV modules are installed in new
buildings, the structure of the roof is
calculated according to the load of the
installation, but when they are installed on
existing buildings, the load bearing capacity
of the structure should be checked. In some
case, the roof structure should be reinforced
in accordance with building regulations.
PV modules on flat roofs are fixed on metal
or adapted concrete or plastic structures.
The water-proofing covering of the roof
should be preserved, when the structures
(metal or plastic) are installed. The structural
fixtures on the roof should be insulated with
water-proof materials.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 70

 3
BAPV and BIPV

FIGURE 54. F
3.2.2. PV modules on pitched roofs
PV INSTALLATION ON FLAT ROOF – EXTERNAL VIEW AND
STRUCTURE. (Source: SEC )
There are several integration options for
installing PV modules on pitched roofs. They
can be mounted over roof (BAPV) or
integrated in the roof (BIPV).
FIGURE 55.
OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS ON PITCHED
ROOFS (Source: ECN)
a) Mounted over tiles (BAPV)

b) Integrated in the roof (BIPV)

When planning the installation of the

structure, the elements of the roof should be
taken into account. PV modules should not c) The whole roof can be covered with PV modules (BIPV).
be installed close to chimneys, exits or paths.
Flat roofs are very convenient for PV systems,
as they can be oriented in the best position,
but distances of at least ½ of the height of the
structure should be left between the rows of
PV modules in order to avoid mutual shading.
Shading from chimneys and walls should also
be examined.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 71

 Be careful to ensure good water tightness
and ventilation.

d) Solar tiles
TABLE 19.
PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR THE INSTALLATION OF PV
MODULES ON PITCHED ROOFS. (Source: SEC)

Problems to be
Solution
solved
Stainless steel
Good fixation of PV
fixtures stuck
modules without
under the tiles to
damaging the roof’s
secure the
covering
e) PV modules installed with an air gap on the rear to ensure structure
the necessary ventilation and avoid problems with over- BAPV The distance
heating, between the PV
Ensure good air
elements and the
circulation on the
roof’s covering
rear
should be 5-10
cm.

Use special
products such as:
Water tightness
PV roof tiles/
between the panels
sheets and
BIPV and between the
observe the
panels and the roof
manufacturer’s
covering
recommendations
at all times.
BAPV on pitched roofs
BAPV have an independent support structure
FIGURE 56.
and are easier for installation. BIPV ON RESIDENTIAL BUILDING (Source: SEC)

They are more suitable than BIPV for retrofits

of existing buildings and can be easily
replaced.

Because of their independent structure they

are cooled from the rear and there is no
problem with over-heating.

BIPV on pitched roofs

BIPV offer better possibilities for a good
integration.
Mutual shading is avoided.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 72

 3
BAPV and BIPV

FIGURE 57.
3.3. PV on façades OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS ON FAÇADES
(Source: Education and training material for architects (ECN)
The Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive (EPBD) requires all EU countries to
update their building regulations and take a) fully integrated.

steps to foresee sufficient sources of

renewable energy.
Although roofs are the best place for
installing PV modules, space for PV elements
should also be foreseen on the façades to
ensure the required amount of energy
production.
When examining the installation of PV
b) partly integrated.
modules on façades, it should be taken into
account that the efficiency of the system will
be at least 30% lower than a roof system with
the best tilt and orientation.

3.3.1. Options for integration

There are several options for integration of
PV modules on façades.
c) additional glass façade.
a) fully integrated
b) partly integrated
c) additional glass façade
d) fixed on the balcony

d) fixed on the balcony.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 73

3.3.2. BAPV on façades 3.3.3. BIPV on façades
BAPV is a good choice for installing PV BIPV are suitable for new buildings. They give
systems on the façades of existing buildings. better opportunities for good architectural
solutions.
BIPV installations can be integrated in
BAPV can be cheaper than BIPV because:
buildings as warm façades. In this case they
- One of the advantages of BAPV systems is are integrated in the structure of the façade
that it is easier to ensure cooling of the as a part of the wall. The PV modules are
system through the air gap between the PV fixed between two panes of glass and are
panels and the wall. incorporated in the structure of the façade.
- There is no need for cladding or decorative The façade panels may be composed of
plastering on the walls behind the PV either a glass package with PV modules and a
panels. sandwich panel with thermal insulation, as
- There is no need to ensure air tightness shown in figure 57, or of a glass-glass package
between the joints. where the sandwich panel is replaced by an
argon filled space and thermal-coated float
- BAPV are easier for maintenance and
glass, as shown in figure 58.
replacement.
- The PV panels can act as additional thermal
insulation. FIGURE 59.
BIPV IN WARM FAÇADE (Source:SST)

FIGURE 58. F
BAPV ON REFURBISHED RESIDENTILA BUILDING (Source:SEC)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 74

 3
BAPV and BIPV

Different architectural solutions may be BIPV installations can be integrated in

applied through the integration of the buildings as cold façades. In this case they
modules in the structure of the façade: act as a second “skin” of the façade, or
double façade. PV modules are fixed on an
• A fully glazed façade,
additional structure with an air space
• Alternation of PV modules and glass.
between the modules and the wall.
Depending on the distance between the
The following figures show different modules and the wall, we can categorize
examples of the integration of modules in facades as:
façade construction. (Roman et al, 2008))
• Ventilated facades when the space
FIGURE 60.
BIPV IN WARM FAÇADE (Source: Roman et al, 2008)
between the wall and the modules is
up to 10cm, as the fixing of the PV
modules is not air tightened, the air
can circulate between the wall and
the modules and secure the
necessary ventilation. In these
facades the PV modules also act as
finishing cladding.
• Curtain wall – the distance between
the wall and the PV modules is more
than 20 cm. and can even ressemble
a glazed balcony.

Cold façades are more expensive as the

modules are additional elements of the
construction, but they have other benefits.
The solution with cold façade avoids the
problem with cooling of the modules.
This second “skin” acts as a very efficient
additional thermal insulation and can ensure
a better indoor climate.
With a good planning of the cold façade it is
not necessary to foresee additional shading.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 75

FIGURE 61.
BIPV IN COLD FAÇADE (Source: SST)
3.4. Glass roofs, shading systems
and other applications
3.4.1. Glass roofs
Glass roofs from PV modules are an excellent
choice. They can be integrated on flat roofs,
sloped roofs or individual construction.
The following figures show possibilities for
the integration of glass roofs from PV
modules (ECN)

FIGURE 62.
OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS ON GLASS ROOFS
(Source: ECN).

a) flat roof.

3.3.4. Mounting requirements

BAPV and BIPV integrated in façades should
follow the following safety requirements and
recommendations for troublefree
functioning: :
b) sloped roof.

- When mounting PV modules on existing

buildings, the load bearing capacity of the
structural elements of the façade should be
checked.
- The fixtures carrying the modules should be
strong enough to resist severe weather such
as wind, hailstorms and snow.
- The joints of warm façades should ensure
good air and water tightness. There are c) individual construction, roof membrane
special modules that ensure good
insulation, but closely follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations at all
times!
- Limit the installation of modules on the
ground floor, close to paths and other areas
accessible to the public, in order to avoid
damage.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 76

 3
BAPV and BIPV

For example, a PV parasol makes good use of FIGURE 64.

EXAMPLE OF GLASS ROOF WITH PV MODULES (Source:SEC)
a glass roof. A roof construction in the form
of a parasol covered with PV modules
reduces the heat load, making the conditions
within the building more comfortable.
The PV parasol can be with or without a
water-retaining function, depending on the
needs of the building. (ECN)
The following figure shows examples of a PV
parasol with and without a water-retaining
function.
FIGURE 63.
OPTIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION OF PV PARASOL SYSTEMS
(Source: ECN).
a) PV parasol with water-retaining function.

3.4.2. Shading devices

b) PV parasol without water-retaining function. Shading devices are ideal for PV modules
integration in buildings.
This solution is suitable both for new and
existing buildings.
These shading devices composed of PV
modules offer the following advantages:
• Passive cooling,
• Daylight control, as the best inclination
for PV modules is the same as for
providing most shadow,
• Electricity production.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 77

There are several options for building They can be fixed or movable.
integration of shading devices from PV FIGURE 66.
modules. PV SHADING (Source:ECN)

They can be independent from the building

envelope, incorporated in the building
envelope as a curtain wall, or as an additional
element of the building, such as a canopy.
FIGURE 65.
OPTIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION OF PV SYSTEMS IN SHADING
DEVICES (Source: ECN).
a) PV shading devices independent from the building envelope.

The following figure shows an example of the

b) PV shading devices incorporated in the building envelope as installation of a PV shading curtain on the
a curtain wall. façade.
FIGURE 67.
INSTALLATION OF PV MOVABLE SHADING ELEMENT
(Source:SST)

c) PV shading devices additional as a canopy.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 78

 3
BAPV and BIPV

3.4.3. Other applications FIGURE 68.

COMBINED PV-SOLAR TERMAL FUNCTION (Source: ECN)
PV modules can be used for other
applications such as ensuring natural
a) Air medium
lighting.
PV on skylights should be installed on the
southern side of the element. They will
ensure a good light with the necessary sun
protection for the premises in the building.
Laminated double glazed opaque cells with a
space of 1-3 cm. between the cells should be
used for sky lights.
PV modules on sky lights ensure diffuse or
tempered light with interesting shadow
patterns.
The integration of PV modules in buildings is
widely used for passive solar design.
b) Water medium
Elements from PV modules such as awnings,
double façades and glass roofs prevent the
building from overheating.
Transparent PV modules integrated in the
building envelope improve the indoor climate
and ensure access to daylight.

An innovative solution is the combined

function PV-solar thermal. (ECN)
The benefits of hybrid collectors with
medium air or water are:
• Cooling the PV element improves its
efficiency. PV modules can be integrated in many urban
• Heat from thermal element can be constructions:
used for hot water and heating. • Bus stops,
• Car parks,
This solution is attractive when the roof space • Roofs of railway or bus stations,
is limited. • Sound barriers,
• Information boards,
• Street lights, etc.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 79

FIGURE 69.
ROOF OF BUS STOP AND CYCLE PARK WITH PV MODULES
(Source: SEC)

3.5. Design Parameters and

Performance Factors
3.5.1. Location and urban planning
The efficiency of a PV system depends on the
following factors:
• The amount of solar radiance on the
site,
• The orientation and tilt of the
modules,
• The quality of the modules and
inverter.
• The PV system design

Appropriate urban planning is the first step

for successful implementation of PV
installations in buildings and other urban
constructions. If the site does not have the
appropriate orientation, the south oriented
slope of the roof and the façade might not
have enough space for a larger PV
installation.
Even the surrounding vegetation should be
planned correctly. Trees situated close to the
southern façade of a building will
overshadow the building.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 80

 3
BAPV and BIPV

The following pictures show several planning c) alternative solutions, but not the best.

solutions for one site.

The first picture illustrates the best solution,
as all PV modules are foreseen to be installed
on the south roof slope.
The second picture shows also a good
solution with two long buildings oriented to
the south and two small ones oriented to the
east
The last two pictures illustrate alternative
solutions, but not the best.

FIGURE 70.
PLANNING SOLUTION FOR ONE SITE. (Source: ECN)
a) best solution, as all PV modules will be installed on the
south-facing roof slope.

3.5.2. Orientation and tilt

The benefits of a PV system depend to a
great extent on the orientation and tilt of the
PV modules.
b) a good solution with two long buildings oriented to the
south and two small ones oriented to the east. PV production depends on inclination and
orientation of several façades or roofs:
Optimum Orientation = South
Optimum Inclination angle = Latitude (º) –
10º (over 30⁰ in Europe)
PV modules on façades are 30% less efficient
than PV modules on roofs.
The following table gives the factors for
calculation losses from PV efficiency
depending on the orientation and tilt of the
modules.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 81

TABLE 20.
ORIENTATION AND TILT FACTORS (Source: SEC )

Factor for calculation losses at a given orientation and tilt

Tilt

90⁰

Orientation 0⁰ 30⁰ 60⁰

0,93 0,90 0,78 0,55

East

0,93 0,96 0,88 0,66

South-east

0,93 1,00 0,91 0,68

South

0,93 0,96 0,88 0,66

South-west

0,93 0,90 0,78 0,55

West

Best orientation Very good orientation

Good orientation To be avoided

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 82

 3
BAPV and BIPV

3.5.3. Shading To avoid self-shading, examine the building

geometry and such details as:
Even having foreseen the best orientation
• Satellite receivers on roofs,
and tilt for the PV modules, the system can
• Chimneys and shafts,
be very inefficient if shading is not taken into
• Skylights and other higher parts,
account.
• Hanging elements.
We should examine two types of shading
issues: FIGURE 72.
SELF-SHADING (Source: ECN)
• Shading from surrounding buildings,
trees and topography and
• Self-shading.

Shading by surrounding landscape and

buildings should be taken into consideration
for:
• winter and morning and evening sun,
• growth of the trees,
• planning further erections of new
buildings.

To avoid this problem dummy PV modules or

by-passes should be foreseen for shaded
areas.
Care must be taken as shaded diffuse light
can strongly affect the efficiency of the PV
installation!

FIGURE 71.
SHADING FROM TREES (Source: ECN) To avoid self-shading the solution is the same
as for shading from surrounding elements:
install dummy PV modules or by-passes.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 83

3.5.4. Construction requirements 3.5.5. Temperature effect and
ventilation
The planning stage
The structure of the elements of the building Temperature has a negligible effect on
envelope where will be mounted PV modules module current, but a huge impact on the
should be calculated according to the MPP voltage. Depending on the temperature
expected additional load of the installation. coefficient, the voltage of a PV module can
This should be done for new buildings at the increase or decrease by more than 10V, when
planning stage. For existing buildings it is compared to the STC value during winter or
advisable to check the condition of the summer, respectively. This must be
structural elements of the roofs and façades considered during the PV system design
and to follow the building regulations closely. phase to avoid a risk of failure or fire.

When planning construction works, The temperature dependence of the voltage

accessibility to roofs and façades for will of course affect the PV module power
mounting the elements of the PV installation output and the energy yield of the PV system.
and for maintenance should be examined. In consequence, it is important to understand
The fixation of the PV modules should be the parameters that impact on the operating
calculated to be strong enough to meet the temperature of a PV module among which
load from snow, ice and hail. the most important are the type of mounting
and installation.
In countries with heavy snowfall, the tilt
angle of PV modules should be at least 45⁰. As an example, a free-standing PV module
The modules should have a smooth surface to has an operating temperature of 42°C in
allow snow slippage (ECN) central Europe on a typical summer day
(1000 W/m² and an ambient temperature of
FIGURE 73.
SNOW SLIPPAGE OVER A MODULE(Source: ECN) 20°C). With a roof integrated PV system, the
operating temperature of the same PV
module can reach 63°C without ventilation.
In order to ensure proper ventilation, the
technical requirements provided by the PV
module manufacturer should be followed
during the PV system design phase. FIGURE
74 shows the temperature increase and the
energy yield reduction of a PV system in
Germany for the typical installation types
(with an irradiation of 1000 W/m² and an
ambient temperature of 20°C).
The construction of the system will also be
exposed to strong wind that can lead to
twisting, vibrations and additional dynamic
and static load. The system should be
calculated to meet building legislation on
wind loads in the country.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 84

 3
BAPV and BIPV

FIGURE 74.
IMPACT OF THE TYPE OF INSTALLATION ON TNE
3.6. Examples from the residential
TEMPERATURE AND ENERGY YIELD (Source: Fraunhofer ISE,
1997) sector
Temperature increase Reduction in the energy yield PV modules can be integrated in roofs and
55K façades when retrofitting a building.
The most typical example of PV application in
buildings is BAPV on roof of existing buildings.
43K They are usually installed on roofs covered
with tiles as additional elements (i.e. not
39K
integrated in the structure).
35K
32K
29K FIGURE 75.
28K
PV ON ROOF (Source:ECN)

22K

8,9%
3,9% 4,8% 5,4%
1,8% 2,1% 2,6%
0,0%
Free standing

On/in roof, good ventilation

On/in roof, poor ventilation

Roof integration, no ventilation

On roof, with a large gap

Facede integration, no ventilation

On/in facade, good ventilation

On/in facade, poor ventilation

The following picture illustrates the

integration of PV on façades of an historical
building in Aarhus, Denmark. Solar thermal
collectors are also mounted on the façades
for domestic hot water and heating. The PV
modules and solar collectors are installed on
the façade facing the inner courtyard of the
building, while the main façade and its
historical aspect are unaffected.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 85

FIGURE 76. FIGURE 78.
INTEGRATION OF PV MODULES IN AN EXISTING BUILDING WATER DISTRICT NEW LAND, BAPV ON FAÇADE OF MULTI-
(Source: SEC ) FAMILY DWELLING BUILDING (Source: SEC )

When PV modules are installed on roofs and

on the façades of new dwellings, they are
usually fully integrated (BIPV).
The PV modules are elements of the design
concept of the building.
The following pictures illustrate examples
from the Netherlands.
The Waterkwartier Nieuwland (Water
district New Land) is known as a 1 MW FIGURE 79.
(megawatt) project, as many homes have WATER DISTRICT NEW LAND, BAPV ON FAÇADE OF SINGLE-
been fitted with solar panels for electricity FAMILY HOUSES (Source: SEC )

production.

FIGURE 77.
WATER DISTRICT NEW LAND BIPV ON ROOFS OF SINGLE
FAMILY HOUSES (Source: SEC )

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 86

 3
BAPV and BIPV

FIGURE 82.
RESIDENTIAL AREA AMERSFOORT, BIPV ON ROOFS OF CAR
AND CYCLE PARKS (Source: SEC )

The residential area in Amersfoort is a unique

European project regarding not only grid-
connected solar panels, but various
architectural solar panels also and natural The above examples show that PV modules
illumination applications, in daylight, with a will very soon form an integral part of the
southerly orientation. urban landscape. They may be found on
roofs, façades, shadings devices, shelters on
FIGURE 80. bus stops and car parks, etc.
RESIDENTIAL AREA AMERSFOORT. BIPV ON ROOFS OF SINGLE
FAMILY HOUSES (Source: SEC ) PV systems are also very important for
remote areas and locations where it is not
possible to ensure a grid connection.
Interesting examples are the floating islands
on the Lake Titicaca, Peru. The PV modules
are the only possible source of electricity.
They can secure enough energy for
computers (even in the school), TV and some
other small consumer devices.

FIGURE 83.
PV MODULES ON THE FLOATING ISLANDS OF LAKE TITICACA
FIGURE 81.
(Source: SEC )
RESIDENTIAL AREA AMERSFOORT, BIPV ON ROOFS OF
KINDERGARTEN (Source: SEC )

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 87

3.7. Exercises substitute any of the elements of the
building construction.
3.7.1. Mounting and building
integration options 5. There are three key components of a grid-
connected system. Choose the right ones.
1. BAPV and BIPV are PV modules installed in a) The façade of the building
buildings exclusively as the principal b) The PV modules
energy source. c) The inverter
a) True d) The roof
b) False e) The current meter
f) The public grid
g) The Windows
2. Which is the main difference between
BAPV and BIPV?
a) BAPV can be installed only on roofs, 3.7.2. BIPV and BAPV on roofs
while BIPV can be installed on roofs,
façades, shelters and others 1. Which parameters should be taken into
b) BAPV are used only as additional account when installing PV modules on
energy source, while BIPV are used flat roofs? Choose the three correct
both as additional and principal energy aspects from the list below.
source a) The structure of the roof
c) BAPV are fixed over the existing b) The thickness of the thermal insulation
elements of building’s envelope, while c) The orientation of the building
BIPV are photovoltaic materials used d) The type of modules
instead of conventional building e) Roof elements such as chimneys,
materials skylights, etc.

3. Where can BIPV and BAPV be installed? 2. What should be checked, according to the
a) Only in dwellings building regulations, when PV modules are
b) In all type of buildings and in urban installed on existing buildings?
structures as bus shelters a) The covering material of the roof
c) Only in industrial and dwelling b) The load bearing capacity of the
buildings structure
c) The insulation materials

4. Building integration (BIPV) means that:

a) The modules serve an energy and 3. We should take care of the water-proofing
architectural purpose and also membrane of the roof when installing PV
substitute certain elements of the modules.
building construction a) True
b) The modules serve an aesthetic and b) False
architectural purpose and also
substitute certain elements of the 4. BAPV are more suitable for:
building construction a) Installation on existing buildings
c) The modules serve an energy and b) Installation on new buildings
architectural purpose, but do not c) Installation on flat roofs

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 88

 3
BAPV and BIPV

5. Explain how the over-heating of PV 8. BIPV provide better opportunities for

modules on pitched roofs could be aesthetic architectural solutions.
avoided? a) True
a) Covering the whole roof b) False
b) Using PV tiles
c) Ensuring 5-10cm between the PV
9. What is the difference between a cold and
element and the roof covering
warm façade?
a) Warm façades face the south while
3.7.3. BIPV and BAPV on façades cold façades face the north.
b) Warm façades have additional thermal
1. PV modules can be fully integrated and insulation, which is thicker than on the
cover the entire façade? cold façades
a) True c) Warm façades are façades where the
b) False PV modules are integrated in the
structure of the façade, while cold
façades are façades where PV modules
2. PV modules can be fixed to balconies. are an additional element, like a
a) True second “skin” of the building
b) False

10.We should take the weather into account

3. PV modules can be fixed as an additional such as wind and hailstorms when fixing
glass façade. the modules on the façades.
a) True a) True
b) False b) False

4. We should ensure air tightness between 11.We should ensure air and water tightness
the joints of BAPV on façades. of joints between the modules of BIPV.
a) True a) True
b) False b) False

5. BAPV on façades are easier for 12. The installation of modules on a ground-
maintenance. floor façade is highly recommendable.
a) True a) True
b) False b) False

6. BAPV may act as an additional thermal

insulation of façades. 3.7.4. Glass roofs, shading systems and
a) True
other applications
b) False
1. A glass roof of PV modules reduces the
7. It is easier to ensure cooling of BAPV than heat load and creates more comfortable
of BIPV. conditions within the building.
a) True a) True
b) False b) False

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 89

2. Is the installation of PV modules possible 2. In the following table, rate the tilt and
on shading devices orientation of PV modules from 1 to 4 (1 –
a) Yes, but it is not recommended the best orientation and tilt, 4- the worst).
b) Yes, they are very appropriate
c) No
Tilt

3. We can combine PV and solar thermal

functions. 90⁰
a) True Orient
0⁰ 30⁰ 60⁰
b) False ation

4. PV modules can be integrated in sound

barriers, street lights, information 1 2 3 4
displays. East
a) True
b) False

3.7.5. Design parameters and 2 1 3 4

South-
performance factors
east
1. Name 3 factors which may affect the
efficiency of a PV system?
a) The amount of solar radiance on the 2 1 3 4
site
b) The type of building South
c) The orientation and tilt of the modules
d) The grid connection
e) The behaviour of the occupants of the
building 2 1 3 4
f) The quality of the modules and inverter South-
west

1 2 3 4

West

3. We should take into account future

erection of new buildings around a
building where PV are to be installed.
a) True
b) False

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 90

 3
BAPV and BIPV

4. When planning to install a BIPV/BAPV, we

should take into account satellite receivers
and sky lights on the roof.
a) True
b) False

5. We could avoid problems with shading

through dummy modules and by-passes.
a) True
b) False

6. Name 4 parameters which should be

taken into account during the planning
stage:
a) The accessibility of the roof
b) The accessibility of the façade
c) The load-bearing capacity of the
structure of the building
d) The number of open spaces of the
building (windows etc.)
e) The traffic
f) The load from snow, wind, ice and hail

7. Which is the appropriate tilt angle for PV

modules in regions with heavy snowfall?
a) At least 30⁰
b) At least 45⁰
c) At least 60⁰

8. The installer should avoid stepping on the

module.
a) True
b) False

9. The installation of a PV installation cabling

should be waterproof.
a) True
b) False

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 91

 INSTALLATION – SITEWORK 4

Wesco Court

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 93

 • Remove the hazard, using different
4. INSTALLATION – SITEWORK substances or work processes.

4.1. Working safely with PV

2. If risks are not avoidable or preventable,
The installer of a PV system is not only how can risks be reduced to a level at
responsible for the health and safety of on- which the health and safety of those
site workers, but also for the health and exposed is not compromised. The
safety of customers and anyone else who following additional general principles for
might be affected by the work. The installer is prevention should be followed:
also responsible for the long-term safety of • Combating the risk at source.
the PV systems that are installed. Hence, it is • Adapting to technical progress.
the responsibility of the installer to identify • Substituting the dangerous by the non-
all risks associated with the PV installation dangerous or the less dangerous
and to take appropriate steps to monitor and (replacing the machine or material or
minimise these risks and to keep them as low other feature that introduce the
as possible. hazard with an alternative).
• Developing a coherent overall
Every installation is different, so this
prevention policy which covers
handbook will never be able to provide a fully
technology, organization of work,
comprehensive and definitive list of safe
working conditions, social relationships
working practices and system design
and the influence of factors related to
processes that the installer should apply to all
the working environment.
installations. However, this section does
• Giving collective protective measures
provide information on potential hazards
priority over individual protective
associated with the installation and operation
measures (e.g. controlling exposure to
of PV systems that may be considered when
fumes through local exhaust
preparing method statements and risk
ventilation rather than personal
assessments for the installation of PV
respirators).
systems. (OSHA, 2011)
• Giving appropriate instruction to
workers (OSHA, 2011)
4.1.1. Safe Working Practices
4.1.2. Potential hazards
The European Council Framework Directive
89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the The installation of PV systems presents a
introduction of measures to encourage combination of hazards which the installer is
improvements in the safety and health of unlikely to have encountered during previous
workers at work and legislation to implement building work. These include manual
it in the Member States contains a hierarchy handling, working at height and the risk of
of control measures to be followed: electric shock.
European and national requirements for safe
1. Are risks preventable or avoidable? Is it working practices in the workplace are widely
possible to get rid of the risk? This can be available. (e.g. http://osha.europa.eu and
done, for instance, by: www.hse.gov.uk ), so not all of them are
• Considering whether the task or job is included here. However, there are many PV
necessary. specific hazards that should be considered

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 94

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

when preparing a method statement and risk The results of a suitable and sufficient risk
assessment for the installation of a PV assessment should help users choose which
system; examples of which are presented good practice measures are the most
below. appropriate.”
Please note that due to the continuously A risk assessment should always be carried
changing nature of PV installations the out before good practice is applied in the
following information is not a definitive list, it workplace. It has to be adapted to individual
has no legal standing and no liability is circumstances and needs. More information
accepted for its use. on risk assessment can be found at OSHA
riskassessment, 2011
When preparing method statements and risk
assessments consideration should be given to
the equipment required to ensure the safety
of the installer (i.e. personal protection 4.1.3. Safety with electrical installations
equipment) and the safe operation of the
installed system (i.e. measurement and 4.1.3.1. Working with electrical circuits
testing equipment). Preventing electrocution and electric shock
by working on de-energized circuits is an
essential safety measure.
The importance of risk assessment The following are some items to consider
Prior to the implementation of good practice when working on electric circuits.
information in the workplace, it is highly - Always de-energize circuits before
important that a suitable and acceptable beginning work on them.
assessment of hazards and risks in the
workplace should be conducted. This - A de-energized circuit will not give an
assessment should consider all the risks and electric shock. Unfortunately, many electric
hazards in the workplace to ensure that there accidents have been caused by assumed
is a real reduction in the exposure of workers ‘dead’ circuits. Working safely on circuits
and others to harm rather than merely includes testing them for hazardous energy
replacing one risk with another. prior to working on them.
The following is a simple description of a risk - Use a meter or circuit test device such as a
assessment. “A risk assessment is nothing current clamp to ensure the circuit is dead
more than a careful examination of what, in prior to working on it.
your work, could cause harm to people, so - Implement circuit lock and tag out rules
that consideration is given to whether
sufficient precautions are in place or whether - Lock out the power on systems that are
more should be done to prevent harm. The capable of being locked out. Remember
aim is to make sure that no one gets hurt or that the lock out tag is not for the person
becomes ill. A risk assessment involves that the installer is aware of and that knows
identifying the hazards present in any the installer is working on the electrical
undertaking (whether arising from work circuit – it is for the person the installer
activities or from other factors, e.g. the does not know and who does not know that
layout of the premises) and then evaluating the installer is working on the circuit. All
the extent of the risks involved, taking into affected persons should be notified.
account existing precautions.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 95

- Tag out all circuits that require work at opaque cover that blocks sunlight to
points where that equipment or circuit can prevent a solar panel from generating
be energized (OSEIA,2011). electricity.
3. Small amounts of sunlight can produce a
voltage potential and shock or arc-flash
4.1.3.2. Working with solar electric hazard
systems - Voltages can be present even in very low
Electricians are familiar with electricity light conditions. While these voltages
coming from the utility side of the meter. may not be enough to operate the
With solar electric systems there are two inverter, the potential voltages are
sources of electricity: the utility and the solar enough to produce an electric shock that
electric system. might harm an unsuspecting installer.
Surprise shocks may cause direct injuries
Turning off the main breaker does not stop a
or cause a fall from a roof or ladder.
solar electric system from having the capacity
to produce power. Electricians are used to - Prior to working on a string of solar PV
isolating the ‘load’ from the power source panels, which would involve connecting
(usually with a breaker or other disconnect or disconnecting circuits, disrupt the
switch) and they then proceed to work on current path by disconnecting the DC
that ‘safe zero energy load’. With a solar disconnect switch. Tag and lock out the
electric system, work is done on the power circuit using standard procedures
source itself (the PV panels or associated discussed in the previous section.
wiring) – this is fundamentally different from
working on a ‘safe load’ and should be borne 4. Grid tied solar systems have two energy
in mind. Even low light conditions can create sources to consider
a voltage potential that can lead to a shock or - Shutting off the main circuit. Breaker
arc-flash. A surprise shock delivered at the does not affect the potential output of a
wrong time could cause a fall from a roof or solar PV array – even if the inverter shuts
ladder. off. It’s important to remember that
opening (turning off) the main breaker
The following are some issuess to consider does not shut off the power source from
when working with solar electric circuits: the solar array. Wires from the PV side
of the circuit can still have a voltage
1. Follow the procedures listed in the potential that can deliver significant
previous section on working with electrical current even in low light conditions.
systems. - Disconnect switches can isolate the solar
- Note that PV inverters may have PV array but they do not shut the power
significant capacitors that could hold a off. Remember that if the DC disconnect
charge after the power source is switch is turned on, the line from the
removed – always follow manufacturer’s solar PV array may still have voltage
instructions and check the equipment potential on it. This is similar to the
for specific information on its operation voltage potential present on the utility
and safety. side of the line after the main breaker is
opened. Treat the wiring coming from
2. The only method of ‘turning off’ a solar
the solar PV array with the same caution
array is removing the ‘fuel’ source – the
sun. If needed, cover the array with an

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 96

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

as the utility power line. A residential PV FIGURE 85.

CURRENT CLAMP (Source: OSEIA,2011)
array can have up to 600 VDC potential.

5. An electric arc-flash hazard exists while

adding or removing a series of solar PV
panels

FIGURE 84.
ARC FLASH HAZARD (Source: OSEIA,2011 )

4.1.3.3. Working with batteries

Working with battery back-up systems can be
the most dangerous part of solar electric
- NEVER disconnect PV module connectors or installations and maintenance. Batteries can
other associated PV wiring under load! be dangerous!
- While adding or removing a series of solar
Make sure all employees working with
PV panels, if a path for current is completed
batteries understand the dangers and safety
or if the string is under load, an electrical
codes relevant to battery systems.
arc can occur across the wire junction. The
bright arc-flash has sufficient energy to - Refer to manufacturing guidelines for issues
cause severe burns. Another hazard is the pertaining to proper handling, installation,
surprise arc blast that may cause loss of and disposal of batteries.
balance and falls from a roof or ladder. - Typical batteries are lead acid. Both lead
and acid are harmful chemicals. Lead is
- Always open the DC Disconnect Switch prior known to cause reproductive harm and acid
to working on a solar PV system. can cause severe burns.
- Care should always be taken to prevent
Use a current clamp to check for hazardous arcing at or near battery terminals. Always
energy prior to working on a PV array (OSHA, open the Main DC disconnect switch
2011). between the batteries and the inverter
prior to servicing or working on the battery
bank.
- Battery banks can store voltages with very
high current potentials. These higher
potentials can create electrical arc hazards.
Metal tools and personal jewellry can
create arcing on batteries that lead to
severe burns and battery explosions.
Remove personal jewelry and use only

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 97

 appropriate tools when working on The law does not expect the elimination of all
batteries. risks, but the installer is required to protect
- When working on batteries it is people by minimising risk as far as
recommended that eye protection be worn. 'reasonably practicable'.
- Dead batteries are considered hazardous If work at height is inevitable:
and must be properly recycled. (OHSA,
- Use an existing safe place of work to access
2011)
work at height – do not cut corners, if a
safe means of access already exists, such as
a permanent stair and guard-railed platform
4.1.4. Security measures for working at
use it.
height. - Provide or use work equipment to prevent
A 'risk assessment' has to be prepared when falls, such as scaffolding, mobile access
planning work at height. This should towers or mobile elevating work platforms
supplement the overall health and safety risk (MEWPs) which have guardrails around the
assessment. working platform.
- Minimize distance and consequences of a
fall, for example by using a properly set up
FIGURE 86. stepladder or ladder within its limitations
PLANNING WORK AT HEIGHT (Source: OSHA, 2011)
for low level, short duration work only.

FIGURE 87.
WORK AT HEIGTH in Cristal Tower (Source: Martifer Solar SA.)

Do not overcomplicate the process. The risks

of working at height are usually well known
and most necessary control measures are
easy to apply.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 98

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4.1.4.1. Mobile Accesses MEWPS can provide a safe way of working at

height, because they:
Mobile tower
The installer must be competent at erecting • Allow the worker to access the task
and dismantling mobile scaffolds, must quickly and easily.
always read and closely follow the • Have guard rails and toe boards which
manufacturer's instructions and on no prevent a person falling.
account attempt to use the equipment • Can be used in-doors and outside.
beyond its limitations. • Include cherry pickers, scissor lifts and
vehicle-mounted booms.
Commonly referred to as mobile access
towers or mobile scaffold towers, these
FIGURE 89.
structures are manufactured from MOBILE ELEVATING WORK PLATFORM (Source: OSHA, 2011)
prefabricated components where the
principal structural materials are aluminium
alloys or fibreglass.
Wheels or feet of the tower must be in
contact with a firm surface. Outriggers should
be deployed as specified by the
manufacturer.
FIGURE 88. M
OBILE TOWER (Source: OSHA, 2011)

Mobile Elevating Work Platforms (MEWPs)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 99

Leaning ladder 4.1.5. Safety equipment
Ladders should be used for low risk, short
The purpose of Personal Protective
duration work.
Equipment is to protect employees from the
Ladders can be classified for type of use: for risk of injury by creating a barrier against
trade and light industrial use; for heavy duty workplace hazards. Personal protective
and industrial use; or for domestic use. equipment is not a substitute for good
engineering or administrative controls or
Manufacturers must always supply
good work practices, but should be used in
information about the specification of their
conjunction with these controls to ensure the
ladders and provide information such as
safety and health of employees.
maximum working load.
Employers should provide and pay for the
People should only use a ladder, step ladder
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) that is
or stability device if they are competent.
required for the worker to complete the job
Users should be trained and instructed to use
safely. The employer must also ensure that
the equipment safely. (OSHA, 2011)
employees use and maintain PPE in a sanitary
and reliable condition. When employees
FIGURE 90. choose not to comply with PPE rules, it
LEANING LADDER (Source: OHSA, 2011) usually indicates a failure of the safety
management system.

PPE can include the following:

- Eye and face protection (e.g., safety
goggles, glasses, face shield, visor).
- Head protection (e.g., hard hats, helmets,
hats). Hard hats are required if there is a
risk of objects falling onto a person or a risk
of hitting your head on an object. For
example, if someone is working on the roof
at a higher level, a hardhat must be worn at
all times.
- Protection of extremities (e.g., steel-toed
shoes, other protective footwear, safety
gloves, latex gloves, kneepads).
- Respiratory devices (e.g., respirator, dust
mask). These are especially important if
working around lead paint or asbestos.
Masks may be warranted in attic spaces
around insulation.
- Hearing protection (e.g., ear plugs, canal
caps, ear muffs).
- Protective clothing.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 100

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4.1.6. Fire protection - PV modules produce electricity when

exposed to daylight and cannot be switched
The installation of a PV system on a building off. This means that the installation of PV
may affect fire safety. systems often requires working on live
• For roof applications, the PV system electrical circuits.
should be mounted over a fire - When wiring the system bear in mind
resistant roof covering that is rated for safety. PV modules produce d.c. electricity
the application. which behaves differently from a.c.
• Do not install or use PV modules near
electricity. For example a d.c. arc can
hazardous locations with flammable propagate over an air gap of several mm
gases. (depending on voltage) and continue until
the voltage is removed or the air gap
In case of fire in a building, PV modules on increased. Such arcing may cause fires
the roof are likely to produce dangerous DC and/or significant damage.
voltage, even in cases of: - The fault current in PV module wiring is
• Low light intensity, when modules are little more that the normal operating
disconnected from the inverter. current. This often means that fuses and
• Modules being partly or entirely circuit breakers cannot be used to provide
destroyed. protection.
• Wiring being compromised or - A PV installation can develop lethal d.c.
destroyed. voltages if inadequately earthed
- PV systems may be described as ‘low
During and after a fire, stay away from all voltage’ even if they generate up to 1500V
elements of the PV system, inform the fire between conductors. 20V d.c. touch voltage
brigade about the particular hazards from the is normally considered sufficient to give a
PV system. (YINGLI, 2011) risk of shock.
- The risk of shock is greatly increased if a PV
4.1.7. Other risks module or installation is damaged.
- To maximise efficiency PV modules are
- Unlike glazing units for roofing or vertical
generally installed in unsheltered places.
cladding, PV modules are often
Thus cold, wind and rain may present a
manufactured using laminated toughened
hazard during installation and maintenance.
glass. This means that the glass component
will not shatter if damaged and could fall as - Parts of PV modules may reach high
a single piece. temperatures (ca. 80C) during normal
operation.
- The edges of PV modules, particularly
where glass edges are exposed, may be - The surfaces of PV modules can reflect a
sharp. significant proportion of incident sunlight
which could cause eye damage.
- Although not sufficient to cause harm
during installation or maintenance, some PV
products contain cadmium which may For further information and guidance see
present a toxic dust hazard should the Further reading.
product be crushed during disposal.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 101

4.2. Installation plan to dissipate heat, and could also lead to
inductive voltage spikes being transmitted to
The installation and commissioning phases of the inverter on disconnection of the array or
the project provide the means to implement a string.
good design practices that are discussed in
Whilst perhaps not impacting directly on the
section 2.
initial performance of the system, the quality
However, the use of both high quality of the physical installation of the system,
components and installation procedures is particularly the PV array, can influence the
not just a matter of adherence to regulations. long-term performance of the system and its
The quality of the system installation has a costs. Poor fixing of array components can
strong influence on the ongoing performance result in damage to the array during adverse
of the system and in meeting expected weather conditions, resulting in loss of
system lifetimes and output levels. output and the need to repair or replace part
Having selected appropriate components for of the array. It can also lead to damage to
the PV system, it is important that they are other parts of the roof, in some cases
installed in accordance with the affecting the weatherproofing.
manufacturer’s recommendations, especially The commissioning procedure allows a check
in terms of required fixtures, ventilation, of system performance at the time of
operating temperature range and safety installation. Certain aspects of the
aspects. Failure to adhere to the correct commissioning will be discussed in terms of
operating conditions can lead to poor their relation to system performance issues.
performance levels, shorter component (DTI, 2006)
lifetimes and even failure of the system in
some cases. During the planning stages of a photovoltaic
installation, the provisions, transportation
Attention should be paid to minimising cable
and inventory need to be taken into account.
lengths and, particularly, to ensuring that all
In general, the following questions should be
connections are correctly made and
addressed before the installation of a
protected. Whilst it may not affect the initial
photovoltaic park:
performance of the system, a poor
connection can become more influential with What, How and When (to do the) assigned
time and lead to poor performance in the tasks --> Doing
long-term.
These questions need to be resolved during
Performance losses due to poor connections
the planning stages of assembly, regardless of
can be significant but are generally time-
the size of the installation. In this way, we
consuming to identify and rectify, especially if
eliminate unexpected factors, setbacks,
they are within the array. It is much better to
improvisations and dangerous situations.
ensure the quality of the connections at the
time of installation than to have to address All of the components of an installation come
this issue later during system operation. with assembly instructions, risk assesments,
Excess cable should be avoided wherever etc. from the corresponding manufacturer.
possible. Where a small excess is necessary Follow these best practices to ensure proper
(such as when allowing for a system execution of a reliable and secure assembly.
component to be moved for inspection
without disconnection), the excess should not All basic operations included in the assembly
be coiled as this will reduce the cable’s ability process should be clearly defined, with

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 102

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

estimated duration and time constraints needs: feasibility study, annual report,
required for each operation; that is, deadlines blueprints, list of conditions, budget, safety
for each stage from the exact moment of plan, etc. In this way, and with the pertinent
execution. These tasks should figure inside information available, the installer will be
an established timeline. (Gantt diagram or able to perform the installation in the allotted
similar) (ASIF, 2002) time for the project and meet the applicable
quality standards.

4.2.1. Work Sequences

The sequence of work the installer should Feasibility Study
follow begins by planning all of the personal Before undertaking the project itself, the
and material resources necessary to designer compiles a Feasibility Study, a
accomplish the installation properly. document that takes customer needs and the
The on-site mounting process consists of the installation type into consideration, which
following steps (TKNIKA, 2004): has to:
a) Mounting structures - Evaluate the energy needs and interests of
the user, in order to determine the most
b) Mounting the photovoltaic field appropriate type of installation and its
c) Connecting the photovoltaic features.
modules. - Determine the potential level of solar
d) Mounting the corresponding power generation of the region where the
distribution board. installation is to take place, in order to
quantify the feasibility of the application of
e) Layout of tubes and conduit. solar power. To this end, different means
f) Connecting components. should be used: charts or available
statistics, on-site measurements, use of
g) Running and testing the system computer systems, etc.
- Formalize and make solar installation
proposals official in accordance with the
4.2.2. Technical documentation energy needs and interests of the
customer.
An authentic project should always include
the applicable legislation regarding the The finished product will be an economic and
installation, taking into consideration all technical study of the proposed installation
technical as well as environmental aspects. In for the customer's consideration. (TKNIKA,
this sense, there is a great distinction 2004)
between photovoltaic systems and those
which are connected to the power grid,
especially since the latter involves a much Report
more extensive legal procedure.
The objective of the report is to explain the
The following action plan should be purpose of the project (what will be done) as
implemented, when embarking on a project well as the decision-making process followed
after receiving the appropriate information and the justification of each choice made,
from the customer and a description of their providing details – if possible – of the entire

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 103

procedure. At the same time, the report the property: provisional reconsideration,
indicates how each part of the technical property assessment, liens, form of payment,
system designed works, etc. In essence, it is a guarantees, etc.
description of every step taken during the
design phase of the project.
4.2.3. Technical drawings
Depending on the type of project, the outline
of the report may vary substantially, but in This section should include all of the drafts or
general, the following phases of a grid- blueprints necessary for the installer to carry
connected photovoltaic solar energy project out proper mounting procedures which leave
may serve as a useful guideline: no room for doubt and are clear and precise.
Standard formats and symbology should be
• Determining the project
implemented when elaborating these drafts,
• Features of the PV installation
to avoid any possible margin of error in their
• Calculation of the components of the
interpretation:
installation
• Estimation of total electric energy As a guide, some of the basic drafts to include
generated annually are:
• Calculation of approximate annual
• Site Map
revenue
• Views of on-site location
• Conclusion of the project
• Floor plans of the project
• Addendums
• One-line Diagram of Electrical
Schematic
Budget • Layout of component distribution
• Floor plan of electric power line
The budget indicates the economic cost of
distribution
the execution of the project. This section
• Etc.
should include: the detailed cost of the
different items of the materials, handwork,
As previously mentioned, the number and
transport, leasing of tools or machinery, as
type of drafts may vary substantially,
well as any other component used to
depending on the project. In any and all
accomplish the project.
cases, such plans or blueprints must be
It is advisable to make a table indicating at sufficient to assure proper execution of the
least the following items: Concept, quantity, project and leave no room for doubt.
unit price, and total amount. (TKNIKA, 2004)

4.2.4. Tools and Equipment

List of Conditions The tools and equipment at the disposal of
This section will include all of the standards the installer are not substantially different
to be met by the materials selected to from those that any certified electrician
execute the proposed project, the rules or should have at their disposal. In any case, all
guidelines the installer must follow for proper relevant regulations contained in the
execution and completion of the project, and corresponding legislation of each country
all other administrative conditions that should be strictly followed.
govern the relationship between the foreman All of the necessary components to assemble
or installer and the management or owner of installations on roofs or building façades as

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 104

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

well as the necessary safety equipment must These will be in addition to standard
be at available to the installer, who will have considerations such as PPE (Personal
received the necessary training in their use. Protective Equipment), working at height,
manual handling, handling glass, other
It is advisable to have access to the tools and
applications and construction regulations.
machinery necessary for the transfer and
lifting of photovoltaic modules and other PV modules produce electricity when
materials to rooftops, so that these do not exposed to daylight and individual modules
constitute an excessive physical load for the cannot be switched off. Hence, unlike most
installer. other electrical installation work, the
electrical installation of a PV system typically
Lastly, the installer should have a compass
involves working on a live system.
and inclinometer available for correct
positioning of the photovoltaic field. (Tknika, PV module string circuits cannot rely on fuse
2004) protection as a current limiting device for
automatic disconnection of supply under
4.2.5. Safety Plan fault conditions, as the short-circuit current is
little more than the operating current. Once
Depending on the scope of the project, the established, a fault may remain a hazard,
safety plan may be more or less extensive, perhaps going undetected, for a considerable
but it should at the least include: time.
• List and description of the works to be Good wiring design and installation practice
performed will serve to protect both the system
• List of existing risks and detailed installers and any persons subsequently
precautions to be taken coming into contact with the system from an
• Description of safety rules to follow and electric shock hazard (operator, owner,
list of any safety measures to be taken cleaner, service engineers, etc).
• Applicable regulations
Undetected, fault currents can also develop
This section is very important to ensure the into a fire hazard. Without fuse protection to
safe execution of the project with sufficient clear such faults, protection from this fire
safety guarantees to avoid potential hazard can be achieved only by both a good
accidents. Therefore, when preparing the d.c. system design and careful installation.
plan, its content must be clear and concise so
that the installer can easily understand and PV presents a unique combination of hazard
apply the proper guidelines. –due to risk of shock, falling, and
simultaneous manual handling difficulties. All
of these hazards are encountered as a matter
of course on a building site, but rarely at the
4.3. Electrical components same time.
installation While roofers may be accustomed to
minimising risks of falling or injury due to
4.3.1. Mitigate electrical hazards manual handling problems, they may not be
When compiling a method statement and risk used to dealing with the risk of electric shock.
assessment for the installation of a PV Similarly, electricians would be familiar with
system, there are a number of PV specific electric shock hazards but will not be used to
hazards that need to be addressed. handling large objects at heights. (OSHA,
2011)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 105

4.3.2. Install grounding system Notes to terms used in the following
diagram:
Connection of parts of a PV system to earth
affects: a) Isolating transformer: An isolating
transformer is one in which the input and
• The electric shock risk to people in the output windings are electrically separated by
vicinity of the installation double or reinforced insulation.
• The risk of fire under fault conditions
• Transmission of lightning induced While the hazards presented by an array
surges frame reaching the system d.c. potential may
• Electromagnetic interference be significant, the potential fault/shock
current is typically much less than that from a
Effective earthing is an important safety mains fault. Hence it is the electrical
element of a properly installed PV system. separation of the mains from the d.c. using
Grounding for PV systems is covered in NEC an isolating transformer that is the key
690(V). If the maximum system voltage of a determining factor when assessing the
PV system is greater than 50V, then one requirement for array frame earthing.
conductor must normally be grounded. A b) ‘Equipotential Zone’: defined as a zone in
recent provision, Article 690.35 that was which exposed-conductive parts and
introduced in the 2005 NEC, provides details extraneous-conductive parts are maintained
on how to install a compliant ungrounded PV at substantially the same potential by
system of any voltage. This new provision is bonding. Thus, under fault conditions, the
likely to cause some changes in the design of differences in potential between
PV systems which are likely also to bring simultaneously accessible exposed and
changes in installation methods for these extraneous-conductive parts will not cause
systems. The key issue addressed in the 2008 electric shock. ‘Extraneous-conductive parts’
NEC relating to Article 690.35 is the provision are conductive parts liable to introduce a
to use “PV Cable” or “PV Wire” to meet the potential, generally earth potential, and not
conductor requirements for ungrounded forming part of the electrical installation,
array wiring. Several manufacturers offer such as a water pipe, outside tap, a metal
module leads with these types of conductors. downpipe – anything conductive that is
Two types of connections to earth need connected to ‘Earth’ but not electrically part
consideration: of the system.
c) PME: Protective Multiple Earthing – an
1. Earthing of exposed conductive parts (eg. earthing arrangement whereby the supply
the array frame) neutral and earth are combined into a single
2. System earths – where an array output conductor. Where the incoming supply is
cable is connected to earth PME, (the majority of domestic supply
arrangements) the PME earth cannot be
taken outside the equipotential zone. This is
1) Earthing of exposed conductive parts to prevent the potential shock hazard should
The majority of installations will utilise class II the supply neutral ever be lost.
modules, class II d.c. cables & connectors and
will be connected to the mains via an inverter
with an isolation transformer. This approach
is recommended and permits the array frame
to be left floating.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 106

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

FIGURE 91.
ARRAY FRAME EARTHING DECISION TREE (Source: BRE et al, 2006).

• Class II modules?
And
• Class II Cables, connectors/ions & Junction Boxes
And
• Isolation Trasformer in Inverter?
(Note: to BS 3535 between a.c & d.c.)

NO

In Equipotential Zone?

YES (Note: freestanding ground mounted, or YES

building roof mounted arrays (away from
building metalwork) will normally not be within
the equipotential zone. However, a solar
thermal system, or other building linked
metalwork, installed within reach may extend
the equipotential zone outside the normal
building envelope)

• PME Earthing?
NO

Leave Floating Install & bond to earth spike Bond direct to Consumer
Earthing Terminal
(Note. Do not take PME out of
equipotential Zone) (Note: Use 10mm2 braid
or equiv.)
(Note: Use 10mm2 braid or equiv.)

(Note: If an earth spike is already installed for Lightning Protection, bond to this braid)
(Note: Use 10mm2 braid or equiv)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 107

2) System earthing (D.C. Conductor earthing) The modules used will be certified for use as
Bonding of any of the current carrying D.C. CLASS II protected equipment with an
conductors to earth is not recommended. operating voltage up to 1000V.
However as in the note below, earthing of All of the wiring used in the DC portion of the
one of the live conductors of the D.C. side is installation will be done in keeping with this
permitted, if there is at least a simple degree of protection, that is, double
separation between the a.c. side and the D.C. insulation.
side, including in the inverter.
Protection against indirect contact
Note: In some countries it has been the
practice to bond one part of the D.C. In the AC portion of the installation, a
conductors to earth (eg earth connection at differential switch will be installed.
midpoint of PV string or earthed D.C. In stand-alone installations with AC
negative), or for performance reasons on consumption, a high-sensitivity differential
certain types of modules to earth the d.c. switch will be installed, with a characteristic
positive. Due to the increased possible earth discharge of 30mA or 300mA, depending on
fault paths and possible problems with the type of circuit that is protected and with a
commonly available European inverter types response time of 0.2 seconds.
and internal earth fault detection circuitry,
In grid-connected installations, along the
such practice should only be made when
electric power line connected to the low-
unavoidable (any connections with earth on
voltage grid, a differential switch with a
the d.c. side should be electrically connected
300mA discharge will be installed, with a
so as to avoid corrosion) (DTI, 2006).
response time of 0.2 seconds. The differential
4.3.3. Conduit switch to be installed will be automatically
resettable, in case of discharge – the device
The tubes and conduit used in PV installations resets itself under suitable conditions.
must meet the official standards required by
the corresponding country depending on the Protection against overcurrent
type of installation to be executed: In the DC portion of the installation, suitable
underground or in the open air, in a busy gG type fuses of the appropriate current will
public place or remote locations, exposed to be installed allowing the two poles to
the elements or covered. It should be taken connect and to disconnect, positively or
into account that these cable ducts are often negatively. Instead of these fuses, resettable,
exposed to the elements and subjected to drawout, and protected fuses of the
extremely high temperatures. (DTI, 2006) appropriate current and C curve, which allow
for the connection and disconnection of the
4.3.4. Protections two poles, may also be used. These
The protections to be installed in a PV solar components must be prepared for DC use.
energy installation will be different according
In the AC portion
to the type of installation – stand-alone or
grid-connected,. In general, the different In stand-alone installations thermomagnetic
types of protection to be installed are: switches will be put in place to protect the
different circuits of the installation, as
Class II Protections indicated in the Low Voltage Electric
Equipment Regulations (LVEER).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 108

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

In grid-connected installations, at the outlet 4.4. Equipment Installation

of the inverter, a thermomagnetic switch of
suitable current-voltage and C curve will be 4.4.1. Photovoltaic module
installed to allow for its isolation from the
rest of the installation as a kind of protection 4.4.1.1. Considerations
against overcurrent and short-circuits. When choosing a photovoltaic module, that
At the connecting point, where the will be used to configure a photovoltaic field,
photovoltaic installation and the electric keep the following in mind:
power grid are connected, a thermomagnetic • Type of photoelectric cell.
switch of suitable current-voltage and C curve • Electrical features.
will also be installed to allow for proper • Physical characteristics.
isolation of the photovoltaic installation from • Assembly.
the grid and protection against overcurrent
and short circuits.
Type of Cell (Photoelectric Cell):
Class I Protection Nowadays, different types of cells are
Grounding, of the metallic masses through a available (monocrystalline silicon, poli
specific conductor, called landline or PE. crystalline silicon, amorphous crystalline,
etc.) and various technologies to apply when
selecting the module to configure the
4.3.5. Circuit Conductors photovoltaic generator.

Conductors used in photovoltaic installations,

Monocrystalline silicon cells have a good
as in any other electrical installation, should
performance thanks to their structural
be sufficiently spaced to avoid overheating
precision. The manufacturing process is the
and excessive drops in voltage in different
same as they use in the electronic industry
powerlines, as indicated by statutory
with a very high degree of purification, which
regulations.
makes their production that much more
Conductors used in the DC part, will be costly.
classified as Class II (double insulation). The
installer should use type RZ1 conductors Poly crystalline silicon cells are similar to
(polyethylene reticulated insulation – XLPE - monocrystalline cells, but they contain a
with a polyolefin covering), running higher concentration of impurities, reducing
temperatures above or equal to 90°C and their output, although their cost-output
strain-voltages of 750/1000V. proportion is better than monocrystalline
In the AC portion, the instructions indicated silicon cells.
in the Low Voltage Electric Equipment
Regulations (LVEER) should be followed for Nowadays monocrystalline panels may be
these types of regulations. found that are very cost competitive with
polycrystalline silicon cells and polycrystalline
modules and that have similar levels of
performance. Therefore, the choice of one or
the other depends on market conditions.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 109

Electrical Features: (electromotive force). So, the necessary
TABLE 21. precautions for work with high voltage need
ELECTRICAL FEATURES (Source: Tknika, 2004) to be taken. Furthermore, the necessary
Parameters Description Units means of transportation and assembly of the
photovoltaic field need to be considered,
Isc Short Circuit Amperes
Intensity since this very often includes assembly on
Voc Open circuit Volts rooftops or façades, and due to their weight
voltage and dimensions, this can be very
Ip– Imax Peak Amperes
Intensity of complicated.
primary input
current The two key aspects to take into
Vp – Vmax Maximum of Volts consideration when mounting the panels are:
primary
output • The positioning of the panels.
voltage • Location.
Wp – Wmax Peak Power – Watts
Maximum • Joining the panels.
power

Location
The strain-voltage of stand-alone installations
The weather conditions of any given locale
is from 12, 24 or 48 volts. So it is essential to
are normally quite variable, and the proper
connect these modules in series or parallel in
functioning of the PV module will vary
order to obtain optimal voltage and intensity.
accordingly. Steps must therefore be taken to
In grid-connected installations, the strain- ensure that the maximum amount of
voltage is much greater and depends on the irradiance falls upon the module, and that
inverter used. In this case, it is important to the temperature, at each and every moment,
test the maximum number of modules that is kept to a minimum. This is made possible
may be connected in series, without causing by the optimal choice of angle, direction and
any damage. assembly of the photovoltaic modules,
ensuring that they are exposed to the
maximum amount of sunlight throughout
Physical Characteristics: most of the day.
The most important physical characteristics
are the dimensions and weight of the solar
module that have to be taken into account Positioning the PV Modules
when calculating the amount of space the Under normal conditions, the anchoring of
photovoltaic field will occupy and when the modules to the structure takes place in
planning transport and assembly (heavy- two stages: connecting them in series and in
tonnage vehicles, heavy duty cranes, number parallel, and the actual mounting of the
of necessary personnel). structure. The modules are normally
connected in angular metallic cross-sections,
in U-shape or squares, which are screwed
4.4.1.2. Assembly: together, forming an integral panel structure.
When assembling the installation, begin with
the photovoltaic field, bearing in mind that
they cannot be disconnected and when they
receive solar radiation they generate emf

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 110

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

FIGURE 92. FIGURE 93.

UNION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES ( Source: Flickr, 2011) ATTACHING PV MODULES TO THE STRUCTURE. (Source:
EKILOR)

Joining panels involves contact between two

different metals (aluminum in the module
and steel in the cross-section), entailing a real
risk of appearance of galvanic corrosion.
Insulation such as nylon or non-stick washers
must be therefore used, which prevents
contact between the two metals.
Only the modular holes of the panel that is
specifically designed by the manufacturer
should be used. This helps ensure proper
dismantlement of the frame surface and
avoid irreparable damages to the panel (such
as glass breakage).
Connecting PV Modules
Placing the panels together in formation
should be done in such a way as to prevent Once the panels have been properly placed in
any deterioration, such as leaning modules formation, we are ready to join them
against the package wrapping and placing appropriately.
them on a work bench or similar structure. The main objective is to prepare the electrical
Once the panels are in proper formation, they components of the PV Park; that is, to
are now ready to be positioned inside the prepare the main terminals, positive and
structure. This operation must be carried out negative, which define the main circuit of the
by a number of operators and using the PV generator. These terminals are
appropriate mechanical apparatus such as characterised by specific voltage and intensity
cranes, pulleys, etc., especially when the parameters during the design stage.
structure is located at a considerable height To prevent potential mistakes in joining
from the ground. panels, especially when dealing with PV
The cross-sections used to place the panels in layers in series or in parallel configuration or
proper formation are also used to anchor regulation, the use of technical drawings or
them to the structure. outlines that take into account the position

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 111

and wiring of modules, are highly In this case, the desired voltage is achieved
recommended. by associating several modules in series
(ms). This structure forms a branch
The wiring between modules should be done
connector of the generator. (See section
through the existing connections of each
2.2.1)
module fuse box. The most common wiring is
non-metallic, hose-like flexible tubing. These The desired intensity is obtained by
must be perfectly adjusted to the fuse boxes. associating a specific number of branch
connectors in parallel (Bn).
Normally for PV parks with a considerable
number of modules, modular junction boxes In installations of defined power levels, the
are used for in-series connections between maximum number of modules should be
panels. (ASIF, 2002) positioned in series to avoid sections of large
wiring; as long as the operating voltage of the
connected modules permits this type of
Parallel Circuits wiring.
Several (one or more) modules must When having to connect many branch
connected in parallel circuits, to obtain more connectors in parallel, the wires for each of
intensity than a single module. (See section them should be run to a central fuse box, and
2.2.1) all of them connected in parallel. In this way,
All of these circuits must have equivalent the section containing the conductors will
characteristics. For this reason, each one is always be the same for every installation.
selected, one by one, according to their This fuse box normally contains the circuit
tolerance. breakers, voltage loaders, the fuses and other
specific components of the design.
The intensity of the sum of the panels in
parallel circuits is equal to the sum of every The use of this central control fuse box
panel. So the circuit conductors will increase greatly facilitates maintenance and
their capacity in proportion to the number of measurements, making it easy to access and
panels that are connected. locate the terminals of the different circuit
generators (rows of modules connected in
parallel).
Series Circuits
Several (two or more) modules need to be
connected in series to obtain the maximum 4.4.2. Inverter
voltages for each module. It is extremely
important that every module possesses the
4.4.2.1. Considerations
same voltage - current characteristics. For There are different classifications for
this purpose, each one is selected, one by inverters. Some depend on the location in the
one, according to their tolerance. The Photovoltaic system (see section 2.2.2) and
intensity of all panels in series, as a whole, others depend on the type of installation:
will be the same as each individual panel. stand-alone inverters and grid-connected
Each one will therefore have the same cross- inverters. Each one has different parameters.
section. (Tknika, 2004) (See section 2.2.1)

Mixed Connections Stand Alone Inverter

Type of Output Wave:

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 112

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

The form of output wave of a stand-alone Physical characteristics:

inverter may be: squared, modified sine or It is advisable to know the dimensions and
pure sine. Either one may be used, depending weight of the inverter in order to carefuly
on the type of receiver that is connected. In plan out its positioning and needs for
any case, today we can find pure sine wave transport and assembly ahead of time.
inverters (which have the best features) and Neither should we forget the fact that high
almost at the same price than others in its power inverters weigh a considerable
class, which is why they are highly amount.
recommended.

Strain-Voltage:
Insulation / Protection:
Input voltage is usually 12, 24 or 48 DCV,
which will be determined by the voltage of These types of inverters should incorporate a
the installation, while the output voltage will series of protections against:
be 230ACV. • Electric grid power failure.
• Grid voltage out of range.
Power:
• Grid frequency above strain limits.
This value indicates the power of the • Overheating of the inverter.
receivers that we are able to connect to the • Low voltage of photovoltaic generator.
inverter. • Insufficient intensity of photovoltaic
generator.
Physical Characteristics:
It is a good idea to know the dimensions and
Besides, the most modern inverters come
weight of the inverter, in order to size up the
with the monitoring function of the
cabinet where it will be installed.
Maximum (peak) Power Point Traking (MPPT)
incorporated, so they adapt to the levels of
Grid-connected inverters voltage and intensity of the PV generator to
obtain the maximum power supply possible
Type of output wave: for any level of radiation.
These devices that are connected to the
public grid should send a signal to the
network that is identical in voltage, frequency 4.4.2.2. Assembly:
and interval to the tolerances allowed under When assembling inverters, we should
local regulations. remember that on many occasions these
devices are left exposed to the elements, so
Strain-Voltage:
they should have the corresponding IP.
This indicates the input and output voltage of
the inverter. In this case, it is important to
know the maximum admissible DC input
Location
voltage, since this data will determine the
number of modules that may be connected in The inverter should be positioned in an
series to the port of the inverter. The output enclosed space, sheltered from the outside
voltage will be a sine wave of the same weather. In any case, they can always be
frequency of the grid and a voltage of 230 placed inside a watertight box for outdoor
ACV in single-phased systems and 400 ACV in use.
tri-phased systems.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 113

Besides stand alone inverters should be type of inverter), and two or three alternate
installed in places that are as close as possible current exit terminals (phase, neutral and
to the storage batteries, especially since this ground) for the closed circuit in alternating
section suffers the most considerable loss of current or external grid (according to the type
voltage. In any case, at all times maintain the of inverter).
minimum separation prescribed in safety
The type of available terminals in low power
regulations, so they are unaffected by fumes
inverters is quite diverse (type of outlet, for
from the storage batteries.
example.) Nevertheless, inverters of medium
to high power are normally equipped with
FIGURE 94. screwed terminals. The instructions of the
SOLAR INVERTER. (Source: Saecsa energia solar, 2011)
inverter clearly indicate each terminal with
easy to understand symbols.
The connection terminals of the inverter are
not normally accesible, but rather duly
protected since the voltages are out of
personal safety range, at entry as well as exit
position. (ASIF, 2002)

4.4.3. Storage Battery System

4.4.3.1. Considerations
The most important features when selecting
Placement a battery are:
Normally all necessary elements to position • Applied technology
the inverter on a vertical surface are included • Type.
(screws, pliers, etc.). • Capacity.
The inverter usually comes with the • Physical characteristics.
appropriate holes and anchors. The
installation should never be modified or Applied technology:
altered, always respecting the indications and The batteries employed in photovoltaic solar
recommendations provided by the energy installations are considered
manufacturer (i.e. regarding the necessary stationary, three different types of
ventilation of the inverter). technology may be used within this category:
lead-acid, gel or nickel-cadmium.

Connection Lead acid batteries are the ones that are

most commonly used for their value for
This is a simple operation since the
money, although they have the disadvantage
manufacturer supplies all of the relevant
of requiring maintenance to avoid electrolyte
instructions to complete the connection
evaporation, provoking the deterioration of
operation without any problems.
the battery.
An inverter usually has two entry terminals to
Gel batteries have similar characteristics to
connect the battery, the current / voltage
lead acid ones, but due to the type of
regulator or the PV park (according to the

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 114

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

electrolyte employed, they require no should always be selected for long-term

maintenance. For this reason, their use is storage capacity. Pay close attention at all
becoming more and more popular. times to the C rate of the chosen battery; i.e.
C10, C20, C100, etc. As is known, this
Nickel-cadmium batteries present the best
parameter indicates the discharge rate for
characteristics and performance and need no
the particular capacity that is required. This
maintenance. The only disadvantage is that
parameter is also used to compare batteries.
they are much more expensive than the gel
batteries mentioned previously, so their use The use of C20 or C100 batteries is
is restricted to highly vulnerable services recommended for photovoltaic solar energy
where full-service is key (telephone installations, as they have the most accurate
installations, security systems, etc.) (Tknika, discharge times for proper functioning of the
2004) battery. (Tknika, 2004)

Type Physical Characteristics

There are two types of lead–acid batteries: The most important physical characteristics
mono block and 2-volt cell batteries. to keep in mind are: the dimensions and the
weight.
Mono block batteries have 12-volt strain
voltages and are quite compact. They are Weight is an important variable, because it
used when the required storage capacity is determines the necessary means of
not very high. transportation and assembly. Remember that
battery cells with a large storage capacity can
When the storage capacity is much higher
weigh a considerable amount.
(more than 1000 Ah), two-volt cell batteries
should be used either in series or in parallel
to accomodate the necessary storage. There
are a number of different storage batteries 4.4.3.2. Assembly:
on the market with different storage Certain accessories are also needed for
capacity. (Tknika, 2004) installation of the batteries. Batteries are
often mounted on an insulating work surface,
in case of electrolyte ground spillage and to
Capacity: prevent exposure of the batteries to ground
The battery capacity (C) is the amount of humidity.
electricity that can be obtained during a Moreover, terminals must be placed in such a
complete discharge or battery. The capacity way as to isolate contact and avoid potential
of a battery is measured in Amp-hour (Ah) for corrosion and connecting hoses must be
a given discharge time. The capacity of the placed in the appropriate section for
storage battery is defined by the energy appropriate battery connections. These
needs of the installation, which will have connecting hoses are usually provided with
already been calculated during the design the batteries. In any case, they can easily
phase of the project. When the exact capacity done by installers, using the appropriate
of battery can not be found, a battery must section.
be selected the storage capacity of which
The transfer of the batteries to the assembly
exceeds the required level. As mentioned in
site should be done by first transporting the
the previous section, 2V storage batteries
empty batteries and then proceeding to fill

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 115

them up in the actual place of assembly. Placement
When assembling, connecting and handling The following general guidelines should be
the batteries, use the necessary Proper strictly followed:
Individual Protection (EIP) elements,
especially because of the presence of toxic - Batteries should be emptied before any
and corrosive substances. type of transport.
- When filling batteries with electrolytes, the
When connecting a number of batteries in
proper safety protection should be used,
parallel to increase storage capacity, a
such as masks, gloves, appropriate attire,
maximum number of two branches in parallel
etc. especially since the electrolytes contain
will be placed in a cross-section.
toxic and corrosive acid.
The necessary accumulation of electricity - The worksurface must be completely level.
produced by panels - if they are not grid-
- Ensure that the disposition of storage
connected, can be elevated, requiring an
batteries is equal to the specifications
inordinate number of storage batteries. This
included in the original design.
means the process of mounting panels may
be laborious and last for longer than just one - When handling storage batteries, proper
extra workday. mechanical means, suitable in weight, must
be used because the batteries themselves
The three main points to consider when may surpass 100 kg. in weight.
mounting the storage batteries are their
- Terminals should never serve for anchoring
location, positioning and connection.
purchases.
In case an inordinate number of batteries
Location are required, they should be grouped in
The batteries should always be located in an batches, leaving enough space between
enclosed area, protected from the elements them to allow for proper maintenance and
and not exposed to any direct radiation from handling.
the sun.
When the liquid electrolyte is not sealed in
the storage batteries, the storage battery
room must be properly ventilated (by
artificial or natural means) because the gases
emitted during the charging phase are
extremely dangerous. Besides, the room
should also be free of any potential elements
that might cause flames or sparks.
Depending on the number of storage
batteries necessary, the installation of a shed
specifically for this purpose may be required,
complete with a series of work surfaces that
allow for proper stability. This also protects
against any possible humidity, corrosion or
acid which they may absorb in case of
electrolyte spillage.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 116

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

FIGURE 95. assemble as manufacturer itself provides a

DIFFERENT AVAILABILITY OPTIONS. (Source: Tknika, 2004)
practical solution for connections. (ASIF,
2002)

Parallel Connections
Use the cross parallel mode to connect
several (at least two) batteries in parallel.
This type of connection facilitates
homogeneous discharge for both. It is
recommended not to connect more than two
parallel accumulators as if one of the
batteries suffers a short circuit, the other(s)
are also in short circuit and they will
completely discharge , even provoking an
irreversible deterioration in each one of the
batteries.

FIGURE 96.
PARALLEL AND CROSSED PARALLEL CONNECTIONS.
(Source:Tknika)

Connections
It is essential that each batterie have the
same exact electrical features. For this the
same manufacturer and model must be
selected. With the exception of substituting a
defective battery, new batteries should never
be mixed with other older batteries.
Serial Connections
There are two major groups of batteries A PV installation that has to function at 24
regarding to terminals: volts needs 2 storage batteries connected in
series, connecting 12 two-volt cells, in series.
1. Those that are equipped with terminals
compatible with standard connections; A PV installation that has to operate at 48
much more connection’s flexibility, volts needs 4 storage batteries connected in
series, connecting 24 2-volt cells in series.
2. Those that incorporate their own (Tknika, 2004)
connections, especially designed for these
types of batteries. It’ more rigid, as
connection elements are predefined and
unique (irreplaceable). However, they
offer more reliability and are easier to

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 117

FIGURE 97. Serial and Parallel Connections
48 V. 100 Ah. SERIES CONNECTION. 4 BATTERIES. (Source:
Tknika, 2004) In this case the desired voltage is obtained by
associating several storage batteries in series.
This structure forms a branch storage battery
system. The desired capacity will be obtained
by associating a specific number of branch
connectors composed of storage batteries in
series, in parallel.
Crossed-connections should always be used.
A PV installation that should function at 24
volts needs 2 storage batteries connected in
series, connecting 12 two-volt cells in series.
A PV installatioin that should operate at 48
volts, needs 4 storage batteries connected in
series, or joins 24 2-volt cells in series.
FIGURE 99.
4V. 200Ah. MIXED CONNECTION. 2 GROUPS OF 2 SERIAL
BATTERIES PARALLEL CONNECTED. (Source: Tknika)

FIGURE 98.
24 V. 100 Ah. SERIAL CONNECTION. 2 BATTERIES.
(Source:Tknika)

Serial connection with 2 volt cells

As the storage battery connection in series is
less problematic than the connection in
parallel, 2 V cells should be used when
significant capacity is needed. These should
cover the total capacity that is needed,
connected in series, until the desired voltage
is obtained.
For example: In a PV installation which
functions at 12 volts and requires a capacity
of 2,000 Ah, we need to connect 6 two-volt
cells in series, each with an individual
capacity of 2Ah.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 118

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4.4.4. Current/Voltage Regulator measuring up the cabinet where the

regulator will be installed.
4.4.4.1. Considerations
The insulation index will indicate whether the
The most important features of a regulator regulator may be left exposed to the
are: elements. Generally speaking, regulators are
• Type of Regulation. installed in a cabinet that will be as close as
• Electrical features. possible to the batteries to avoid sudden
• Physical characteristics. drops in voltage, but in such way that it is not
affected by battery vapours.

Type of Regulation
Regulators may be connected in series or 4.4.4.2. Assembly
parallel, may function in two or three stages Regulator assembly does not require any
and may or may not have maximum power special attention, but as with any piece of
detection. electronic equipment, all necessary
Today, thanks to new advances in electronic precautions should be taken. In many cases,
systems, we can find a number of regulators it is advisable to use the necessary protection
with a great number of features at against electric overload. Furthermore,
competitive prices. special care is needed while grounding or
earthing the equipment and assembling it in
Regulators in parallel are recommended for
the absence of any voltage or tension.
low-consumption installations, while
regulators in series may be used in low or Location
high consumption installations due to the Suitable siting of the installation should
type of regulation employed. comply with the following requirements:
- Maximum atmospheric temperature must
Electrical Features be less than 45ºC and in a well-ventilated
area;
The following electrical features should be
taken into consideration: - without any leakage or similar drawbacks;
and protected from the elements.
• Strain-voltage: usually 12, 24 or 48V.
- The ideal location will be close to the
There are also bi-voltage models.
storage batteries (especially since this is
• Maximum intensity: The maximum
where the voltage drop is greater), but
current to be regulated.
without any gas emissions.
• Consumption: The actual consumption
of the regulator itself.
• Maximum Short Circuit Intensity: The
maximum current supported in case of
short circuit.
Physical Characteristics
The most important physical characteristics
are: dimensions, weight, and insulation index.
Dimensions and weight of the regulator
should be taken into account when

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 119

FIGURE 100. Positioning
LOCATION OF THE CURRENT / VOLTAGE REGULATOR IN A
PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION. (Source: Tknika,2004) The manufacturer will have already
considered the question of positioning.
Fastening takes place directly over a vertical
face. The most common method of anchoring
consists in fixing the structure with a series of
screws and hooks. The current / voltage
regulator normally comes equipped with the
necessary holes for anchoring. Therefore,
there is no need for the installer to make any
physical alterations (holes, etc.)
Proper ventilation of the apparatus is an
extremely important point. (ASIF, 2002)

Connections
FIGURE 101.
SOLAR REGULATOR. (Source: Solostocks, 2011) The current / voltage regulator is equipped
with a terminal strip, located at the bottom
which is duly indicated with symbols for each
line. The three different lines for the Panel,
Battery and Metre may be identified,
respectively, together with the polarity
indicated in each case.
Before proceeding to make any connections,
it is important to verify the polarity and
correct positioning of each line, otherwise
there will always be the danger of making an
erroneous connection that may result in
short circuits.
FIGURE 102. D
ETAILS OF PV REGULATOR CONNECTIONS. (Source:Tknika) Connection Procedure for Current / Voltage
Regulator
When connecting the regulator, the following
sequence must be strictly followed:

1. Connect the storage battery to the

terminals of the regulator, designated
with the battery symbol. This way, the
regulator already receives the preferred
voltage to feed into its circuit.
2. Connect the PV generator field to the
terminals of the regulator labelled
module.
3. Connect the load to the terminals of the
regulator as indicated, respecting the
polarity.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 120

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

All of the equipment may suffer irreparable 4.5. Mechanical Components

damage, if this order is not strictly followed
with certain regulator models, especially Installation
those that function in series.
4.5.1. Adapting the Mechanical Design
In order to disconnect the regulator inside an
installation in operation, follow the inverse Once the PV system components have been
procedure. That is: selected, the installer must decide how best
to install the parts, so that the system will be
1. Disconnect the terminals from the loads. safe, will perform as intended, and will look
2. Disconnect the terminals from the PV aesthetically pleasing.
generator field. If the chosen design calls for installation on a
3. Disconnect the terminals from the battery, sloped roof, the mounts need to be fastened
thus eliminating electric feed. solidly to the roof trusses or rafters—not to
the roof decking. Depending upon the type of
roof, the mounts need to be attached in a
Wire Gauges to Employ manner that will ensure that the roof will not
The wire gauge is important to avoid possible leak at the roof penetrations. Other methods
the voltage drops that may result in a system may be allowed with engineered systems that
malfunction. have been certified by an accredited
organization.
As a guideline, a voltage drop above 3% of
the nominal voltage under conditions of Manufacturers of commercially available roof
maximum intensity should not be permitted, mounting systems provide instructions for
except in the wiring from the regulator to the attachment to many types of roofs. Ensure
batteries, which will be in the order of 1 %. that the module edges are not chipped or
cracked, when handling and mounting the
Wire Gauge = 2 x L x Imax/56 x C modules. Small chips or nicks in the glass
L is the longitude of the wiring used (metres) result in high stress points where cracks can
begin with the expansion/contraction
Imax Maximum Intensity (A). associated with temperature. Torque values
C maximum allowable voltage (V). given for compression-types of PV mounts
must be followed.
PV Module layout is important for aesthetics
NOTE:
and to assist in cooling the modules. A
“Some regulators have negatively charged landscape (horizontal) layout may have a
components inside the electronic circuit, slight benefit over a portrait (vertical) layout
which means they should not be used in when considering the passive cooling of the
installations in which the negatively charged modules. Landscape is when the dimension
conductor of the installation may be parallel to the eaves is longer than the
grounded.” dimension perpendicular to the eaves. In the
landscape layout, air spends less time under
the module before escaping and provides
more uniform cooling. Modules operate
cooler when they are mounted at least 3
inches above the roof.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 121

A number of pre-engineered standoff mounts FIGURE 103.
PHOTOVOLTAIC FIGURE. (Source: TKNIKA)
are available commercially. When installed
properly, engineers or test laboratories
certify these mounts to be capable of
withstanding specified wind loads. If
commercial mounts are not used, verification
is necessary.

4.5.2. Structure Support

There are different types of structures in the
market which vary according to type of
installation: on ground, façades or rooftops. Location
These structures should be rust-proof and Apart from specific considerations, such as
maintenance-free, such as anodized architectural integration, the structure should
aluminum or treated steel. be placed in an open location, free of shade
Besides, all of the hardware used should be during daylight hours, in such way that the
stainless steel and should comply with modules are situated in the appropriate
current regulations. direction and at the appropriate angle.

In any case, there are a number of solutions When determining the optimal location of
in the market that adjust to virtually any type the structure, keep in mind the visual impact
of installation. and especially the risk of vandalism. When
positioning the structure, a presence at the
The materials employed in the construction actual location is necessary, in order to
of structures may vary as a function of the determine the direction, so the installer
type, the environment they are subject to, should be familiar with the use of a compass,
resistance, etc. as well as the visual observation of the
The main materials in use are: apparent path of the sun.
• aluminum Positioning
• iron There are two main operations involved in
• stainless steel positioning: assembly and anchorage.
• fibreglass
Assembly consists in joining the structural
components and their mechanical supports,
Regarding assembly, the two main aspects to such as the mast, the frame, the shape, etc.
take into consideration are:
Anchorage consists in fastening the structure
• Location to the surface or fastening element, (floor,
• Positioning roof, façade, etc.) with the objective of
providing the necessary resistance and
stability to the structure, so that it can resist
maximum predictable levels of wind and
snow.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 122

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

This stage of the installation may require a FIGURE 104.

DIFFERENT LOCATIONS (Source: Tknika, 2004)
fair amount of civil construction, so all of the
materials necessary should be determined
during the design phase.
The most frequent practical civil construction
solutions for anchorage are as follows: either
a concrete foundation with a concrete brake
shoe or direct fastening using anchorage
blocks.
The structural support fulfills a dual purpose.
On the one hand, a mechanical purpose,
providing and ensuring a perfect assembly, to
resist winds of up to 160 km/h, snow, ice, etc.
On the other hand, a functional purpose, to
obtain precise orientation and a suitable
angle to make optimal use of solar radiation. 4.5.2.2. Mobile Structures
If planning to apply for subsidies, it is The performance of a PV module depends on
imperative that these structures comply with the impact of direct solar radiation, among
the specifications on the type of installation other things. In an ideal situation, the panels
and with the technical conditions established would be correctly oriented toward the sun
by the IEDS. (ASIF, 2002) at all times, ensuring a normal effect of the
radiation.
There are different ways for the panels to
4.5.2.1. Fixed Structures track the sun:
There are four fundamental locations for the
panels: Tracking the altitude of the sun
• On the ground The panel can revolve around a horizontal
• In posts and/or metallic towers axis placed in an East to West direction,
• On walls allowing it to track the sun on a daily basis.
• On the roof The only parameter that varies is the angle of
the PV generator.
The choice of position will depend on the
features and characteristics of the location, FIGURE 105.
bearing in mind easy access for eventual TRACKING THE ALTITUDE OF THE SUN (Source: Tknika, 2004)
repairs and maintenance operations.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 123

Tracking the solar azimuth Dual-axis tracking
The panel can revolve around a vertical axis, The panel revolves around two axes: one
perpendicular to the work plane, which changes the elevation, from North to South,
allows it to track the azimuth of the sun on a and the other changes the azimuth, along the
daily basis. The only parameter that varies East-West path of the sun.
here is the azimuth or the change of direction
In this type of tracking, the best angle of solar
from East to West of the PV generator.
impact occurs at the angle of the azimuth axis
FIGURE 106. that coincides with the latitude of that
TRACKING THE SOLAR AZIMUTH (Source: Tknika, 2004)
specific location, when the production
obtained by the PV generator is at a
maximum.
FIGURE 108.
A) DUAL-AXIS TRACKING (Source: Tknika, 2004)

Tracking from a single north-south axis.

The panel can revolve around a North-to-
South axis, tracking the path of the sun from
East to West.
When the angle of elevation coincides with There is also a further kind of tracking in
the latitude of that particular location, this which the panel revolves around both axes:
type of tracking is called polar tracking. In this one changes the elevation and the other
scenario, the production obtained is moves around the North-South axis,
equivalent to 96% of that obtained by dual following the path of the sun.
axis monitoring.
FIGURE 107. T
RACKING FROM A SINGLE NORTH-SOUTH AXIS (Source: Tknika, FIGURE 109.
2004) B) DUAL-AXIS TRACKING (Source: Tknika, 2004)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 124

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4.5.3. Anchorage Systems Two different ways of docking the leg of the
structure to the foundation using screws may
Points of Support be seen in the diagram.
One of the most important structural aspects
to consider is the points of support because
the strength of the structure depends on There is another procedure that consists in
them as a whole. introducing pieces of metal into the base of
the concrete, in such way that, when the
It is futile to calculate a structure that might concrete is laid, they will be solidly joined
support very strong winds, if we do not together.
ensure that the structure is properly secured
to the ground, roof, etc.
FIGURE 111.
In FIGURE 110, we can see the four different NCHORAGE ELEMENTS (Source: Tknika, 2004)
types of bases for ground or roof structures.

FIGURE 110. P
OINTS OF SUPPORT (Source: Tknika, 2004)

A) Foundations with concrete slabs and

perimeter base.
B) Foundations with wooden beams with a
shorter life.
C) Foundations with concrete blocks
D) Metallic foundations firmly anchored to
the ground.

Anchorage Elements

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 125

 The fact that we have a connection to an
4.6. Grid-connected PV Systems
electric power supply does not impede us
“Those systems in which the electric energy from making the most of PV solar energy. The
generated by the photovoltaic field flows energy generated can be injected directly
directly into an external power supply” into the electricity grid, using a special
convertor, so we can avoid the expensive
costs of batteries and regulators.

FIGURE 112. GRID-CONNECTED INSTALLATION

(Source: Tknika, 2004)

GRID CONNECTED INSTALLATION

FIGURE 113. GRID-CONNECTED INSTALLATION A

SINGLE LINE ELECTRICAL SCHEMATIC (Source: Tknika, 2004)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 126

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4.6.1. Installation Topology

We can distinguish between two different Point of connection to the Power Grid
parts of PV installations that are connected to
the grid: DC (Direct Current) and AC
For installations connected to single-phase or
(Alternating Current).
triphased grids of 230V/400V, the connection
The first part deals with PV Generators, their will be established upstream of the electric
circuit breakers and the convertor. The meter that belongs to said grid.
second category deals with the Convertor, its
circuit breakers and electric meters.

Meterage of
consumption and supply

FIGURE 114.
A BLOCK DIVISION OF A GRID-CONNECTED INSTALLATION (Source: Tknika, 2004)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 127

 Stand-alone installations may be constructed
4.7. Stand-alone PV System
for direct or alternating current.
In stand-alone installations, the energy The type of installation to construct will
generated is stored and the owner of the depend on the number and electrical
facility consumes the power generated features of the elements of consumption. Use
(individual consumption). Other installations a direct current of 12, 24 or 48 volts when
connected to the electric grid are directly constructing low-power installations. High-
injected into an external power supply - void power installations require an alternating
of any storage – and may be used by all current of 230 volts to avoid large wire
consumers connected to this network. sections.
No matter what the case, in both instances Certain recipient elements are manufactured
the owner of the installation may be an in direct or alternating current, so the
individual or a corporation. installation should be designed according to
In general, these types of installations are the type of electrical feed that is required.
used in remote areas where it is difficult or
even impossible to connect to the electric
grid for economic, technical or accessibility
issues.

FIGURE 115. STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEM (Source:

TKNIKA)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 128

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

When determining the size of a following issues should be given special

photovoltaic system, we need to keep in consideration:
mind its application. We cannot use the
same design criteria any more easily for a Follow design considerations.
lighting system, or for a weekend getaway The installation and commissioning phases
home, than for a radio link or road of the project are the right time to
signalling apparatus. implement good design practices.
In the first case, economic criteria PV modules management
concerning operational safety are a top Some easy considerations should be taken
priority, while in the second case, we into account when PV modules are
should oversize the entire system and managed.
choose materials according to road safety
and quality standards, in order to keep the - Be aware that PV modules are fragile!
probability of installation defects to a Avoid walking on them.
minimum. FIGURE 116.
DO NOT STEP ON PV MODULES (Source: ECN)
Determining the size of an installation
should begin by informing the user of the
features, characteristics and limitations of
the installation in a clear and concise
manner.
Given the fact that a photovoltaic
installation has no technical limitations
regarding the power it is able to generate,
the project manager should take down all
of the necessary information from the user
concerning:
• Location - PV modules are often large (2m2 or more)
• Purpose and heavy (>50kg) and therefore require
• Amount of usage particular care when they are lifted and
• Technical features of recipient handled, particularly when working at
elements height and in windy conditions.
• Number and characteristics of FIGURE 117.
future potential users MANAGEMENT OF PV MODULES (Source: ReSEL, TUC)
• Credit history

4.8. Mounting system and

building installation.
The quality of the system’s installation
strongly influences its ongoing
performance and fulfilment of its
anticipated lifespan and output levels. In
the case of the BIPV installation, the

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 129

- PV modules impose both static and wind - Particularly in retrofit systems, a
loads. The mounting structure should be feasibility study or structural evaluation
assessed to ensure it is capable of of the roof should be carried out, in order
withstanding these loads, and must be to ensure that the strength of the existing
adequately ballasted or fixed to a suitable roof is sufficient to support the weight of
structural member. the PV modules.
FIGURE 118.
BALLAST AND ANCHORAGE (Source: TECNALIA)
Follow manufacturer’s recommendations.
Nowadays, there are a variety of
photovoltaic products on the market for
building integration. Having selected
appropriate components for the PV
system, it is important that they are
installed in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations,
especially in terms of required fixings,
ventilation, calibrations, operating
- Brackets or mounting frames should also temperature ranges and safety aspects.
be adequately protected from corrosion. Failure to adhere to the correct operating
conditions can lead to poor performance
- Where it is necessary to create levels, reduction of component lifespan
penetrations in the skin of the building and even failure of the system, in some
(e.g. during the installation of cables or of cases.
an integrated PV system) adequate steps
FIGURE 120.
should be taken to ensure that the INSTALLATION OF RUBBER BLANKETS WITH AMORPHOUS
building’s fire resistance and weather SILICON CELLS (Source: Gisscosa-Firestone)
tightness is maintained.
FIGURE 119.
ENSURE ROOF STABILITY AND WEATHER TIGHTNESS
(Source: Biohause)

FIGURE 121.
INSTALLATION OF FLEXIBLE PANELS (Source: Biohouse)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 130

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

FIGURE 122. - Select the PV modules for the same string

INSTALLATION SEQUENCE OF SELF-ADHESIVE PANELS
(Source: Lumeta Inc) with similar manufacturing parameters;
the chain is only as strong as its weakest
link.
- Place sensors properly and calibrate
them.
FIGURE 123.
SENSOR PLACING ( Source: Ekain Taldea- Spain)

Wiring modules
When wiring cables besides taking into
account the electrical risks, the following
issues are important for the future
performance of the PV system
- Attention should be paid to minimising
cable lengths and, particularly, to
ensuring that all connections are
correctly made and protected. The solar
array wiring should be housed in a rack to
avoid flooding and accumulations of dirt
and rust. Whilst it may not affect the
initial performance of the system, a poor
connection can become more influential
over time and lead to performance
reduction in the long term.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 131

FIGURE 124.
REPAIR OF WIRING AT A PV INSTALLATION (Source:
4.9. Completing the PV
Zubigune, Spain)
installation
After installing the PV panel, the installer
should perform the following procedures:
• Start up and running of the system
• Testing system security and all
safety measures
• Deliver installation
Inspection and testing
Inspection and testing of the completed
system in accordance with Wiring
Regulations has to be carried out and
documented.
Inspection and testing documentation
typically comprises 3 forms – an
installation certificate, which includes a
schedule of items inspected and a schedule
- The glass-glass modules for façades and of test results.
skylights usually have a very easy-to- The inspection and testing of D.C. circuits,
handle electricity connecting system. particularly testing PV array circuits
With these types of electrical connection, requires special consideration. Appendix C
it is possible to hide the cables inside the covers the inspection and testing of PV
structure to achieve a uniform, array circuits and documentation to be
aesthetically appealing result with no provided.
distracting cableways
Array commissioning tests
PV array/string performance tests are
FIGURE 125.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONECTIONS IN GLASS-GLASS recommended to verify performance and
MODULES FOR FAÇADES (Source: MSK and Sheuten Solar) check for faulty modules. This may require
a means of measuring solar radiation for
larger installations if radiation levels
fluctuate during testing.
Simultaneous monitoring of solar radiation
can present practical difficulties unless the
system has a radiation sensor installed and
its cable is accessible at the place where
testing is carried out. If radiation
conditions are reasonably constant (ie no
sudden obscuring of direct sunlight by
clouds), comparing one open-circuit string
voltage with another will identify faulty
strings.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 132

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

TABLE 22.
SCHEDULE OF TEST RESULTS. (Source: DTI, 2006)

Contrator . ........................................... . Adress/ Location of Type of Supply: TN-S/TN-C- Instruments

Test date …………………………………………….. distribution S/TT Loop impedance: ………………
Signature ............................................... board:…………………………… Continuity…………
Method of protection against indirect contact ……………………………………… Ze at origin: …ohms Insulation:…………
…………………….………………………….. ……………………………………… RCD tester: ……… ………
………….…………………………………………………. ……………………………………… PFC:………………….kA
Equipmen vulnerable to testing ………… ………………………………
..………………………………………………………….

Description of Work: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Circuit Description Overcurrent Test Results

Device
Wiring
Shor-circuit Earth Loop Remarks
Conductors
capacity:…… Insulation Impedance
Continuity Polarity Functional Testing
…..kA Resistance Zs
Ω
Liv
R e/
t Rating (R1 + Live/
Live Cpc 2 Ea RCD
y ln R2) * Live
* rt Time Other
p
mm2 mm2 h ms
e A Ω MΩ
Ω M
Ring

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 133

Field insulation test procedure For systems where the array frame is not
bonded to the grounded (eg where there is a
class II installation) a commissioning engineer
Safety: may choose to do two tests: i) between array
- Read and make sure this procedure is cables and the earth connection and an
understood before starting any work. additional test ii) between the array cables
and the frame.
- Insulation testing is an electric shock hazard
use caution when performing the testing. For arrays that have no accessible conductive
- Do not perform the test without the parts (eg PV roof tiles) the test should be
necessary practical training. between the array cables and the earth
connection of the building.
- Limit access to the working area.
- Do not touch and take measures to prevent
any other persons from touching any Test Zone Preparation:
metallic surface with any part of your body
1) Limit access to non-authorized personnel.
when performing the insulation test.
- Do not touch and take measures to prevent 2) Isolate the PV array from the inverter
any other persons from touching the back (typically at the array switch disconnector).
- of the module/laminate or the insulation 3) Disconnect any piece of equipment that
test. could have an impact on measurement of the
- Module/laminate terminals with any part of protective insulation.
your body when performing the insulation (i.e. overvoltage protection) in the junction or
test. combiner boxes.
- Whenever the Insulation test device is
Equipment Required:
energised there is voltage on the testing
area. The equipment is to have to have • Insulation resistance test device
automatic auto-discharge capability.
• Insulation gloves
• Goggles.
Note regardint test method
• Safety boots.
Two test methods are possible:
• Short-circuit box (if required)
a) Test between array negative and the earth
connection followed by a test between array Procedure
positive and earth 1) The test should be repeated for each array
b) Test between earth and short-circuited as minimum. Individual strings may also be
array positive & negative tested, if required.

Where the structure/frame is bonded to the 2) Wear safety shoes, gloves and goggles.
ground, earthing may be to any suitable earth 3) Where the test is to be undertaken
connection or to the array frame (where the between the earth connection and short-
array frame is utilised, ensure that a good circuited array positive and array negative
contact is made and continuity of the whole cables - short-circuit the cables with an
metallic frame). appropriate short-circuit junction box.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 134

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4) Connect one lead from the insulation Testing and Delivery

resistance test device to the array cable(s) as After preliminary testing, before delivering
per the above NOTE. the finished product, the installer must:
5) Connect the other lead from the insulation • Clean up any excess material
resistance device to the earth as per the • Thoroughly clean the zone occupied
above NOTE. by the panels
6) Secure all test leads (eg with cable ties).
The installer must also provide the user with
7) Follow insulation resistance test device an operations manual.
instructions to ensure that the test voltage is
the same as in TABLE 23 and that the
readings are in M Ohms.
8) Follow insulation resistance test device
instructions to perform the test.
9) Ensure that the system is de-energised
before removing test cables or touching any
conductive parts.

TABLE 23.
TEST METHOD TABLE (Source: DTI, 2006)
Test method System Test voltage Minimum
Voltage impedance
(Voc stc x1.25)
Array 120V 220V 0.25MΩ
positive &
<600V 500V 0.5MΩ
negative
short circuite <1000V 1000V 1MΩ
Dining room
Hall
Separate 120V 250V 0.25MΩ
tests on
<600V 500V Voc stc 0. 5MΩ
array positive
(min 100V)**
and array
<1000V 1000V Voc stc 1MΩ
negative
(min 100V)**
** Test Voltage adjusted to prevent peak exceeding module or
cable rating

After running the newly installed system for a

minimum of 240 hours without incident, the
provisional act of certification may be signed.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 135

TABLE 24.
COMMISSIONING TEST SHEET (Source: DTI, 2006)

Note: This form is subjet to change as it is being worked on in the IEC Technical Committee
PV Array Test Report – d.c. circuits
Report reference No: Contractors name and address
Installation address
Test date Signature
Description of work under test Test instrument(s)

String 1 2 3 4 n
Array Module
Quantity
Array parameters Voc (stc)
Isc (stc)
Protective Device Type
Rating (A)
d.c Rating (V)
Capacity (kA)
Wiring Type
Phase (mm2)
Earth (mm2)
String test Voc (V)
Test method: Isc (A)
Annex-2 Sun
Polarity check
Earth continuity (Where fitted)
Connected to inverter (serial No.)
Array insulation Resistance Test voltage (V)
Ref IEC 60364- 713-04 Pos – Earth (MΩ)
Test method: Annex-1 Neg- Earth (MΩ)
Comments:

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 136

 4
INSTALLATION -
SITEWORK

4.9.1. Customer Documentation • A copy of the manuals and data

sheets for the following system
An authentic project should always respect components:
the applicable legislation regarding the PV modules
installation, taking into consideration all
technical as well as environmental aspects. In Inverter
this sense, there is a notable difference Other relevant product
between stand-alone photovoltaic systems documentation.
and those connected to the power grid,
Test results & commissioning data
especially since the latter involves a much
more extensive legal procedure. • A copy of the test & commissioning
documentation
At the start of a project, having ascertained
the necessary information from the • Table of inverter protection settings
customer, an action plan should be followed (under/over voltage, under/over
the main sections of which comprise: frequency, etc).
Operation & maintenance data
• Feasibility study
• Report • Procedures for verifying correct
• Technical Drawings system operation.
• List of Conditions • A checklist of what to do in case of a
• Budget system failure.
• Safety Plan • Shutdown/isolation and startup
procedures.
• Maintenance & cleaning
In this way, with the relevant information recommendations (if any)
available, the installer will be able to perform • Considerations for any future
the installation in the alloted time for the building works adjacent to the PV
project and meet the applicable quality array (eg roof works) to avoid
standards. potential damage or shading of the
PV array.
Warranty
The installer will also provide the user with a
copy of the project • Warranty Information
Furthermore, the installer must also provide
the user with an operations manual for the 4.10. Installation checklist
installation.
Once installation has been completed, we
The user manual should include as a need to check how the system is running. The
minimum the following information: following chart includes the parameters
System data needed to verify, as an example. In any case,
this checklist may vary depending on the type
• A copy of the basic system
and features of the installation.
information
• A single line electrical schematic.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 137

TABLE 25.
PV Commssionning test sheets. Source:( BRE et al,2006)

PV system – Installation Check List

Installation address Inspection by:

Date: Reference:

General installation (electrical – ref IEC60364-6-61)

□ Equipment compliant with standards, correctly selected & no damaged
□ Equipment accessible for operation, inspection & maintenance
□ Equipment and accessories correctly connected
□ Particular protective measures for special location
□ Equipment and protective measures appropriate to external influences
□ System installed to prevent mutual detrimental influence
□ Conductors connected and identified
□ Conductors selected for current carrying capacity and voltage drop
□ Conductors routed in safe zone or protected against mechanical damage
□ Presence of fire barriers, seals and protection against thermal effects
General installation (mechanical)
□ Ventilation provided behind array to prevent overheatin / fire risk
□ Array frame & material corrosion proof
□ Array frame correctly fixed and stable; Roof fixings weatherproof
□ Cable entry weatherproof
Protection against overvoltage/electric shock
□ Live parts insulated, protected by barrier/enclosure, placed out of reach or Class II
□ Array frame equipotential bonding present (only relevant if required)
□ Surge protection devices present ( only relevant if required)
□ RCD provided (only relevant if required)
□ Frame correctly integrated with existing LPS installation
D.C System
□ Physical separation of a.c. and d.c cables
□ D.c switch disconnector fitted ( to IEC60364-712.536.2.2)
□ D.c cables – protective and reinforced insulation ( only relevant if required)
□ All d.c. components rated for operation at max. d.c. system voltage (Voc stc x 1,25)
□ PV strings fused or blocking diodes fitted 8 only relevant if required)
A.C. System
□ A.c. isolator lockable in off position only
□ Inverter protection settings to local regulations
Labelling & identification
□ General labeling of circuits, protective devices, switches and terminals (to IEC60364-6-61
□ PV system schematic displayed on site
□ Protection settings & installer details displayed on site
□ Emergency shutdown procedure displayed on site
□ A.c. isolator clearly labeled
□ D.c. isolator / junction boxes suitably labeled
□ Signs & labels suitably affixed and durable

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 138

4.11. Exercises
6. Personal Protective Equipment include
1. Which is the main characteristic of PV (choose 3 answers):
modules that makes them hazardous if a) Eye and face protection
exposed to daylight? b) Risk assessment plan
a) PV modules generate DC electricity c) Protection of extremities
which cannot be switched off unless d) Elevating Work Platforms
daylight is prevented from reaching the e) Hearing protection
module. f) Mobile towers
b) Development of extremely high
temperatures on their surfaces may 7. The project report:
cause a fire a) Explains the purpose of the project
c) Toxic gases can be released from the and describes the procedure to be
panels in case of high temperatures. followed for completion.
2. Which are the hazards that should be b) Contains the obligations of the installer
assessed when preparing a risk when executing the project.
assessment and a method statement for h) Explains the potential risks and
the installation of a PV system? preventive measures to be taken.
3. Why is it not possible to use fuses to
protect PV module wiring? 8. A Feasibility Study has to: (choose 3
a) PV modules are current limiting answers)
devices, which means that fuse a) Evaluate the energy needs and
protection is unlikely to be effective interests of the user
under short circuit conditions and an b) Determine the potential level of solar
alternative approach to fault power generation of the region
protection is required. c) Include a careful examination of what
b) PV modules are current limiting could cause harm to people, during the
devices, which means that fuse installation process,
protection is unlikely to be effective d) Formalize and make solar installation
under open circuit conditions and an proposals according to the energy
alternative approach to fault needs of the customer.
protection is required. e) Evaluate the extent of potential risks
c) Fuses can explode if exposed to low involved during maintenance, taking
current running through wire into account existing precautions
connecting the components of the
system. 9. The structures used in a photovoltaic
installation must be:
4. The behavior of DC electricity is different a) Customised for each individual
from that of AC electricity; describe the installation.
hazards associated with each one. b) There are no regulations regarding
structures.
5. The safety plan will be carried out by:
c) Made of rustproof material and should
a) The user of the installation
be maintenance free.
b) The designer of the project
c) The installer.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 139

10.The safeguards that should be used for a 16.Regulators are installed in a cabinet which
grid-connected photovoltaic installation: will be:
a) Are up to the criteria of the designer. a) as far as possible from the batteries,
b) Should fulfil the pertinent legal not to be affected by battery vapours.
requirements. b) as close as possible to the batteries, to
c) There are no pertinent legal avoid sudden drops in the voltage
regulations. c) as close as possible to the batteries, to
avoid sudden drops in voltage, but in
such way that it is not affected by
11.For installations connected to single-phase
battery vapours.
or triphased grids of 230V/400V, the
connection to the stream will be
connected 17.The installer must provide the user with
a) Downstream of the electric metre. an operational manual for the installation.
b) Upstream of the electric metre. a) True
c) Wherever the client desires. b) False

12.It is not really important that all modules 18.Before handing over the provisional
possess the same voltage - current ownership of the installation:
characteristics in case of series connection a) It is necessary to allow the installation
a) True running for a minimum of 240 hours.
b) False b) There is no need to test the installation
operation.
c) Final approval is given only by the
13.In a stand-alone installation, consumption
customer.
takes place:
a) Exclusively in DC
b) Exclusively in AC. 19.It is necessary to run periodic checks on
c) In AC, DC or both simultaneously. the operational parameters of the PV
installation.
a) True
14.To ensure that the DC conductor section is
b) False
not too large, we should:
a) Lower the strain-voltage.
b) Increase the strain-voltage. 20.Which of the following components are
c) Ensure that the distance between the required for a grid-connected PV
generator and the point of installation?
consumption is as long as possible. a) Photovoltaic panels
b) Current / Voltage Regulator
15.The amount of a drop in voltage
c) Batteries
admissible in power lines:
d) Stand-alone inverter
a) Will be defined by the applicable
e) Grid-connected inverter
regulation.
f) Water Expansion Vessel
b) Depends exclusively on the criteria set
g) Electrical Power Metre
by the designer.
c) Will be determined by mutual
agreement between customer and
designer.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 140

21.Number the following steps of a Grid-
Connected PV Installation according to the
proper order.
a) Installation of PV Power Station
b) Wiring of Components
c) Installation of Safety and Measurement
Control Panels
d) Framework Installation
e) Final Test Run
f) Grid Connection
d) Assembly of Electrical Power Metres

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 141

 CASE STUDIES – BEST PRACTICES 5

Scheuten Solar

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 143

5. CASE STUDIES – BEST 5.1. PV installation in Aurinkolahti
Comprehensive School
PRACTICES
The Case Studies section of this Handbook
presents various small-scale PV systems that City (Country): Helsinki (Finland)
employ different technologies on various Type of application: roof mounted
types of buildings throughout Europe.
Year: 2009

The selection criteria focused on technical

and aesthetical aspects as well as the novelty Summary
of the systems, in order to showcase The City of Helsinki is committed to many
advanced technological systems and energy efficiency agreements as well as to
approaches. the reduction of its CO2 emissions. Through
those agreements, the City of Helsinki has
also committed itself to use increasing
The best practices presented in this section amounts of renewable energies. The
are likely to involve the kind of PV systems on Aurinkolahti solar power station is a pilot
which installers will work. The information project for testing renewable energy sources.
that it includes will help prevent common Targeted annual energy saving at Aurinkolahti
mistakes and develop good practice in the comprehensive school is 6.5% every year,
installation of PV solutions. when compared to its consumption of
electrical energy purchased off the national
grid.

Description of the solution

Background description
- Description of the site/building type:
School building
- Partners and stakeholders involved: the
City of Helsinki, Public Works Department,
PWD Construction Management
- Duration of the pilot project: ± six months
- Duration of the installation works: ± two
weeks

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 144

 5
CASE STUDIES -
BEST PRACTICES

Results/achievements
- Energy production: 14 691 kWh/first year
of action (L3 phase inverter failure from
June 2010 to August 2010 influenced 5000
kWh loss of energy production)
- CO2 emissions reduction: 3482 kg CO2
(emission factor used: 237 g CO2/kWh)
- Other benefits: educational purpose when
teaching natural sciences
FIGURE 126.
AURINKOLAHTI SCHOOL. (Source: City of Helsinki)
Replication
Advice on how to replicate the solution and
Technical description
on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for.
- Total installed power: 20.4 kWp The solution can be replicated elsewhere. All
- Area needed per kW: 7.35 m2/kW solar panels power stations have to be
- PV technology used: Crystalline silicon carefully sized on a case-by-case basis before
technology installation, for accurate constructional and
electrical dimensioning.
- Type of Inverter: SMC6000TL (6300 W,
600 V, 26 A)
- Maintenance, warranties and lifetime of Contact details
solution: the system is nearly maintenance
free; duration of guarantee 25 years, - Contact:
expected lifetime of 30 years [email protected]
Economic aspects
- Total cost of solution and cost of PV:
€140,783, 6.90 €/W
- Funding for implementation and sources:
35% of total costs funded by Ministry of
Employment and the Economy.
- Feed-in tariffs, subsidies, local/regional or
national grants: There is no Feed-in tariff in
Finland for decentralized electricity
production.
- Internal rate of return (IRR) for the
solution: Payback time (without interest) 25
to 50 years depending on electricity market
prices.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 145

5.2. PV plant on the Kungsmad
School

City (Country): Växjö, Sweden

Latitude/Longitude: 56° 53' N / 14° 49' E
Type of application: roof mounted
Year: 2008 FIGURE 128.
PV SYSTEM ON SCHOOL. (Source: Kari Ahlqvist)

Summary
The City of Växjö has a very ambitious climate Description of the solution
and energy plan, to become free from fossil Background description
fuels by 2030. So far the main focus has been - Description of the site/building type: The
biomass, but in recent years, solar energy has PV plant is mounted on the roof of a
attracted greater interest. The PV plant on secondary school.
the Kungsmad School was the second PV
plant to be built in Växjö and it is still the - Partners and stakeholders involved: The
largest in the area. In fact, it is one of the municipal real estate company Vöfab, and
biggest of its kind in Sweden. It consists of the installation company Glacell AB
780 panels over an area of 1 021 m2. The - Duration of the installation works: about 1
plant generates about 130 000 kWh of month
electricity every year, which is estimated to
represent 1/6 of the school’s annual
Technical description
electricity use. Current energy production
and CO2 savings are displayed to the public - Total installed power: 137 kWp
on an electronic panel. - Area needed per kW: 7.45 m2/kW
- PV technology used: Polycrystalline silicon
FIGURE 127. - Type of Inverter: IG 500HV
PV SYSTEM DISPLAY (Source: Kari Ahlqvist)
- Maintenance, warranties and lifetime of
solution: There is a warranty time of 25
years. We have no calculation of expected
lifetime. So far, no specific maintenance has
been performed. There may be a need for
cleaning later on.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 146

 5
CASE STUDIES -
BEST PRACTICES

Economic aspects
- Total cost of solution and cost of PV:
€500,000 (3.65 €/Wp)
- Funding for implementation and sources:
Governmental subsidy 70%, Vöfab 30%
- Feed-in tariffs, subsidies, local/regional or
national grants: Governmental subsidy of
70 %.
- Internal rate of return (IRR) for the
solution: No internal rate of return has
been set.

Results/achievements FIGURE 129.

PV SYSTEM ON ROOF. (Source: Kari Ahlqvist)
- Energy production: Approximately 130 000
kWh per year
- CO2 emissions reduction: 78,000 kg CO2 Contact details
- Online information:
www.vofab.se
Replication
- Contact:
Advice on how to replicate the solution and
on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for. [email protected]
This is the first PV plant in Växjö and it has
paved the way for more frequent usage of
and a higher interest in PV systems in the
city. It is quite a simple solution. This
installation shows that it is possible to
produce electricity from the sun even in
Sweden.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 147

5.3. Solar power plant BERDEN -

City (Country): Bogojina, Slovenia

Latitude/Longitude: 46°/16°
Type of application: BIPV
Year: 2011

Summary
Solar PV modules are integrated in the roof of
a new building. This integrated solution was
made with a view to save additional roof FIGURE 130.
BERDEN SOLAR PLANT. (Source: www.plan-net.si)
covering costs. The roof is covered with 216
PV modules Upsolar UP-M230P. We used five
10kW Riello inverters, for a 49.68 kW power
Economic aspects
plant. Power plants will bring annual savings
of 30 t Co2. - Total cost of solution and cost of PV:
3.14 €/Wp; cost of PV: 1.97 €/Wp
- Funding for implementation and sources:
Description of the solution Equity capital
Background description - Feed-in tariffs, subsidies, local/regional or
national grants: 0.444 €/kWh
- Description of the site/building type: The
building is located in NE Slovenia and is - Internal rate of return (IRR) for the
used for business purposes. solution: 10%.
- Partners and stakeholders involved: The
investor is a self-employed farmer. Results/achievements
- Duration of the installation works: - Energy production: 49 MWh per year
Work was carried out within a period of one
month. - CO2 emissions reduction: 30 000 kg CO2,
(based on a global average 0.6 kg of CO2 per
KWh.)
Technical description
- Total installed power: 49.68 kWp
- Area needed per kW: 7.1 m2/kW Replication
- PV technology used: Crystalline silicon - Advice on how to replicate the solution and
on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for.
- Type of Inverter: Riello HP 1000065, 10 kW
- Maintenance, warranties and lifetime of The solution can be replicated at every
solution: Project lifetime is estimated at 30 similar building with similar orientation. A
years, warranties were issued for PV well-prepared project is the basis for good
modules (10 years), inverters (5 years), and execution.
general warranty (2 years.)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 148

 5
CASE STUDIES -
BEST PRACTICES

Contact details FIGURE 131.

PV SYSTEM ON ROOF. (Source: BISOL Group d.o.o)
- Online information:
www.plan-net-solar.si
- Contact:
Femc Marko ( [email protected] )

5.4. PV system on school in

Šmartno ob Dreti

City (Country): Šmartno ob Dreti, Slovenia

total installed and measured capacity of the
Latitude/Longitude: 46.28406/ 14.88854 PV system is 24.25 kW. Orientationof the PV
modules is 13° southwest. In the immediate
Type of application: BAPV
vicinity of the PV system is a block of flats,
Year: 2010 which does not cast shadows on the PV
system.

Summary
- Partners and stakeholders involved
The MFE OŠ Šmartno ob Dreti Solar power
plant in Slovenia is a roof-top PV system Investor: BISOL Group d.o.o.
installed on a primary school. The investor,
BISOL, used 99 BISOL 245 W photovoltaic
modules. Installed power is 24.25 kW. - Duration of the works:
Production to date (October 27, 2011) is of 24 The Easement Agreement was signed on
MWh, which exceeds the expected energy September 1, 2010; the solar power plant
yield by 8.5%. was connected to the grid on December 14,
2010. Works on the roof started on
November 10 2010, and the whole PV system
Description of the solution (together with laying the cable conduits) was
installed 8 days later. Another 3 weeks
Background description
passed before the official documentation
- Description of the site/building type: from the utility company was issued.
The primary school in Šmartno ob Dreti is an
old facility with a brick roof. The roof is in
good condition; therefore the replacement of Technical description
the roofing was not necessary. 99 BISOL - Total installed power (kW): 24, 25 kW
multi-crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules,
- Area needed per kW: Approx. 7 m²
each with power 245 W, were installed on
160 square meters. As BISOL modules have - PV technology used: Crystalline silicon
strictly positive power output tolerances the technology

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 149

- Type of Invertor (power and rating): - Other benefits: For educational purposes
one SMA 1500 TL and two SMA SB 400 TL BISOL placed an LCD panel in the school,
- Maintenance, warranties and lifetime of which enables pupils to monitor solar
solution: Maintenance and monitoring power plant operation. This contributes to
contract with BISOL Group d.o.o.; the learning process and increases
Warranties: 10-year product warranty; 12- environmental awareness among the
year warranty on 90% power output, 25- children.
year warranty on 80% power output, 1-year
warranty on flawless working of the PV
system (until December 14, 2011). Expected
lifetime: more than 40 years Replication
Advice on how to replicate the solution and
on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for.
Economic aspects
As with all PV power plants a detailed review
- Total cost of solution: 70,325.00 EUR of the site is needed, the roof has to be in a
- Funding for implementation and sources: good shape, special attention should be paid
80% bank credit, 20% own resources to orientation of the building, shading etc.
- Feed-in tariffs, subsidies, local/regional or
national grants: BISOL rented the school’s
roof area for 25 years. All produced Contact details
electricity is sold to the Centre for - Online information: www.bisol.com
Renewable Energy Sources Support at a - Contact: [email protected]
guaranteed purchase price. Feed-in tariff for
year 2010 (for micro solar power plants on
buildings) was 386, 38 €/MWh. This is a
guaranteed purchase price for 15 years.
- Internal rate of return (IRR) for the 5.5. Athens Metro Mall
solution:
• after 7 years 5.4% City (Country): Athens, Greece
• after 10 years 10.7%
• after 15 years 13.7% Latitude/Longitude: 37.941363 /23.739974
• after 20 years 15.3% Type of application: BIPV
Year: 2010
Results/achievements
- Energy production: annual energy
Summary
production to date (October 27, 2011) is 24
MWh, expected annual energy production Designed with the aim of saving resources
is 22. 1 MWh, surplus 8.5% and being environmental friendly, Athens
Metro Mall combines various characteristics
- CO2 emissions savings: 14,400 kg
that make it a bioclimatic building with very
- Jobs created: Many people worked on the low energy consumption. Solar panels cover
project: salesmen, project managers, and 400sqm on the south side of the building
purchasing and warehouse division, 5 achieving a reduction in energy consumption
installers and many others. of up to 5%.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 150

 5
CASE STUDIES -
BEST PRACTICES

Description of the solution Economic aspects

Background description - Total cost of solution and cost of PV:
- Description of the site / building type: The €142,000, 2.78 €/Wp
BIPV consists of two façades and the south
side of the Trade center “Athens Metro
- Feed-in tariffs, subsidies, local/regional or
Mall”.
national grants:
- Partners and stakeholders involved: The
The system feeds energy into the public grid.
entire project was financed by the owner of
The energy is paid according to the feed-in
the trade center: TALIMA VENTURE INC.
tariff – 0.394€/KWh by the public power
- Duration of the works: 20 days. corporation (PPC). In theory the system will
produce approximately 39.9MWh/year which
means that the total investment will paid in 9
Technical description
years.
- Total installed power: 51 kWp
- Area needed per Kw: 7.72 m2
- PV technology used: Crystalline silicon Results/achievements
- Type of modules: SCH660P from SOLAR - Energy production: 39,900 kWp /year
CELLS HELLAS SA - CO2 emissions savings: 23.940 kg
- Type of Inverter: Sunergy ELV 230/5000W

Replication
Advice on how to replicate the solution and
on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for.
The system can be easily replicated in other
buildings.

Contact details
- Online information:
www.schellas.gr , www.acepower.gr
- Contact:
FIGURE 132.
ATHENS METRO MALL.
- Ms. Eirini Komessariou
([email protected])
- Mr. Ioannis Aggelos
- Maintenance: Maintenance services are ([email protected])
delivered under contract by ACE POWER
ELECTRONICS
- Warranties: 5 years for Inverter and PV
panels
- Lifetime of solution: approximately 25
years.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 151

5.6. Roof and wall mounted
system in Finland

City (Country): Helsinki (Finland)

Type of application: roof and wall mounted
Year: 2009

FIGURE 133.
Summary ATOKARTANO SCHOOL. (Source: City of Helsinki)
The City of Helsinki is committed to many
energy efficiency agreements as well as to
reductions in its CO2 emissions. Through Technical description
those agreements, the City of Helsinki is also - Total installed power: 10.6 kWp
committed to use increasing amounts of
- Area needed per kW: 7.35 m2/kW
renewable energies. The solar power station
of Latokartano is one of the pilot projects - PV technology used: Crystalline silicon
when testing renewable energies. The annual - Type of Inverter (power and rating):
target for energy saving at Latokartano SMC4600TL (5250 W, 600 V, 26 A)
school is around 4%. - Maintenance, warranties and lifetime of
solution: The system is nearly maintenance
free; duration of guarantee is 25 years,
expected lifetime about 30 years.
Description of the solution
Background description
Economic aspects
- Description of the site/building type:
School building - Total cost of solution and cost of PV:
- Partners and stakeholders involved: €87,275, 8.23 €/W
the City of Helsinki, Public Works - Funding for implementation and sources:
Department, PWD Construction 35% of total costs funded by Ministry of
Management Employment and the Economy
- Duration of the pilot project: - Feed-in tariffs, subsidies, local/regional or
new building construction, about two years national grants: There is no feed-in tariff in
Finland for decentralized electricity
production
- Internal rate of return (IRR) for the
solution: Payback time (without interest) 25
to 50 years depending on the electricity
market prices

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 152

 5
CASE STUDIES -
BEST PRACTICES

Results/achievements Environmental Sustainability in the North

- Energy production: Approximately 9500 West of England. Sustainable energy is a key
kWh/first year of action element of the refurbished building with
onsite energy generation from a photovoltaic
- CO2 savings: 2252 kg CO2 (emission factor (PV) installation, two wind turbines and a
used: 237 g CO2/kWh) combined heat and power (CHP) plant. This
- Other benefits: Educational purpose when innovative project provides a focus and
teaching natural sciences platform for delivering and promoting
sustainable development across the tourism,
manufacturing, commercial, education and
Replication community sectors, both locally and
Advice on how to replicate the solution and regionally. The PV array supplies up to 44% of
on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for. the building’s annual electricity
requirements.
The solution can be replicated elsewhere. All
solar panels power stations have to be
carefully sized on a case-by-case basis before
installation, for accurate constructional and Description of the solution
electrical dimensioning. Background description
- Description of the site/building type:
Non-residential buildings - 2 floors
Contact details
- Contact:
[email protected]

5.7. Blackpool Centre for

Excellence in the Environment

City (Country): Blackpool (United Kingdom)

Latitude/Longitude: FIGURE 134.
BLACKPOOL CENTRE FOR EXCELLENCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT.
(Source: Blackpool City Council)
53°47'0"N 3°3'27.56"W
Type of application:
- Partners and stakeholders involved:
Inclined roof - transparent roof
The Centre for Excellence in the
Year: 2004 Environment, also known as Solaris, is a
sub-regional multi-agency partnership. The
project was commissioned by Blackpool
Summary Borough Council and is intended to
A derelict seafront solarium in Blackpool has contribute to tackling the major
been renovated and refurbished to act as a regeneration challenge facing Blackpool.
Regional Centre of Excellence in Other partners in the project include
Lancaster University, Blackpool and the

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 153

 Fylde College and Blackpool Environmental negate the need for mechanical heating and
Action Team cooling.
The building fabric comprises recycled and
- Duration of the pilot project: sustainable materials: the building’s concrete
From 2003 to August 2004 blocks contain pulverised fuel ash, a by-
product from the power industry; and
recycled newspapers are used as insulation in
Technical description the external cavity wall.
- Total installed power: 18.067 kWp
- Area needed per kW: 9.08 m2/kW
Contact details
- PV technology used: Multi-Crystalline
silicon technology - Online information:
- Type of Inverter (power and rating): SMA www.solariscentre.org
(4 types -SMR1700, SMR3000, SMR2500, - Contact:
SMR850) [email protected]
- Combined nominal inverter power:
14.85kW [email protected]

Economic aspects
- Total cost of solution and cost of PV:
306 054 €, 16,93 €/W
- Funding for implementation and sources:
The grant from the Major PV Demonstration
Programme funded 65% of the PV
installation (€151,000) with the remainder
coming from the overall project budget.

Results/achievements
- Energy production: 12.776MWh
- Other benefits:
The building was designed to meet best
practice guidelines and has attained an
excellent rating from the BREEAM
environmental assessment. The energy usage
within the building is monitored and FIGURE 135.
optimised via real time monitoring. BLACKPOOL CENTRE FOR EXCELLENCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT.
(Source: Halcrow Group ltd)
Solaris was built as a foundation for the
education and promotion of sustainable Replication
design and incorporation of renewable Advice on how to replicate the solution and
energy in the area. The building is of passive on steps to follow/barriers to look-out for.
design, taking advantage of natural energy
flows to maintain thermal comfort and

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 154

 5
CASE STUDIES -
BEST PRACTICES

During the installation of the PV system,

relatively few problems were encountered.
Some of the PV modules were damaged
during shipping but replacement modules
were simply ordered to replace them.
Closecontact was maintained between the
installation partners to reach agreement on a
satisfactory design, before ordering the
innovative double-glazed PV modules.
The close liaison allowed the effect of design
changes, including shading issues, to be
catered for in the choice and positioning of
the PV units and also enabled a coordinated
effort in the renovation of the solarium and
installation of the new technology. Prior to
installation there was some concern over the
effect of wind-blown sand and salt build up
from the nearby shore, however this problem
has not become evident.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 155

 EXAMPLE INSTALLATION OF A
SMALL SCALE PV ON BUILDING 6

Sunways

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 157

6. EXAMPLE INSTALLATION OF
A SMALL SCALE PV ON A
BUILDING
6.1. Description of the building
The selected building, situated in an urban
environment of the city of Zagreb, serves as a
public building (theatre). The building is
connected to the local distribution grid via an
existing consumer connection with a 6.2. Software Tool – PV*Sol
connected supply of 96 kW.
PV*Sol is a computer software used for
FIGURE 136.
simulation and calculation of PV systems,
ORTHOPHOTO OF BUILDING AND SUROUNDINGS
both off-grid and on-grid.
PV*Sol has a toolbar just below Menu bars,
similar to the most Windows applications. A
short description of these icons follows:

New project – opens new project

Open project – opens existing project
Save project – saves project

Technical data – selection of technical

parameters and equipment
Climate data – selection of climate data

This three-storey building also has three Feed-in tariff – selection of appropriate tariff
terraces (flat roofs) on the top of building. system
The southern terrace (hatched in FIGURE 137) Shadings – allows assessment of the shadings
was selected for the installation of the PV for location
modules. An external air conditioning device
is situated on this terrace, which will be Losses – defines other losses in system
removed to the northern terrace. The roof is
a concrete construction with satisfactory
static parameters that can campaign the load
System Check – determinates if system is
from PV modules and the supporting
sized correctly
structure.
FIGURE 137. Simulation – runs the simulation
SOUTHERN TERRACE (view from NW)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 158

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

Economic efficiency calculation – calculated can be retrieved from local publications on

financial payback of the project solar energy potential, or from some on line
services, such as PVGIS.
Annual energy balance – presents technical
calculated production of energy In the selected case, data on solar irradiation
on horizontal surfaces and average monthly
air temperatures are available in the Solar
Atlas of Croatia, which has compiled
Energy data – presents calculated energy atmospheric data for 30 years. Under
production and other technical parameters of “Climate data”, data for a specific location
the system can if available be selected. Such data may
Summary project report – creates short also be entered under the MeteoSyn button.
project report The city of Zagreb is situated in the interior of
Variant comparison – compares selected Croatia, an area that has somewhat lower
project with other project solar irradiation than the coast, although the
use of PV systems is economically feasible.
Annual solar irradiation on the horizontal
plane generates 1.20 MWh/m2. If inclined at
Language selection – used for local language an optimal angle, which is possible in this
setup case, annual solar irradiation should reach
1.37 MWh/m2. Over the months, average
MeteoSyn – used for loading/entering daily irradiation on a tilted plane will range
climate data from a low of 0.96 kWh/m2 for December, to
a high of 6.12 kWh/m2 for July.
Average air temperature ranges from a low of
6.3. Pre-site visit calculations 0.8°C for January to a high of 20.1°C for July.
Before the site visit, certain preliminary
calulations are made, in order to ensure that FIGURE 138.
reliable data is shared with the client. Firstly, SOLAR IRRADIATION AND AIR TEMPERATURE FOR SELECTED
the climate conditions upon which the LOCATION
productivity of the PV array depends – solar 7 25

radiation and air temperarture. On the other 6

20
Average daily irradiation (kWh/m2)

hand, the economic parameters of the

5

15
4

project should be explained to the client – 3

10

estimated price of the system as well as 2

annual earnings and payback period. All the

5
1

data in this step are basically rough estimates 0

January February March April May June July August September October November December
0

Irradiation on horizntal plane Average air temperature

of the real data.

6.3.2. Provisional determination of PV
productivity
6.3.1. Determination of climate
conditions Climate conditions determine the natural
potential of any given location; however, the
The productivity of a PV system basically client will require further data. Instead of
depends on two climate factors: solar daily solar irradiation data, the energy that
irradiation and air temperature. These data the system will produce will be of greater

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 159

interest to the client. Experience from other the figure the client will be presented with a
PV plants in nearby areas show that expected somewhat longer payback period.
PV productivity will be between
1000 kWh/kWp and 1100 kWh/kWp, 6.4. Site visit
depending on the year and the equipment
A site visit is made in order to get more
that is used. However, in this step, we can
detailed information on the potential site,
only share estimated data with the client.
such as surrounding shading, roof structure,
Real data will be calcauted when the
possible cabling routes, etc. All the
equipment is selected. To do so, an on-line
parameters are provisionally checked on site.
software tool (i.e. PVGIS see section
2.3Simulation software) is used, which Before the site visit, a check list for the
estimates PV productivity in this case location is prepared. The following parmeters
annually for 1040 kWh/kWp. are checked at the site:

6.3.3. Provisional financial calculations 1. Roof structure

2. Dimensions of the roof
The cost of a specific PV system depends on
several factors. In this step, we only need to 3. Shading analyisis
know the specific cost of the PV system. This
4. Grid connection point
is generally estimated on the basis of several
offers from PV equipment distributors. The 5. Inverter placement
typical cost for smaller PV systems ranges 6. Possible cabling routes
from 3000 €/kW to as much as 3500 €/kW. In
this case, the higher amount should be used, 7. Earthing and lightning protection
to ensure conservative calculations and 8. Possible ways of transporting the
sufficient room for adjustment. equipment
6.3.4. Provisional calculations of annual Relevant information is noted on the check
list, along with photographs and copies of the
income and payback period
relevant documentation.
Provisional calculations of annual revenue
can be based on a 1 kW system, to ensure 6.5. PV system dimensioning
modularity of calculations. In which case, we
Dimensioning and selection of equipment
may assume the following:
used for the PV plant mainly depend on
Annual energy yield: E = 1040 kWh/kWp financial and technical factors, but also on
Typical price for PV system: p = 3500 €/kW the availability of the specific type of
equipment. When selecting PV modules and
Feed-in tarrif: t = 0.51 €/kWh (3.4 HRK/kWh) inverters, their compatibility with IEC and
With these data, an installed PV system of national standards should be checked. Taking
one kW will produce 1040 kWh each year, into account the profitability of the PV
with an annual revenue of around €468. A system, electricity production versus price
simple calculation using this data will show should be considered for several offers. This
that the payback period would be 7.5 years. is usually an iterative process.
However, it shoud be emphasized that no In this case, the equipment is selected on the
extra costs are taken into account, such as basis of several offers from different
documentation, annual maintenance and distributors.
inflation, meaning that after adjustment of

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 160

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

6.5.1. Selection of the PV modules For the selected area, the optimal angle is
presented in the “Solar radiation handbook”,
Several different systems were simulated, in and it is 28° at this location.
order to ensure selection of PV modules with
a high energy yield at a reasonable price. If the optimal angle is not known, it is
possible to calculate it with PV*Sol. Once the
In this example, 230 W PV monocrystalline climate and geographical data are
modules from local manufacturers were programmed in PV*Sol, the optimal angle
selected. These modules are certified by EN may be calculated by pressing the “Tilt angle
IEC 61215 and EN IEC 61730. The Max Irradiation” button.
manufacturer’s warranty on modules was 10
years, with a limited warranty on output In the case of a flat roof, the optimal angle is
power of 90% output power over a 12-year recommended for calculation purposes. The
period, and 80% output power over 25 years. angle of the roof as well as its orientation
In general, this was in line with most of the should be estimated or measured and
monocrystalline and polycrystalline modules entered in the appropriate fields (Orientation
available on the market. The dimensions of and Inclination) under the Technical
the modules were 1.663x0.998 [m x m]. Data PV Array .
As an alternative, another offer was
considered, with somewhat more expensive,
6.5.3. Determination of the appropriate
but more technically advanced PV modules.
The alternative modules had a slightly lower size for a PV system
temperature coefficient, which should allow
The physical dimensions of the roof, either
them to produce a little bit more energy at
flat or pitched will determine the maximum
the same location than the former. These
possible size (installed power) of the PV
modules are also certified by EN IEC 61215
system on the building. Only the dimensions
and IEC 61730, with a manufacturer’s
of the southern (or south-east/south-west)
warranty of 10 years and a similar limited
side should be assessed for a pitched roof, in
warranty on output power.
order to calculate the efficiency of solar
The final decision over which modules to energy electricity production. Flat roofs may
install was made after presentation to the also be used for installing entire PV modules,
client of the simulation results showing their but a minimum distance between modules
energy production and financial details. should be observed in order to avoid shading.
Whether a flat or a pitched roof is used,
6.5.2. Orientation and tilt of PV special care should be taken to avoid shading
modules from existing objects on the roofs (chimneys,
antennas, walls, etc) as well as other nearby
Flat roofs have one big advantage over objects.
pitched roofs for installing PV modules, as the
modules will face the south (in the northern In the selected case, the dimensions of the
hemisphere). flat roof are 20 m in height (direction south-
north) and 126 m in width (direction east-
The optimal tilt of the PV modules depends of west).
the geographic location and climate
conditions. This angle is very similar for the On flat roofs, PV modules are mounted on
most locations over a larger area with similar fixed structures set at the optimal angle
climate conditons on the same latitude. Modules should be placed in rows at a

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 161

distance from each other, in order to avoid module may be removed with the ‘Delete
shading in the the worst possible scenario element’ button, if necessary.
(winter solstice – 21 December at 12:00).
Taking the above mentioned parameters into
Distance can be roughly estimated as at least
account, for the first case (230 W PV
1.5 of the width of modules. Distance could
modules), it is possible to cover the roof with
be calculated more accuraly using the
45 modules with a total installed capacity of
equation given in Chapter 2, or it can be
10.35 kW. In the second case (200 W PV
simulated in PV*Sol which suggests
modules), a total of 66 modules may be
appropriate distances between modules for
installed, with a total installed capacity of
selected cases.
13.20 kW. As some countries have different
FIGURE 139. groups of PV plants which vary by size and
DISTANCE BETWEEN MODULES
receive different feed-in tariffs, the size of
the PV array should be considered. In this
case, PV plants with an installed capacity of
over 10 kW receive less feed-in tariff than
those below 10 kW. Thus, in the first case
two modules are removed in order to meet
10 kW margin (not shown in the figure). Also,
for the second case, 16 modules should be
removed in order to allow a margin of 10 kW.
When the modules are removed, there is
extra space on the roof, which can be used if
shadings need to be avoided. However, the
Determination of the appropriate size of the final decision over the array size is taken
PV system on a roof may be done with either when selecting an inverter.
the software tool, or by manual calculation.
In PV*Sol, before determination, the “Free
standing” installation type should be
selected, as well as “Determinate Output
from Roof area”.
Under the ‘Technical data Roof
parameters Min Distance between
Modules’ tab it is necessary to check “Use
minimum Distance for Mounting” In the next
tab (No of modules per roof), the dimensions
of the roof should be entered, as well as
margins from the edge of the building. In this
case, the margins from the west and the
south are set at 10 m, while the margin from
the east is set at 2 m, in order to have a clear
corridor, as the entrance to the roof is from
that side. The margin from the north is
selected as 0 m, as another terrace is behind
it and the “Cover roof” button will cover the
whole roof with PV modules. One single PV

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 162

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

FIGURE 140. case, one inverter with a 10 kW capacity was

DISTIBUTION OF PV MODULES ON FLAT ROOF – MAXIMUM
SIZE selected; however, various other choices
could be made.
In the second case, we selected a similar
inverter with an output power of 10 kW. A
further two modules are removed, leaving a
total of 48 modules, which was the selected
option for the second case in order to meet
the input voltage requirements of the
inverter.
After selection of the inverter, the factors
that affect production, such as cable length
or cable cross-section, are entered using the
“Losses” button, .

6.5.5. PV array configuration

Having selected an inverter, the PV array
configuration is straightforward – PV module
arrays must meet the input parameters of the
inverter, e.g. input voltage and inverter
current. This calculation may either be done
manually or with one of the software tools,
usually given by the inverter manufacturer.

In the case of pitched roof, either the “With PV*Sol has a built-in function for the
ventilation” or the “Without ventilation” configuration of the PV array, according to
(according to the real process) option should the input characterstics of the inverter. The
be selected and only roof dimensions and programme will suggest a number of modules
margins should be entered. in strings and number of parallel strings.
The following configuration was arranged for
6.5.4. Selection of an inverter the two cases:
The inverter should be selected, in order to • First case: 3 parallel strings of 14
match the output values of PV system – modules in series,
output power, voltage and current. This
calculation may easily be done with one of • Second case: 4 parallel strings of 12
the numerous software tools, many of which modules in series,
are recommended by the manufacturers of It should also be checked that the output
the inverters. Under the Technical data parameters of PV modules and the input
Inverter, PV*Sol will suggest suitable parameters of the inverter match each other.
inverters for the system. With the “Check” button, PV*Sol will check
In the first case, 43 modules are selected whether any discrepancies are found.
although no inverter is found to match these Parameters such as Output check, MPP
arrays, thus a different number of modules Voltage Check, Current Check and Upper
should be selected. With 42 modules, PV*Sol Voltage Threshold Check are performed.
suggests various matching inverters. In this PV*Sol will signal if any of these parameters

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 163

are outside suitable borders. The parameters
that have been checked in this way are
presented in ¡Error! No se encuentra el
origen de la referencia..
TABLE 26.
PV ARRAY AND INVERTER MATCHING PARAMETERS
System 1 System 2

PV output per inverter [kW] 9.66 9.6

Inverter AC power rating [kW] 10 10

Sizing factor 97 96
6.5.6. Final distribution of PV array
Permisable sizing factor 78 – 108 78 - 108
Power check The physical layout of the PV modules on the
Inverter MPP Tracking range surface should be in line with the electrical
333-500 333-500
[V] layout and the connection between the
PV Array MPP Voltage 382-471 382-471 modules. If possible, the modules placed in
MPP Voltage check nearby rows should be connected to same
Inverter Max. System Voltage
700 700
string. FIGURE 142 presents the final layout
[V]
of the modules on the roof, where three rows
Module Max. System Voltage
1000 1000 of modules are connected into one string.
[V]
PV Array Open Circuit Voltage FIGURE 142.
[V] (at G = 1000 W/m2, 604 600
FINAL LAYOUT OF PV ARRAY
T = -10°C)
Upper Voltage Threshold Check
Current though Cabling under
23 21
STC [A]:
Max. Capacity of wiring [A] 171 136
Max. Current through Inverter
23.3 21.1
[A] (1000 W/m2, 25°C)
Max. Inverter Input Current [A] 31.0 31.0
Currents check
Sizing factor 97 96

Finally, the PV array configuration must be

presented as a schematic diagram, which will
give the installer an idea of how to connect
the modules to the inverter, and the final
inverter to the power meter and to other
equipment that may be installed for the grid
connection system. It should be noted that
this is not a detailed schematic layout, as
protection devices, such as surge protectors,
earthing connections and blocking diodes are
not included.
FIGURE 141.
SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF PV SYSTEMS FOR FIRST CASE

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 164

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

6.6. Estimation of shadings Having specified and entered all the technical
and climate parameters, the performance of
Shading can affect the performance of a PV the PV system can be simulated by clicking on
system. Shadings from nearby objects are the “Simulation” button. After simulation,
especially dangerous, as even only partial several selections of results may be viewed:
shading of a PV module is enough to affect Economic efficiency, Annual balance, Project
the output of whole array. Shading from trees report and Graphics.
should be also be given careful consideration,
The Graphics Report generates a graphic
as trees will grow over time.
display of energy production per month, as
In PV*Sol, shading assessment is done under well as other system parameters, such as
the “Shade” window, either by defining the inverter efficiency, module temperature etc.
distance and the height of the surrounding FIGURE 144.
object, or by calculation of shadings from far SIMULATION OF RESULTS – ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION
away objects. Under the “List of objects”, it is
possible to define shading from surrounding System Variant

objects by entering their height, distance and kWh

1.500
1.400

azimuth, which can be easily estimated on 1.300

1.200

the field. Two types of shading can be

1.100
1.000
900

selected: Building and Tree. Moreover, solar 800

700

diagram shading can be assessed by entering 600

500
400

the points (azimuth, height). The easiest way 300

200

to determine shading in this way is by using 100

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

shade analysis aids, such as Solar Pahtfinder. Time Period 1. 1. - 31.12.

Energy Produced (AC) 1. TG 10.031 kWh Energy Produced (AC) 2. TG 10.558 kWh
FIGURE 143.
EXAMPLE OF SHADINGS AT THE LOCATION
90°

Estimated annual energy production in the

Sun's Course at its Highest Point
first case is 10.031 kWh, while for the second
case it is a little bit higher at 10.558 kWh. The
45°
Equinox difference between the two systems is
obvious – the second system, even with
30° slightly less installed power produces more
Sun's Lowest Position

15°
energy. This is largely attributed to the lower
temperature coefficient of the PV modules in
-180° -90°
0°
0° 90° 180° the second case.
North East South W est North
Estimated PV productivity for the area
6.7. Estimating energy production around the city of Zagreb is 1040 kWh/kWp –
in which case the calculated PV productivity
Energy production is expected energy in the first case is 1038 kWh/kWp, and
generated by the PV system for average 1100 kWh/kWp in the second case.
climate parameters. This figure can vary
according to the climate parameters of a Estimated figures could be compared with
specific year, which are virtually impossible to real values from PV plants operating nearby.
predict. However, the simulation provides a The figures for a PV plant of a similar size (in
reliable estimation of electricy production. this case 9.59kW) is presented in TABLE 27.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 165

TABLE 27. According to these two quotes, the total cost
PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN A 9.59 kW PV PLANT OVER
THREE YEARS in the first case is around €5,000 less than in
the second case. However, it should be noted
Year Generated electricty PV Productivity
[kWh] for year that the energy production in the second
[kWh/kWp] system was higher in the simulation.
2008. 9,418 982
2009. 9,881 1,030 6.8.2. Cost of project development
2010. 8,802 917
Equipment costs are considerable in the case
of the PV system. However, project
development costs (documentation, eligible
6.8. Financial calculation producer status procedure) should not be
neglected. This cost depends on the specific
The financial aspect of the PV plant is a
legislative requirements in each country and
strong motivation for many PV plant
should therefore be estimated by a local
developers. As many developers are aware of
expert. Estimates for Croatia, based on the
the feed-in tariffs, they should also be fully
informed about the financial consequences: administration of previous projects, rounds
equipment cost, project development cost, the cost of project development up to
€5,000, which is quite high compared with
annual income, maintenance cost, payback
the equipment costs alone. Maintenance
period, internal rate of return etc.
costs for a PV system often include an annual
6.8.1. Equipment cost check-up of the system and cleaning of the
PV modules. Although generally considered a
Equipment costs may generally be estimated low cost that may be neglected, the fact is
from previous offers or from previous that these costs should not be ignored in
experience, but the best way to estimate real calculations. In general, this cost may be
equipment costs are quotes from local PV estimated as a percentage of the total
equipment distributors. Therefore, quotes for investment (1 – 2 %). In this case, based on
equipment were requested from several quotes from equipment distributors, the
distributors for this project, and two of about maintenance costs are estimated at 400
ten quotes were selected for analyisis. These €/year.
quotes have already been presented in
previous subchapters. The equipment costs 6.8.3. Annual income
are presented in TABLE 28.
Annual income is the sum paid by the market
TABLE 28.
BREAKDOWN OF OFFERS FOR PV EQUIPMENT (€)
operator to the owner of the plant, in
accordance with its electricity production.
System 1 System 2
Generally, it is based on two factors: level of
PV modules 14,179.2 19,289.6 feed-in tariff and electricity production.
Inverter 2,906.6 3,133.3 Module deterioration should be taken into
consideration, when calculating depreciation
Cables, boxes and 2,340 2,600
other BOS over the entire lifetime of the PV equipment.
Support structure 3,200 2,866.6 It is expected that this factor will influence
Installation works 2,466.6 2,800 electricity production by 10% over 12 years,
Total (€) 25,092.5 30,689.6 and by a further 25% over 25 years.
The figures in the table are based on the quoted prices in HRK. In these cases, the income of the first system
Exchange rate 1€=7.5 HRK. Figures for illustrative purpose
only. under the Croatian feed-in tariff system will

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 166

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

be €5,115 in its first year of operation. This is be seen from the utility payment graph that
lower than the income of the second system, decreases over the time. The Croatian feed-in
in its first year of operation, which is €5,384. tariff payment is guaranteed for 12 years, and
no further payment from the utility may be
expected after that period.
6.8.4. Economic efficiency calculation FIGURE 145.
ECONOMIC SIMULATION RESULTS – CASH BALANCE AND
Calculation of economic efficiency can either PAYMENT FROM UTILITY
be done manually, or with the calulators Cash Balance (Accrued Cash Flow ) Payment from Utility
included in the PV simulation software.
PV*Sol has a tool for quick economic 20.000
15.000

efficency calculation. This is done by selecting 10.000

A m o u n ts [k n ]
Calculation Economic efficiency calculation
5.000
0

on the toolbar. -5.000

-10.000

In the first step, the feed-in tariff system -15.000

-20.000
should be selected, as well as the start date -25.000

of the PV plant operation and annual 10

Years
20

depreciation. If not available, feed-in tarrifs

can be set in the Feed-in tariff window. The final decision to select one of the two
systems will be based on a range of
The second step offers general parameters
parameters, but it will mainly be based on
for economic calculation, where it is possible
economic-financial factors. TABLE 29 shows
to select an assessment period in years (20 in
basic results from the economic simulation.
this case) and interest on capital (4% in this
System 2, with higher productivity estimates,
case).
which led to higher revenues from the utility,
The third step is the cost sheet, where all the had a longer amortization period than System
costs are summerized. Under the first three 1. It also had a lower Net Yield than the first
fields, tax deductible and undeductible costs one. This is mainly due to the fact that it is a
are entered, as well as direct subsidies (if little more expensive than the first one.
any). All of these costs can be itemized as However, investment in both systems is quite
specific costs. Another field calculates annual profitable, as they will both provide revenue
operating costs, annual consumption costs over their working life.
and other annual cost and savings. TABLE 29.
CONOMIC COMPARISON OF TWO SIMULATED SYSTEMS
In the fourth step, the type of financing can
be selected. In this case, we will assume that System 1 System 2
the project developer has own capital for the Capital
10,010 6,864
PV plant and that no loans are needed. Value (€)
Amortization
The next step is to present the results of the period 8.1 9.3
economic efficiency calculation (Capital (years)

Value, Amortization Period and Net Yield). Net Yield 9.3 % 7.1 %

The results of the economic simulation for

the first system are shown in FIGURE 145.
Note that the cash balance reaches a positive
value when the investment is paid back. The
depreciation factor for the PV modules can

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 167

6.9. System Installation 6.9.2. Preparation works
The roof of the building where a PV array will
6.9.1. Installation workplan
be mounted must be cleared prior to the
The installation workplan should clearly set instalation of the system. Easily movable
out the steps and procedure that an installer devices, such as antennae should be removed
should follow when installing the PV system. from previouly identified locations on the
This process requires the PV installer to roof. Other objects should be removed from
cooperate closely with other personnel, the roof, if possible.
especially DSO personel, responsible for the Once the roof area is cleared with no
grid connection of the system. The main unnecesary objects on it, the area should be
steps are as follows. made easily accessible for the installer.
1. Preparation works, The PV modules, support structure and other
2. Mount support structure equipment must be carefully transferred to
(prefabricated), the roof. This may either be done manually
or with an appropriate crane. If done by
3. Earth support structure on the
hand, the weight and dimensions of the PV
existing earthing,
modules should be given careful
4. Mount DC combiner box, consideration. In this case, the modules were
lifted from the ground to the roof by a crane
5. Laydown conduits and cables from
mounted on the northern terrace of the
modules to combiner box, and from
building.
combiner box to inverter,
PV modules, supporting structures and other
6. Mount inverter and DC disconect
equipment should be stored in an easily
switch (in “OFF” position),
accessible position. Stored PV modules and
7. Place power meter and AC switch supporting structures should not hamper the
(“OFF” position) – done by DSO installer at work. The northern terrace was
personnel, selected for storage location, as it was close
8. Laydown cables from inverter to to the crane and the PV array was not
power meter, mounted in this area.

9. Place modules on the support 6.9.3. Mounting the support structure

structure and secure it,
Support structures for PV modules come in
10. Connect electrical wiring from PV many different forms. Metal support
combiner box to DC switch, and structures are widely used, as are plastic
between DC switch and inverter containers filled with gravel or even wooden
11. Connect cables from strings into the support structures. Support structure must
PV combiner box, be mounted according to the manufacturer’s
instructions, and checked to see that they are
12. Connect modules into strings, properly fastened.
13. Check voltages inside combiner box,
14. Turn DC switch on,
15. Turn AC switch on – to be performed
by DSO personel

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 168

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

FIGURE 146. structure should be adjusted at an optimal

EXAMPLE OF PREFABRICATED METAL SUPPORT STRUCTURE
(WITH MODULES) FOR METAL ROOFS angle. Two additional rails are mounted over
the support structure along the entire length
of the rows of PV modules, to which the PV
modules are secured.
FIGURE 148.
SIDE VIEW ON MODULE SUPPORT STRUCTURE (Source: ETEK)

In most cases, the support structure is

mounted on a foundation. Foundations are
either concrete blocks or large metal frames.
These structures are often fastened to the
roof, which should be done with care in order
to avoid eventual leakage points. FIGURE 147
shows a metal foundation frame on the flat 6.9.4. Mounting of conduits and cables
roof of a public building. It can be seen that
metal rails are mounted directly on the roof. Conduits should protect cables from severe
Two metal rails are laid in place along an weather, direct sunlight and different
east-west axis (horizontal) for each PV mechanical impacts. Conduits can be placed
module row, and additional ones are laid in on the ground or on the support structure
place along a north-south axis (vertical). behind the PV modules, and routed to the
FIGURE 147.
combiner box in the victinity of the PV
METAL FOUNDATION FRAME module rows.
Cables in the conduit should not be loosely
placed; however, they should they be
fastened too tightly. In this case, the cables
were placed inside plastic conduits mounted
on the back of the module support structure.
Cables should also be placed in the conduit to
avoid any possible unauthorized access.

The support structure is mouted on the

foundations. It consists of three rails, which
are fastened together in the shape of a
triangle. If necessary, the angle of the
modules should be checked, and the support

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 169

FIGURE 149. DC and AC switches should be placed near
CABLES AND CONDUIT PLACED BEHIND PV MODULES
the inverter. It is neccesary to ensure access
to these two switches.

6.9.6. Placing a modules on support

structure
PV modules should be placed on the support
structure after all preparatory work
(mounting of support structure, laying down
conduits and cables, mounting inverter and
switches) has been completed. Modules
should be placed on two parallel rails over
the support structure. The modules are
All the cables must be routed inside the
fastened on these rails with special tools and
conduits to the PV combiner box. The
mechanisms (FIGURE 151). However, as these
entrance of the cables into the combiner box
systems differ from one manufacturer to
should be properly sealed to prevent leakage
another, the manufacturer’s instructions
into the box. If possible, cable entrances
should be followed. Modules should be
should be placed facing downwards.
placed one next to another, bearing in mind
6.9.5. Placing and inverter that they need to be electrically connected.

The inverter should be placed in a previously At this point, no module should be electrically
selected location. Some inverters may be connected.
placed outside, near the PV array. Others FIGURE 151.
FASTENING A PV MODULE TO A RAIL (Source: SOLVIS)
should be placed inside. Inverters are often
wall mounted, thus additional space between
two inverters or an inverter and other
equipment should be secured, in order to
satisfy the requirements for inverter
ventilation.
FIGURE 150.
PLACING OF INVERTER
6.9.7. Electrical connection
The electrical connection of the system
should be done with great care, as in some
cases it is imposible to turn off some parts of
system, which means that some wires are live
during the connection process. This safety
measure mainly concerns the connection of
PV modules and the grid connection. Thus,
these two tasks should be performed at the
end. The electrical connection should be
done with both the DC and the AC switches in
the “OFF” position.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 170

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

Before the electrical connection of the supply is connected to a power meter and
different componets, the voltage across the then to the AC switch.
lines should be checked.
6.9.8. Testing and commissioning
The first step is to connect the PV combiner
box with the DC disconnect switch, the During the testing and commissioning phase,
inverter and the AC disconnect switch. When all of the electrical parameters of the system
connecting DC cables to the inverter, the should be checked in accordance with the
correct polarity should be observed. In the PV established procedure. It is also important to
combiner box, the polarity, as well as the test the impact on the electrical network and
differences between cables from different the parallel working of the system. The PV
strings should be observed. plant should comply with any special DSO
regulation or requirement. During the testing
Electrical connection of the PV modules to
phase, the following parameters should be
the strings is done with special connectors.
checked and measured:
PV modules should have connector boxes
with a sufficient length of cable, so that they • Irradiation level
can easily reach the cables and the • DC Voltage over the strings
connectors on two nearby modules.
Connectors are easily inserted into each • DC Current over the strings
other, while loose cables should be fastened • AC Voltage from grid
at the nearest point.
• Frequency of voltage from grid
If possible, this task should be done at
nightime or with covered PV modules, in • AC Current from the inverter
order to avoid a risk of electrocution. DSO personnel should check for any
FIGURE 152. requirement on the PV plant or any impact of
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF THE MODULES – BACKSIDE
the PV plant on the electrical grid. This
usually includes checking for flickers,
disconnections in case of failure etc, and
should only be done by authorized personnel
from the DSO.

6.10. Small-scale installation

safety plan
Preventing electric shock by working on de-
energized circuits is a key to electricity safety
The final step is to connect the power meter Solar electric systems have two sources of
and the whole system to the grid. This is electricity: the utility and the solar electric
usually performed by personnel from the system. Turning off the main breaker does
local DSO. In most cases, this task should only not stop a solar electric system from having
be perfomed by authorized personnel, as it the capacity to produce power. Photovoltaic
implies working with a live mains power installations can be made inherently safe, as
supply. At this stage, the mains electrical can most building services installations,
provided any hazards associated with their

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 171

installation and use in buildings are properly the PV system is shown in the following
addressed diagram.
The process of improving safety during FIGURE 153.
OUTLINE OF THE PV SYSTEM
construction, operation and maintenance
requires:
• compliance with the requirements of the
law, PV system codes and standards
• following manufacturers’ recommendations
• following best practice
In this project, the safety and protective
measures were systematically applied in
accordance with all applicable Croatian and
The PV modules are mounted on the roof
European standards for such systems
with the existing lightning arrester
To ensure safe and continuous operation of installation, which minimizes damage to the
PV systems through their lifetime, it is PV system at the permitted distance between
necessary to ensure complete protection the PV modules and lightning arrester
from lightning and induced surges right from installation As in this example, the distance
the planning and the project implementation has to be greater than 0.5 m.
phase. Protection must be provided not only
When a distance greater than 0.5 m is not
on the output side of the inverter, but also on
possible, it is necessary to establish a
the output side of the PV modules
conductive connection between the PV
Photovoltaic systems are usually installed on modules and the lightning arrester
rooftops, where there is a higher probability installation, which is connected to the earth.
of lightning strikes (i.e. lightning surges). In Its purpose is to prevent lightning currents
accordance with standard EN 62305-2 direct flowing through the structural framework of
or indirect lightning strikes are categorized as photovoltaic modules. If the construction of
an expected risk of damage to a photovoltaic PV modules is not conductively connected to
system the lightning arrester installation or the
For this project, the photovoltaic system house does not have lightning protection
protection of atmospheric and induced surge installation, then it is necessary to connect
was performed in accordance with European the structure of PV modules to the earth.
Union standards EN 60364-7-712, EN 61 173 Grounding provides a rapid discharge of
and groups of standards EN 62305 current into the surrounding soil. Deeply
embedded steel or copper rods or plates are
As the core of a photovoltaic system is the used for grounding
inverter, protection from lightning and surges
must focus on the inverter, and at the same The inverter is protected by surge arrester on
time that protection should include the entire DC and AC side. The surge arresters on the DC
photovoltaic system side were selected according to the open
circuit voltage of the photovoltaic source.
As the distance between the bus terminal
array of photovoltaic modules and inverter Due to weather conditions, rainfall, solar
was greater than 25 m, the surge arresters radiation and high temperature, the
were installed at both points. An outline of

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 172

 6
EXAMPLE INSTALLATION
OF A SMALL SCALE PV
ON A BUILDING

photovoltaic modules are connected 4. If the cost of a 10 kW PV system is

between each other by a H07RN-F cable. €33,000, estimate the payback period for
an area with an average annual
20 Amp DC switches were used for the
production is 1,220 kWh/kWp and the FIT
modules protection and 16 Amp and 25 Amp
is of 0.51 €/kWh.
circuit breakers type B were used for the
a) Approximately 9 years
converter protection, as recommended by
b) Approximately 5 years
the manufacturer.
c) Approximately 2 years
The minimum request to achieve parallel
operation is set in a way that protection of
the inverter starts functioning (i.e. to act on 5. Estimate PV annual production for the
switch) and insulates the PV system from the system of question 2 facing southwest
network, if there is any frequency or voltage with an inclination of 15°. What is the
deviation (overvoltage or under-voltage). The difference regarding a system with
boundaries of possible deviations are factory optimal tilt?
settings for each inverter and meet EU a) Almost 100 kWh/kWp reduction
standards. b) Almost 100 kWh/kWp increase
c) There was no difference

6.11. Exercises
6. What data should be collected on site?
(Choose 3)
1. What actions should be undertaken prior
a) roof orientation and inclination
to the site visit? (choose 3)
b) equipment characteristics
a) Initial estimation of the plant with
c) location of shadings
respect to the available roof area,
d) climate data
b) Collection of climate data,
e) possible locations for placing BoS
c) Plan in details the wire runs
d) Draft estimation of the output
e) Plan the precise location of BoS 7. The building has a two-pitched roof. One
faces south-east, and another north-west.
2. Use PVGIS The inclination of the roof is 15° and its
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/apps4/pv dimension is 10 x 5 [m x m]. Select one
est.php to estimate the expected PV module type of 200 W.
output in Istria (Croatia). (Poly-Si, module, 7i. Choose part of the roof on which to
optimized slope) place the PV modules.
a) Approximately 1,200 kWh/kWp a) north-west
b) Approximately 1,600 kWh/kWp b) southeast slope
c) Approximately 800 kWh/kWp

3. Check the feed-in tariff in your area for 7ii. Estimate the possible power of PV
different sizes of PV system (10 kW, 30 plant in case PV modules are placed in
kW). landscape (module’s dimensions 1.58m
x0.808m, 200 W, and from each end of
the roof, 0.5 m for margin must be
selected).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 173

 a) 4 kW (4x5x200 W) a) 0.998m
b) 5,6 kW b) 2.0 m
c) 8 kW c) 2.7m
7iii. Estimate the possible power of PV
plant in case PV modules are placed in
portrait.
a) 4 kW
b) 4,4 kW (2x11x200W)
c) 8 kW

8. In case of a 4.4kW PV system with 22

modules in 2 series, select an inverter that
will match the output characteristics of PV
array. Present the configuration of the
array and the inverter/s. (note: multiple
inverters could be selected).

9. Calculate the angle of shading from a pole

that is located 25 m to the east of the PV
array, at a height of 10 m above the
modules. Place it in a solar diagram. Does
it obstruct direct sunlight to the PV
system?

10.Calculate the angle of shading from a tree

situated 10 meters to the south at a
height of 5 meters above the modules.
a) 30°
b) 26.6°
c) 60°
11.For the PV system in the figure below
estimate distance d so that the second
row is not shaded.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 174

 MAINTENANCE AND TROUBLESHOOTING 7

Johnsun Heaters Ltd

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 175

 system can be inspected through monitoring,
7. MAINTENANCE AND but the annual site inspection is necessary to
check each part of the system. For stand-
TROUBLESHOOTING alone systems, the installer should provide
This chapter aims to provide valuable the owner with some basic maintenance
information on maintenance and instructions.
troubleshooting of the PV systems.
For PV systems which are grid connected,
7.1. Maintenance plan energy production should be recorded (kWh,
Amperes, Volts) and checked. These results,
7.1.1. Periodical inspection which should be sent to the installer
(depending also on their contract/
Photovoltaic systems have proved that they agreement) may reveal possible defects in
need very little maintenance, assuming that the system. Keeping monthly and yearly
good design rules have been followed and records of the energy production is very
the appropriate quality control procedures useful to confirm the proper operation of the
have been applied to the installation and PV system (NABCEB, 2005).
commissioning process. Many installers and
PV owners claim that the PV systems are FIGURE 154.
“maintenance free”. Nonetheless, KEEPING RECORDS FOR ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION FROM PV
GRID CONNECTED SYSTEMS, CYPRUS. (Source: Cyprus Energy
photovoltaic systems require a periodical Agency)
inspection to confirm that the system is
working properly and has no faults or failures.
Inspection frequency and maintenance of the
photovoltaic systems should be once
annually. More specifically, at the first year of
the operation of the PV system; the
inspection can be performed more frequently
because most of the problems are usually
encountered at the beginning of their life.
Nevertheless, the frequency of inspections
and maintenance is determined by the
“maintenance contract” agreed between the
owner and the installer.

In the case of stand alone PV systems,

batteries require more maintenance which is
dependent on their type, the
charge/discharge cycles and application. In 7.1.2. Dirt accumulation
the periodical inspection, a checklist has to be The most common maintenance task for solar
carried out and followed for the whole modules is the cleaning of the glass area to
installation, to check performance of the remove excessive dirt. The arrays are cleaned
parts of the system. A “small” fault in the PV when the temperature is not very high,
system (especially in larger systems) may typically in the morning or late afternoon.
have obvious negative results on the
performance level of the system and Layers of dust and dirt from the modules can
therefore on its electricity generation. The PV be removed by washing the module with

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 176

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

water. In most situations, cleaning is only 7.1.3. Battery maintenance

necessary during long dry periods when there
is no rain to provide natural cleaning. Regarding stand-alone systems, battery
maintenance is perhaps the most important
The frequency of cleaning depends on each maintenance task.
installation’s conditions. For example, when a FIGURE 156.
BATTERY INSPECTION IN STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEMS, CYPRUS.
PV system is installed close to a dusty area, (Source: Cyprus Energy Agency)
the arrays should be cleaned more
frequently. During periods when rainwater is
frequent, the dirt on the array is cleaned
from the rain and doesn’t need any further
cleaning. In case of thick dirt on the surface of
the array, warm water or a sponge may be
used to remove the accumulation of dirt. Any
sharp tool or detergent should be avoided
(Nicola M.Pearsall & Robert Hill, 2001).

FIGURE 155.
PERIODICAL INSPECTION OF A PV GRID CONNECTED ROOF Battery maintenance depends on the type,
SYSTEM, CYPRUS. (Source: Conercon Ltd, Cyprus) the charge/discharge cycles and application
of the batteries. The two tasks which have to
be performed are the addition of water and
the performance checks. Performance
checks may include specific gravity
recordings, conductance readings,
temperature measurements, cell voltage
readings, and even a capacity test. Battery
voltage and current readings during charging
can be helpful in determining whether the
battery charge controller is operating
properly. Flooded lead-antimony batteries
require the most maintenance with regard to
water additions and cleaning. Sealed lead-
acid batteries including gelled and AGM types
remain relatively clean during operation and
do not require water additions. Battery
If any obvious defects (e.g. crack) are manufacturers provide maintenance
observed in the module at the time of recommendations for the use of their battery
cleaning or during the annual inspection, this (James P.Dunlop, 1997).
should be noted and monitored, in order to
ensure the correct operation of the array. The
frames of the modules should be inspected
and observed for any defects.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 177

7.1.4. Inverter maintenance 7.1.5. Charge controller maintenance
The main task regarding inverter Charge controller maintenance occurs during
maintenance is to check its diagnostic the same period with the other PV parts
system. When the inverter is installed in an inspection. It consists of diagnostic
internal space, the inspection and the procedures and voltage testing. Charge
cleaning of the inverter should take place controller instructions and displays should be
more often. Thus, it is important to check followed.
that the inverter is functioning correctly by
observing LED indicators, metering and/or
other displays. Moreover, the area around 7.1.6. Maintenance tools and
the inverter should be kept clear to allow
good air flow for proper cooling. equipment
Furthermore, checking several inverter Multimeters and DC and AC clamp-on
protections is also important. ammeters are used for the measurement of
the voltage and the current at the DC and AC
FIGURE 157. side. The multimeter may also be used to
INSPECTION OF INVERTERS IN GRID-CONNECTED PV ROOF check the connectivity of the cables during
SYSTEMS, CYPRUS. (Source: Conercon Ltd)
the installation.

A portable instrument that measures

resistance is used to measure grounding
resistance and the insulation resistance of the
cables.

A pyranometer or irradiance meter is used to

measure sunlight irradiance. The
pyranometer that is used by the PV
troubleshooter has to be an instrument that
can measure total irradiance on the array
from all directions (i.e., direct and scattered).
The pyranometer must be facing the same
direction as the array to properly register the
When an inverter breaks down and there is a irradiance incident on the array. If the PV
“Guarantee” from its manufacturer, then, it array has multiple orientations, the irradiance
should be replaced by the manufacturer must be measured for each orientation.
within a few days. The terms and provisions
included in the Contract between the installer In the case of battery maintenance in stand-
and the owner are very important. They alone PV systems, a hydrometer is usually
should include an indemnity clause to cover used to check the specific gravity of the
production losses and failure to repair the electrolyte in battery cells. The caps of the
system within a certain period (less than 48 cells are removed and the hydrometer is used
hours). to withdraw electrolyte into the hydrometer.
The hydrometer incorporates a float that will
float higher at a higher specific gravity and
lower at a lower specific gravity. If the
specific gravity is significantly lower in one

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 178

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

cell more than in the other cells of a battery, The owner of the system should understand
it is an indication of a bad cell. If after a the importance of the absence of shading and
normal charging period, filling the cell with during maintenance –apart from pruning any
distilled water and then applying an vegetation– should look for shading
equalizing charge to the battery does not equipment on nearby roofs e.g. installation of
increase the specific gravity, then the cell or aerials, TV satellite etc. Moreover, the owner
battery will need to be replaced. Additionally, has to ensure that nothing is installed on his
protective mask, gloves and other protective own roof that might cause shading to the PV
equipment should be used during battery array (DTI,2006).
maintenance. FIGURE 159.
An infrared camera (thermographic camera) POSSIBLE SHADING FROM GROWING VEGETATION. (Source:
Terza Solar Ltd)
can also be used during inspection and
maintenance, in order to identify hot spots in
the PV system (e.g. on cells, junction boxes,
PV panels) (NABCEB, 2005).
FIGURE 158. D
DETECTION OF A HOT SPOT IN A PV PANEL USING A
THERMOGRAPHIC CAMERA (Source: http://www.leonardo-
energy.org/)

7.1.8. Electrical connections check

The electrical circuit should be checked on a
regular basis (usually every 4-5 years), to
7.1.7. Shading ensure that there are no problems with loose
connections, corrosion etc.
Shading sources can be avoided during the FIGURE 160.
design and installation of the PV system. ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS MAINTENANCE. (Source: Conercon
Shading from other buildings or other Ltd)

equipment can be avoided from the start of

the project.
In general, when the PV array is placed on the
roof shading sources related with vegetation,
such as trees, are more severe. However, the
conditions might change if actions not taken
to control the growing of trees, which can
cause substantial loss in the energy
generation of the system. It is not necessary
to remove the trees or other vegetation but
just to ensure that they stay low enough to
prevent significant shading of the array.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 179

7.1.9. Other damages fire risk. In consequence, all wiring should be
periodically checked for any mechanical or
A PV system can be damaged by many thermal damage. The best way to do this is to
unforeseen factors such as: extreme weather measure the insulation resistance.
conditions (earthquakes hail, storms, Automatic insulation monitoring, as
lightning, flooding, etc), fire, explosion, performed by many inverters, is therefore a
intentional acts of third parties, sabotage, very useful feature. It signals an insulation
theft, animal bites, war, intentional acts of fault and the inverter then isolates the
the owner, nuclear energy. Lightning, system from the grid. However, the
especially, can cause damage to the PV illuminated PV array will still supply direct
modules and inverters. Surge arrestors on the current to feed the arc. Consequently the
DC side (and sometimes on the AC side) fault cannot be isolated by the inverter. If an
should be installed for the protection of the insulation fault is indicated, the cause of the
inverters for lightning. Structures and PV fault should be traced as quickly as possible.
module frames must be properly grounded. In a system with one or two strings, wiring
Photovoltaic insurance cover damages to the faults can be detected by checking the
PV system from several types of unforeseen inverter.
damage (Electric Market Authority, 2011).

7.2. Common mistakes and 7.2.1.2. Inverter failures

The most frequently reported faults
failures according to a great many studies are
inverter faults (63%). However, there have
7.2.1. Introduction been considerable improvements in this
As PV systems have now been in operation sector over time. A common fault is incorrect
for many years, a store of useful information dimensioning and/or incorrect cable or
has been accumulated on their typical faults voltage matching with the PV array. Most PV
and problems. installation firms have now overcome this
problem, and simulation software programs
7.2.1.1. Insulation failures and design tools from inverter manufacturers
Over recent years, the quality of module also provide support in this area. Other
connections has significantly improved since sources of inverter trouble are voltage surge
the widespread introduction of plug effects caused by electrical storms or grid
connectors. The use of cable ties or wiring switching, ageing and thermal overload.
that is not UV or temperature resistant has Further failures are simply due to device
proven highly problematic. Insulation also faults (DGS, 2008).
needs to withstand mechanical loads. All
insulation ages over the course of time. For 7.2.1.3. Construction failures
electrical power supplies, the physical A common failure regarding PV mounting
operating life of power cables is generally systems is the distortion of the PV modules
specified as 45 years. Insulation can also be when they are installed on the roof, in order
damaged by UV radiation, excessive voltage to form a flat array surface mechanically.
and mechanically. Suitable protection for Under the influence of temperature and
cables is readily available on the market. Any wind, or over the course of time, the module
insulation fault – whatever the cause - on the glass may shatter. Typical faults in PV
DC side can result in arcing, which is a serious mounting systems are an absence of

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 180

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

expansion joints between modules or too few 5. Multiple cables entering a single
roof hooks to take account of the wind load. conductor cable gland
Moreover, the wrong choice of materials can 6. Not following support members with
cause corrosion on the mounting frame and conductors.
compatible materials should be used at all 7. Pulling cable ties too tight or leaving them
times (DGS, 2008). too loose.
8. Not fully engaging plug connectors.
9. Bending conductors too close to
7.2.2. Common mistakes connectors.
Mistakes in a PV installation can be 10.Plug connectors on non-locking
minimized, by ensuring appropriate design, connectors not fully engaged
installation and maintenance. Usually, most
mistakes occur in PV installations during Common Installation Mistakes with Module
installation. In this sub-section, the most and Array Grounding:
frequent installation mistakes are listed 1. Not installing a grounding conductor on
(Brooks Engineering, 2010). the array at all.
Common Installation Mistakes with Array 2. Not connecting the different parts of the
Modules and Configurations: modules together to achieve equal
potential grounding
1. Changing the array wiring layout without 3. Using indoor-rated grounding lugs on PV
changing the submitted electrical diagram. modules and support structures.
2. Changing the module type or 4. Assuming that simply bolting aluminium
manufacturer as a result of supply issues. frames to support structures provides
effective grounding.
3. Exceeding the inverter or module voltage 5. Installing an undersized conductor for
due to improper array design. grounding
4. Putting too few modules in series for 6. Not installing lightning protection properly
proper operation of the inverter during
high summer array temperatures. Common Installation Mistakes with
5. Installing PV modules without taking Electrical Boxes, Conduit Bodies, and
account of the Impp of each module Disconnecting Means:
(grouping). 1. Installing disconnects rated for vertical
installation in a non-vertical application.
Common Installation Mistakes with Wire 2. Installing incorrectly rated fuses in source
Management: combiners and fused disconnects.
3. Covering boxes or conduit bodies leaving
1. Human mistakes regarding the wire
them almost inaccessible for service.
connection during installation.
4. Not following manufacturer’s instructions
2. Not enough supports to secure the cable
for wiring disconnect on the DC side.
properly.
5. Installing dry wire nuts in wet locations
3. Conductors touching roof or other
and inside boxes that routinely get wet.
abrasive surfaces exposing them to
6. Using improper fittings to bring
physical damage.
conductors into exterior boxes.
4. Not supporting raceways at proper
intervals.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 181

Common Installation Mistakes with and then the DC side at the inverter. Then,
Mounting Systems: check the DC cable and the DC main
1. Not using supplied or specified hardware disconnect/isolator switch. When measuring
with the mounting systems. the insulation resistance, the resistance to
2. Not installing flashings properly. the ground potential should be at least
3. Not using the correct roof adhesives for 2MOhm.
the specific type of roof.
4. Not attaching proper lag screws to roofing Step 2: Ground and short-circuit faults
members. Ground and short-circuit faults can be
5. Not drilling proper pilot holes for lag detected by following the troubleshooting
screws and missing or splitting roofing procedure, but the PV strings should first be
members. separated and measured individually. To do
this, first switch off the inverter and, if
present, switch off the DC switch or DC
7.2.3. Troubleshooting
switches. Then one module per string should
The fault correction method depends upon be completely darkened by covering it from
the type of fault and the type of PV system. sunlight. Now the strings can be separated
First, customers should be asked when and without the danger of arcing and
how the fault came to their attention. Circuit measurement can begin.
diagrams and a technical description of the
system are very helpful. Before taking Step 3: String fuses/diodes/modules
measurements, a visual check of the PV The voltage at the string fuses and diodes can
system should be carried out – in particular, be measured during operation by using a
of the PV array – to check for mechanical voltmeter in parallel. If excessive differences
damage and soiling. Wiring and electrical are present in the individual string voltages
connections should also be checked. and/or string short-circuit currents, this is
The measurements required to find faults in either an indication of excessively high
grid-connected systems are essentially the mismatching in the generator or an indication
same as those required for commissioning. of an electrical fault in one or more strings. It
Today, increasingly, remote diagnostics via a may therefore be necessary to take individual
modem and PC are also possible with more measurements at the modules of the
modern inverters. corresponding string. For longer strings,
The step-by-step troubleshooting procedure divide the string in half and find out which is
is described in the following paragraphs: the faulty half of the string. Then, use the
same method on the faulty half of the string
Step 1: Inverter and PV combiner/junction to identify the faulty module. The module
box connections and bypass diodes should also be
Firstly, the measurement check of the tested.
inverter and the PV combiner/junction box
should start with the respective connecting Step 4 Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
wires. Test the inverter operating data, by current
checking the LED or error code, or by using Measurement of the open-circuit voltage and
remote software and a laptop. The inverter's the short-circuit current is very important for
operating data records can give useful monitoring the operation of the system but
information for the localization of the faults. the current irradiance of the area should also
For the measurement check, test the AC side be recorded.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 182

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

Some typical failures which are encountered

in PV installations are listed in TABLE 30
below. On the right side column the possible
reasons for these failures are reported
alongside corrective measures in order to
troubleshoot the problem and put the system
back in operation (DGS, 2008).

TABLE 30.
TYPICAL FAILURES, CORRECTIVE MEASURES AND TROUBLESHOOTING (Source: Karamchetti M, 2011)

Typical failures Corrective measures and troubleshooting

No current from array Switches, fuses, or circuit breakers open, blown, tripped, wiring broken or corroded

Array current low Some modules shaded, full sun not available,
Array tilt or orientation incorrect,
Some modules damaged or defective, Modules dirty
Battery is not charging Measure PV array open circuit voltage and confirm it is within normal limits.
If voltage is low or zero, check the connections at the PV array itself.
Disconnect the PV from the controller when working on the PV system.
Measure PV voltage and battery voltage at charge controller terminals if voltage at the
terminals is the same the PV array is charging the battery.
If PV voltage is close to open circuit voltage of the panels and the battery voltage is low,
the controller is not charging the batteries and may be damaged.
Voltage is too high Disconnect PV array, disconnect lead from the battery positive terminal and leave PV
array disconnected. The green charging light on charge controller should not be lit.
Measure the voltage at the solar panel terminals of the charge controller. If green light is
on, or battery voltage is measured at the terminals the controller may be damaged.
Load not operating properly Check that no fuses are defective or circuit breakers have been tripped.

Low voltage shutdown Shorten cables or use heavier cables, recharge battery, allow unit to cool, improve air
circulation, locate unit to cooler environment.
Fault light on, AC load not working AC products connected are rated at more than the inverters power rating, overload
shutdown has occurred The AC products connected are rated at less than the inverters
continuous power rating. The product exceeds the inverters surge capacity.
Reverse Polarity connection on Check connection to battery, the inverter has likely been damaged and needs to be
inverter replaced.

Loads disconnecting improperly Controller not receiving proper battery voltage, check battery connection.
Adjustable low voltage disconnect is set too high.
Reset adjustable low voltage disconnect using a variable power supply,
Array fuse blows Array short circuit test performed with battery connected.
Disconnect battery to perform test. Array exceeds rating of controller, add another
controller in parallel if appropriate or replace with controller of higher capacity.
Loads disconnecting improperly Controller not receiving proper battery voltage, check battery connection.
Adjustable low voltage disconnect is set too high.
Reset Adjustable low voltage disconnect using a variable power supply
Array fuse blows Array short circuit test performed with battery connected.
Disconnect battery to perform test.
Array exceeds rating of controller, add another controller in parallel if appropriate or
replace with controller of greater capacity.
No output from inverter Switch, fuse or circuit breaker open, blown or tripped or wiring broken, corroded.
Low voltage disconnect on inverter or charge controller circuit is open,
High battery voltage.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 183

7.3. Diagnostic procedures 7.3.2.3. Displays
Displays are the backbone of monitoring. The
7.3.1. Visual inspection procedures easiest one of all is a simple indication built
into the inverter. Most PV inverter
The mechanical problems are generally manufacturers offer an optional display.
evident due to something that is loose or However this can place severe constraints on
bent or broken or corroded. They can the placing of the inverter, which would
generally be identified with a visual check. normally be in a roof void, electrical switch
The instructions given in the previous room, or some other secluded place. If the
paragraphs should be followed. display is to be effective it must be in a place
7.3.2. Performance monitoring where it is visible in everyday activities.
Remote displays are easier to site, and may
7.3.2.1. User feedback be provided with data from the inverter itself,
or by a meter in the cabling from inverter to
User feedback can range from a simple LED
distribution board. A significant cost to
on the inverter lid or an electronic display in a
installing this is the routing of the cabling to
domestic corridor, to a large interactive wall
the display, but there are instruments on the
display in the entrance hall of a corporate
market that avoid this by utilizing short-range
building. All these displays provide users with
radio transmission.
an indication that the system is functioning. A
clear display gives much added value to the
Many different data formats can be
system, especially if combined with some
displayed: the most popular are the
graphics or text that explains the concepts.
instantaneous power now being generated
7.3.2.2. Performance verification and total energy generated to date. However,
large displays often include derived values
A system may be financed on the basis of its
that mean more to the public, such as
output through support schemes (Feed-in
numbers of lights that are being powered, or
Tariffs), in which the user is authorized to
the amount of carbon production being
measure the output and compare it with
offset. A computer-based monitoring system
consumption by the system. The complexity
can often embed that information at an
and expense of such metering is determined
information point with a touch-screen or
by the number and accuracy of the
have it displayed on the website for the
measurements to be made.
building.
FIGURE 161.
MEASUREMENTS ON A ROOF GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEM 7.3.2.4. Data Acquisition Systems
(Source: Conercon Ltd)
The main system tends to fall into two types:
loggers and computers. The advantage of a
logger is its simplicity and robust
construction, but its disadvantage is its
inflexibility and cost. A computer system, in
contrast, may be slower to set up and
commission, but has the advantage of a
wider choice of operational modes and
custom settings, while the cost may be less
for a system based on a desktop PC. The
choice between the types may well be
dictated by the type of monitoring strategy.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 184

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

7.3.2.5. Sensors not be inserted correctly, or the logger may

There is no limit to the inputs that may be not be restarted, and the loss of data will not
monitored for a PV System, but most systems be noticed until the next visit. Telephonic
will need to measure input and output transmission is often used, as it allows
energy, and some environmental and system frequent downloading of data (reducing the
variables. length of any 'lost' periods), and also the
chance to 'upload' any changes to the logging
schedule. The more sophisticated loggers can
7.3.3. Calibration and Recalibration initiate a call to a fax or PC to report any
The system should be set up and calibrated faults or out of range signals immediately
preferably in situ. The need for recalibration they are detected. The advent of the internet
should be determined whilst considering the has allowed PCs to connect to a local portal
length of time for the monitoring, and the via a local phone line, thus making
accuracy required of the system. The downloading less expensive anywhere in the
reference cell is particularly critical, but often world. If a telephone line is not available at a
the most difficult item to access. If annual remote site, a cellular phone connection can
recalibration is not practical in the laboratory, provide an equivalent facility.
an on-site comparison with a reference
device nearby may be sufficient. The entire
monitoring system can also benefit from a 7.3.4.1. Data Analysis
comparative calibration using a hand-held After collecting the PV system data, a
reference device (ambient temperature detailed analysis should be conducted. In this
sensors, voltage and current meters, etc.). way, the stored data can be a useful tool for
system monitoring and evaluation. Monthly
performance ratio values, array yields, etc.
7.3.4. Data Storage and Transmission have become the normal way of defining the
performance of a PV system and continued
The data is generally stored in situ using RAM
use of this method will make it easier to
for a logger, or using a hard drive for a
compare existing systems. Bar graphs can
computer system. Loggers often include
also be embellished with sub-categories of
removable RAM cards, discs, or other
capture losses, system losses, etc. For
magnetic media, as a form of
example, keeping a bar graph record of daily
storage/retrieval. PCs may use multiple
and monthly energy output is a simple way to
drives, or daily downloads, as a backup
guarantee PV system performance and to
storage method.
analyze possible system failures (Source of
Having recorded the data, it may be 7.3: Rudkin E. & Thornycroft J. 2008).
transmitted back to the monitoring
organization by many means. The simplest FIGURE 162. EXAMPLE OF A BAR GRAPH OF A 1KW PV SYSTEM
logging systems may have to be physically
carried back to the laboratory and plugged
into a special reader device, or a PC serial
port.
Removable media allow the swapping of the
storage medium on site allowing monitoring
to continue uninterrupted. The only
disadvantages are that the new media may

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 185

7.4. Customer Documentation
After the installation has been completed,
the installer tests and checks the system
extensively and records the results of the test
on a commissioning report. This process can
take from few days to several days depending
on the size of the PV installation. This will be
signed by an authorized signatory to confirm
the work is satisfactory.

A copy of the commissioning report should be

given to the owner together with relevant
conformity certificates and guarantees.
Guarantee for each system part is given to
the owner (usually manufacturer’s
warranties). Also full operating and
maintenance instructions should be given,
along with a full description of the system.

Usually, the owner asks some performance

guarantees for the system from the installer.
The installer makes a commitment for the
yearly energy production of the system by
giving a minimum kWh produced per year. If
the real energy production is lower than that
given, then the installer has to compensate
the owner (investor), depending on the terms
of the agreement (Rudkin E. & Thornycroft J.,
2008).

7.5. Maintenance checklist

A PV system field inspection and
maintenance should be carried out. The
creation of a detailed maintenance checklist
is necessary for this purpose in order to
ensure the smooth operation of the system. A
maintenance checklist should include several
checks as given in TABLE 31 below.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 186

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

TABLE 31.
MAINTENANCE CHECKLIST. (Source: http://www.contractorsinstitute.com/)

PV system – Maintenance Check List

Installation address Inspection by:

Date: Reference:

Array Installation and Wiring

□ Condition
□ Proper insulation on module wiring
□ Proper connectors on array wiring extensions
□ Proper grounding of array & array mount
□ Grounded conductors installed
□ Array mount properly secured and sealed
□ Suitable transition from open wiring to enclosed wiring
□ Metallic conduit through attics to array disc
□ Damages of modules observed
□ Dirt accumulation observed
□ Shading observed on modules

DC Connections
□ Source Circuit Combiner Boxes
□ DC-rated circuit breakers or fuses with adequate voltage rating
□ Listed equipment

DC Component Enclosures
□ Proper conductor sizes and insulation types
□ Proper conductor terminations
□ DC ratings on DC components
□ Listed equipment
□ SINGLE POINT GROUNDING!
□ Optional grounding electrode conductor

AC Component Enclosure
□ Isolated Neutral busbar
□ Listed components
□ Labelled disconnects and C/B

Utility Disconnect
□ Labelled
□ Visible, lockable, accessible, load break, external handle

Building Main Disconnect

□ Labelled

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 187

 Inverters
□ Listed inverters (type, serial number, configuration)
□ Status/Condition
□ Defects founded
□ Noise levels
□ Open circuit voltage (V)
□ Impp (A)
□ Input and output disconnects labelled
□ Proper wire sizes
□ Grounded

Batteries (Battery backup systems only)

□ Terminals protected from shorting
□ Cables properly terminated (no set screw lugs on fine stranded wire)
□ Maintenance-free vented for cooling
□ Flooded vented to outside
□ Labelled with proper safety procedures
Charge Controllers (Battery backup systems only)
□ Status/Condition
□ Input and output disconnects labelled
□ Listed charge controllers
□ Proper wire sizes
□ Grounded
Standby Circuits (Battery backup only)
□ Watch for multiwire if 120V
□ Labelled
Point of Utility Connection
□ Labelled
□ Compliance
Handover of PV system
□ Mentioned faults

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 188

 7
MAINTENANCE AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

6. Regarding the protection of the inverters

7.6. Exercises
against lightning:
7.6.1. Maintenance plan a) No additional equipment is used
b) Surge arrestors are used
1. The frequency of the inspection and c) Equipment for shortcut protection is
maintenance of a photovoltaic system used
should be:
a) Every 3 years 7.6.2. Typical mistakes and failures
b) At least once a year
c) Every 5 years 1. One of the common failures regarding the
installation of PV mounting systems is the
2. Most of the problems in a PV installation distortion of the PV modules when they
usually occur during the: are installed on the roof.
a) First year of operation a) True
b) Second year of operation b) False
c) Third year of operation
d) Fourth and sixth year of operation 2. The most frequently reported faults
according to a great number of studies are
3. The suggested frequency of cleaning the _____ faults.
PV modules surface is: a) inverter
a) Twice a year for all the systems b) battery
b) Once a month for every installation c) panel
c) Depends on each installation’s d) wiring
conditions
3. While installing and connecting PV
4. While measuring the total irradiance of a modules, the Impp of each module should
PV array, the pyranometer should: be taken into account.
a) Be placed in the same direction as the a) True
array b) False
b) Be placed in the opposite direction of
the array 4. For electrical power supplies, the physical
c) always face the north operating life of power cables is generally
d) always face the south specified as:
a) 25 years
5. In order to check the specific gravity of the b) 45 years
electrolyte in the battery cells the meter c) 15 years
usually used is the: d) 35 years
a) ammeter
b) voltage meter 5. A reason for exceeding the inverter
c) hydrometer voltage could be:
d) ambient meter a) The unpredictable weather conditions
e) thermometer b) The improper PV array design
c) A shortcut in the PV system

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 189

6. If there isn’t any current coming from the 7.6.4. Documentation to the customer
PV array, a possible reason is broken or
corroded wiring. 1. After the installation is completed, the
a) True installer should make a commitment for
b) False the yearly energy production of the
system by giving a minimum kWh
produced per year.
7.6.3. Diagnostic procedures a) True
b) False
1. The main advantage of the computer
operating as a data acquisition system for
PV systems is: 7.6.5. Maintenance checklist
a) Its simplicity and robust construction
b) It has always lower cost than a logger 1. A maintenance checklist for the inverter
c) It is faster than the logger should include (Choose 3 answers) :
d) It has wider choice of operational a) Noise levels
modes and custom settings b) Terminals condition
c) Open circuit voltage (V)
d) Impp (A)
2. The system should be set up and e) Flooded vented to outside
calibrated preferably in the laboratory f) Dirt accumulation
a) True
b) False

3. Keeping records of the bar graphs of the

daily and monthly energy output:
a) Is used only to compare the yearly
energy performance of the PV system
with the yearly energy performance of
the commissioning report
b) It is a simple method to ensure the PV
system’s performance and perceive a
possible failure on the system.
c) It is useless because the data is stored
on the inverters of the PV system.

4. The mechanical problems can generally be

identified with a visual check
a) True
b) False
5. Wiring faults can be detected by checking
the inverter.
a) True
b) False

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 190

QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND CUSTOMER CARE 8

@European Commission

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 191

 process and write down exactly how it should
8. QUALITY MANAGEMENT be approached.
AND CUSTOMER CARE For example, when a new enquiry is received,
it is essential to capture certain details eg
8.1. Quality principles contact details, location & post code, basic
customer requirements, roof orientation and
Once best practice has been established pitch (if possible), etc. If there is a standard
within an installation company, it is essential form to fill in, the job of capturing this
to be able to install systems to the same information may be delegated to non-expert
consistently high standard. This is where a staff. However, if there is no form, it will
Quality Management System (QMS) can help. generally fall to an expert to have the phone
The essential idea is that the whole process, conversation with the prospective customer,
from first customer contact through quoting, thus occupying the valuable time of the
installation, commissioning and hand-over, is expert to perform a task which could be
set out in a written plan which the installer covered by lower cost staff This is just one
makes an effort to use for all installations. example of how the very first stage of the
selling/installation process can be made more
The standard forms, procedures and software consistent, efficient and lower costs through
programs that make up the QMS can all the use of a standardised process.
contribute to consistency of operation and
traceability. Traceability becomes important So, the QMS is built up by thinking through
in the event of a problem after each stage and writing down the procedure
commissioning, perhaps many months or to be followed. The QMS could also be
years later. It helps the installer understand thought of as a set of ‘Operating Procedures’.
where the process went wrong, or proves The list below is an example of some of the
that the installer did not make any mistakes items which could be considered when
and the fault lies elsewhere (particularly writing operating procedures to be included
useful if the complaint progresses to a legal in the QMS for a solar installation company:
challenge).
• Procedure for processing customer
ISO 9001 is an example of a quality enquiries, possibly using a standard
management system used by many medium ‘Customer Enquiry’ form (as discussed
and large sized companies and can act as a in example above).
useful guide for anyone considering how to • Procedure for conducting site surveys.
set up a QMS for their own business. This may also include details of how to
However, it is important to remember that complete a ‘Site survey’ or ‘Building
every business is different and so each Assessment’ form.
business must develop its own QMS which is • How to prepare a quotation, including
best suited to its activities. It is not necessary a quotation template.
to implement a full ISO 9001 system in order • A standard customer contract.
to set up a basic QMS. A scaled-down version • A standard sub-contractor contract
may be more suitable for smaller companies template for employing
and sole traders. subcontractors.
One method of defining and implementing a • The procedure to be used for designing
QMS is to think through each stage of the systems and the software tools to be
used: e.g. software for mechanical and

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 192

 8
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
AND CUSTOMER CARE

electrical design calculations and • A complaints procedure and log of all

energy predictions. complaints received (whether
• Procedure for completing site-specific substantiated or not) to record
risk assessments and/or method individual instances of issues and, if
statements. This could also include an appropriate, how these were resolved.
appropriate template.
• Procedure for inspecting delivered It is also very helpful to write an overview
goods (e.g. for correctness, damage, document of the QMS to say which of the
missing parts or documentation etc). procedures will be used at each stage from
• Procedure for reviewing the contents customer contact to hand-over and after
of the QMS, including defining when sales service. This is sometimes known as a
and how the documents are updated Quality Plan and should include a definition
and who is responsible for this. of who is competent to complete each
• Other documents that should be procedure.
contained in the QMS include: a
document identifying the relevant
Once a QMS has been established, it is
national; technical regulations;
generally worthwhile reviewing how well it is
building regulations; industry guides
operating on a regular (eg quarterly) basis,
etc...
and recording the outcome of each review.
• Product Manufacturers’ instructions
This ensures that previous mistakes are not
for each of the PV products installed
repeated and that good practice is identified
by the company.
and included in the day-to-day operation of
• List of documents to keep in each
your business. Such reviews also provide an
customer’s job file.
opportunity to check for changes in
• List of documents to hand over to each
regulations and standards that are relevant to
customer.
PV installations, to look at any complaints
• Standard terms and conditions (if not
received so that common causes can be
included in the contract) and standard
identified and corrected and to receive
warranty information.
feedback from staff/sub-contractors.
• Health and Safety Policy.

Other documents which may occasionally be 8.2. EU standards for PV

used that could also appear in the QMS:
There are numerous EU standards for PV
• A list of equipment (including serial which contains the requirements for
numbers) which requires calibration, manufacturing and testing PV products.
who is responsible for ensuring the These standards are also updated from time
equipment is calibrated and dates for to time, or new standards are published, to
when the next calibration is due. take account of changes in technology and
• Staff Training Records - useful for testing methods. Consequently it is not
recording who is competent to operate practical to provide a comprehensive list of
each procedure and to have a visible standards here. A list of standards is provided
skills improvement path to help in Annex iii and an extensive list of standards
motivate staff and plan workforce may also be found on the European
requirements. Photovoltaic Industry Association website
(www.epia.org). There are many standards

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 193

that cover PV products, nevertheless, those 8.3.2. Selling Solar
that define the requirements for module
qualification and type approval include: The following points should be adhered to
during the pre-sales process:
• EN 61215 (for crystalline PV modules)
Advertising
• EN 61646 (for Thin Film PV modules)
Advertising and promotional activities will
• EN 61730 (PV module safety) portray the products and services fairly and
It is often an eligibility requirement (e.g. for will not make unsupported claims for
financial incentives) that any PV modules performance or financial returns.
installed be certified according to the Staff Training
requirements of at least one of the above-
Sales staff will be trained to a level enabling
mentioned standards.
them to perform a detailed solar survey and
Although not a European Standard, the MCS provide advice on any required upgrade of
installation standard for microgeneration PV services. They will also be competent to
systems (MIS 3002) specifies the provide a basic building energy survey and
requirements for the design, supply, advice on energy efficiency.
installation, set to work and handover of PV
Training for sales staff will include a module
systems for permanent buildings.
on acceptable selling techniques, in order to
MIS 3002 is available from the MCS website avoid the use of high pressure sales tactics
(www.microgenerationcertificaton.org). Staff should be briefed on the likely sanctions
MIS 3002 also calls upon guidance contained should any member be found to be using
in ‘Photovoltaics in Buildings – Guide to the such tactics.
installation of PV systems’, currently in its 2nd In general sales staff:
edition and shortly to be updated.
- May not offer incentives for signing a
contract during the initial sales meeting.
- May not remain on the property for more
8.3. Customer care than a period of 2 hours, including
surveying time.
8.3.1. General
- May not accept any payment at the initial
It is important that the whole process from sales visit.
first customer contact, through to - Must inform the customer of the sales
commissioning and hand-over of the system, process (see Quotations below), including
is precise, transparent, clearly documented the ‘cooling off’ period subsequent to
and understood by the customer. Departing signing of a contract.
from this general principle will inevitably
- Must inform the customer of any permits or
result in problems and complaints.
approvals that are needed (eg planning
Therefore all stages of the process must be permission, grid connection) before the
documented in a form that the customer can installation begins and must clearly specify
understand, all key points should be the person responsible for obtaining them.
explained verbally and the project must not
proceed until the customer is comfortable
and a written acceptance of the quotation
has been received by the installer.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 194

 8
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
AND CUSTOMER CARE

8.3.3. Quotations and contracts Other items on the quotation

Other items which should be supplied at the
Energy Yield Estimates quotation stage are:
The quotation, together with your terms and
- An explanation of any financial incentives
conditions of business, will often form the
(eg feed-in tariffs, grants, etc).
contract between the installer and the
customer. It is therefore essential that - The resulting value for money of the
quotations are clear, easily understood and proposed system, including advice that the
contain all the necessary information. inverter may need replacing during the
lifetime of the system and the approximate
Even before a quotation is issued it is good cost of this.
practice to provide your customers with an
- List of all the main components to be
estimate of the annual energy performance
supplied, including make and model
of the proposed PV system. This is because
numbers.
the generation of energy from a renewable
source (and the receipt of any associated - Expected duration of the installation
financial incentives) is usually the main process.
objective for the customer. Thus, providing a - Allowed “cooling off” period (this may vary
reasonably accurate estimate of the according to local legislation or codes of
predicted energy performance of the system practice).
before entering into any contract for - What to expect during the installation eg.
installation is of key importance.
- Scaffolding.
Such energy yield figures can only ever be - Any services required (eg power).
approximate and the calculation can become
- Any temporary storage space required for
very complex, depending on the level of
securely storing equipment prior to fitting.
accuracy required. Thus, it is important to
explain to your customer the key factors: - Forms of payment which are acceptable and
climate, orientation & tilt, shading, payment terms.
temperature and to state what method of - Your other terms and conditions of
calculation has been used (whether by business.
manual means or by use of a software
modelling package). The key assumptions If a deposit is required before installation
behind the calculation should also be work starts, this will constitute a small part of
presented to allow checking of the estimate. the total value of the project. The deposit and
It is also essential, not least for your own any other advance payment, if required,
benefit as much as the installer’s, to should be kept in an account specially set up
accompany any estimate of performance in the customer’s name (eg a 'client' or other
with a disclaimer that explains that the third party account). This must be separate
performance of a PV system cannot be from those accounts linked to the installer’
accurately predicted, because of the variation own credit and banking facilities. Guidelines
in the amount of solar energy available from for setting up and administering these
location to location and from year to year. arrangements are available from most banks.
The deposit will be returned to the customer
in the event of cancellation during the cooling
off period .

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 195

In the event of small changes to the 8.3.5. Final testing, commissioning and
specification, these must be agreed in writing
handover
with the customer. In the event of large
changes to the specification, by either party, At the end of the installation process, the
then a new quotation must be produced and final stage is testing and commissioning. This
accepted before work may continue. stage will follow the installer’s written test
and commissioning procedure, including
8.3.4. Completing the work those specified in the PV equipment
The installation stage may only proceed manufacturer’s installation instructions. A
following written acceptance of the quotation copy of the results must be supplied to the
(in the event of multiple quotations, it will be customer.
made clear to which quotation the After the commissioning of the system, a
acceptance refers). Also, the installation certificate must be provided to the customer
should not begin until the installer has seen stating the following points:
evidence that all necessary permissions and
approvals have been obtained. - property address
- installer contact details
If subcontractors are employed, these will at
all times be under the supervision and control - type & serial numbers of equipment
of the installer who has signed the contract installed
with the customer. The installer remains - date of commissioning
responsible to the customer for the quality - rated power of system
and correctness of any subcontracted work. - annual energy yield estimate
During Installation - installer warranty period (ref terms)
Customers and their premises must be - PV module & inverter manufacturer
treated with respect at all times. Precautions warranties
must be taken to minimise any noise, Declaration: “This installation has been
disturbance or damage to the property (eg commissioned by <Company name,
protection from dirt & dust when working engineer’s name>. <Company> hereby
inside, replacing any cracked roofing tiles, declares that on the date of commissioning
etc). this system was inspected and found to be
The customer must be advised of any health safe, functional and installed in accordance
and safety issues, such as the possibility of with all applicable regulations”.
falling objects, electrical risks, etc, and 8.3.6. Warranties and after-sales service
appropriate barriers must be erected to
prevent injury according to local health and It is important that after the installation
safety regulations. process, the customer has reassurance that
there is support available in the event of any
If the installation is likely to be delayed for
problems with the system.
any reason (e.g. bad weather), the customer
must be kept fully informed and be given Details of warranties covering the quality of
information on the new likely times of the products and installation work should be
resumption of the work and how this will included in the commissioning
impact on the date of commissioning. documentation handed to the customer on
completion of the installation (see above).
Installers should offer a maintenance

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 196

 8
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
AND CUSTOMER CARE

contract, but not insist that it is taken up. It is • A complaints handling procedure
good practice to leave a copy of a user
manual on site, which details the
maintenance requirements of the system.
All installers shall have and operate a
transparent complaints procedure and a
written copy of the process shall be left with
the customer.
A useful tool for the installer to monitor
customer satisfaction, and to help reassure
clients, is a customer feedback form. It is
therefore good practice to include one of
these in the customer’s hand-over pack.

8.4. Exercises
To help develop an appropriate QMS to
monitor the business, read the text in this
chapter and use the guidance contained in it
to prepare the following:
• A ‘Customer Enquiry’ form
• A ‘Site survey’ or ‘Building Assessment’
form
• A quotation template
• A standard customer contract
• A standard sub-contractor contract
• A standard procedure for designing PV
systems
• A risk assessment form
• A generic method statement
• A goods-in inspection form
• A procedure for reviewing the
contents of your QMS
• A list of relevant national Technical
Regulations, Building Regulations and
industry guides
• A list of documents to keep in each
customer’s job file
• A List of documents to hand over to
each customer
• Standard terms and conditions (if not
included in the contract) and standard
warranty information
• A health and safety policy for your
business

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 197

9. GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A
Building applied photovoltaics: PV
Alternating current: electric charge
installations fixed over the existing elements
periodically reverses direction. In (DC), the
of a building envelope such as roofs,
electric charge only flows in one direction.
skylights, façades, balconies and shelters.
Ampere: unit of electrical current or flow rate
Building-integrated photovoltaics: PV
of electrons. One volt across one ohm of
materials (sheets, tiles, glasses, etc.) used
resistance causes a current flow of one
instead of conventional building materials in
ampere.
parts of the building envelope.
Amorphous semiconductor: non-crystalline
Bypass Diode: a diode connected in parallel
semiconductor material, easier and cheaper
to a PV module to provide an alternate
to make than crystalline, but less efficient.
current path in case of module shading or
Ampere Hour: a measure of current over failure.
time, commonly used to measure battery
capacity. C
Azimuth: Angle between the north direction Cadmium (Cd): chemical element used in
and the projection of the normal surface onto making certain types of solar cells and
the horizontal plane measured clockwise to batteries.
the north. Cadmium Telluride (CdTe): a polycrystalline
B Thin Film photovoltaic material.
Clamp-on ammeter: An electrical meter with
Balance-of-system (BOS): all of the PV
integral AC device having two jaws which
system components except from the PV
open to allow clamping around an electrical
modules. It is the auxiliary equipment which
conductor.
is related to supporting and security
structures, inverters, disconnects and Conversion efficiency: The ratio of the
overcurrent devices, charge controllers, electric energy produced by a PV device over
batteries, and junction boxes. the energy from sunlight incident upon the
cell.
Battery: electrochemical cells enclosed in a
container and electrically interconnected in Converter: device that converts a dc voltage
an appropriate series/parallel arrangement to to another dc voltage.
provide the required operating voltage and
Crystalline silicon cells: made from thin slices
current levels.
(wafers) cut from a single crystal or a block of
Battery bank: group of batteries connected silicon.
together to store energy of a a PV system.
Current-voltage: the applicable combinations
Blocking diode: device that controls current of current and voltage output of a PV panel.
flows inside the PV system, blocking reverses
leakage current backwards through the
modules.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 199

D Energy Pay-Back Time: the time in which the
energy input during the PV system life-cycle
Depth of discharge: the ampere-hours (production, installation, disassembling and
removed from a fully charged cell or battery, recycling) is compensated by electricity
expressed as a percentage of rated capacity. generated by the PV system.
Diffuse Irradiance (DIF): the amount of Equipotential Zone: temporary protective
radiation received per unit area by a surface grounds placed and arranged so that they will
that does not arrive on a direct path from the prevent workers from exposure to hazardous
sun, but has been scattered by molecules and differences in potential.
particles in the atmosphere or reflected by
the ground and comes equally from all Equivalent carbon dioxide: emissions of
directions. greenhouse gases expressed in kgCO2e.

Diode: An electronic device that allows F

current to flow in one direction only.
Feasibility Study: report on the viability of a
Direct-current: electric charge in one project, with an emphasis on identifying
direction. potential problems and risks and on
highlighting the prospects for success
Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI): the amount
of solar radiation received per unit area by a Feed-in-Tariff: mechanism designed to
surface that is always held perpendicular (or accelerate investment in RES, by offering
normal) to the rays that come in a straight long-term contracts to producers.
line from the direction of the sun at its
Filling factor: factor informing of the extent
current position in the sky.
to which a module deviates from the ideal
Distributed system: A power generating operation.
system that is installed where the energy is
Fixed Tilt Array: a photovoltaic array set at a
needed.
fixed angle with respect to horizontal.
E Fuse: electrical protection device that breaks
Earthing system: the total set of measures the electrical circuit if too much current is
used to connect an electrically conductive present
part to earth. G
Electric Current: the flow of electrical energy
Gallium (Ga): chemical element, metallic in
(electricity) in a conductor.
nature, used in making certain kinds of solar
Electric Circuit: path followed by electrons cells and semiconductor devices.
from a power source (generator or battery)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): a crystalline, high-
through an external line
efficiency compound used to make certain
Electrolyte: medium that provides the ion types of solar cells and semiconductor
transport mechanism between the positive material.
and negative electrodes of a battery.
Global Horizontal Irradiance: the total
Encapsulation: protection placed around the amount of shortwave radiation received from
cells when modules are made, designed to above by a horizontal surface. It includes
last for over 20 years. both Direct Normal Irradiance and Diffuse
Horizontal Irradiance.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 200

 9
GLOSSARY

Global In-Plane Irradiance: the total amount Islanding: any situation where the grid
of radiation (both DNI and DIF) received from electricity is off-line and one or more
above by an inclined surface. inverters from a grid-connected PV system
maintain a supply of electricity to that section
Grid: Transmission line network used to
of the grid or to a consumer installation.
distribute electric power.
Isolating transformer: the input and output
Grid-connected system: PV system
windings of the transformer that are
connected to the local electricity network
electrically separated by double or reinforced
Grounding conductor: conductor used to insulation.
connect the frame of an electrical device to
the ground. The grounding conductor is often J
copper. Junction Box: an enclosure on the module
Grounding system: see Earthing system where PV strings are electrically connected
and where protection devices can be located.
H
K
Hot spot: phenomenon of PV device
operation where one or more cells within a Kilowatt hour: a unit of energy equal to 1000
PV module or array act as a resistive load, watt hours or 3.6 megajoules.
resulting in local overheating or melting of
the cell.
L
Learning curve: a graph presenting the rate
Hybrid System: mix of energy generations
of learning. In PVs this is often related to the
that may include conventional generators,
world PV production price.
cogeneration, wind turbines, hydropower,
batteries, PVs, fuel cells, biomass and other Life Cycle Analysis: assessment to quantify
inputs. and evaluate the environmental burdens (air
emissions, water effluents, solid waste, and
I the consumption of energy and other
Inclinometer: device for measuring angles of resources) over the life cycle of a product,
slope and inclination of an object with process, or activity.
respect to its gravity by creating an artificial
horizon.
M
Metering: the system includes meters to
Ingot: molten and subsequently solidified
provide information on overall performance.
silicon cubes or cylinders, ready for cutting
Some meters also indicate domestic energy
into wafers
usage.
Internal Rate of Return: the actual annual
Mismatch losses: losses caused by the
profit rate of an investment. It equates the
interconnection of solar cells or modules
value of cash returns with cash invested.
which do not have identical properties.
Inverter: a converter which transforms DC
MPP regulator: a device that searches for the
voltage and current from PV modules into
best operating point of a module and ensures
single or multiphase AC voltage and current.
that the module delivers the maximum
Irradiance: the instantaneous intensity of possible power under all conditions.
solar radiation on a surface (W/m2).

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 201

Multimeter: device that can measure voltage, PV module: PV cells wired in series and
current and resistance. enclosed in a protective case.
Pyranometer: device used to measure
broadband solar irradiance on a planar
N surface. The solar radiation flux density
Nominal Voltage: a reference voltage used to measured in W/m2
describe batteries, modules, or systems
Q
O Quality management system: organizational
One-axis tracking: a system capable of structure, and processes to implement
rotating about one axis, usually following the quality management.
sun from East to West.
R
Open circuit voltage: voltage produced by PV
Regulator: device to prevent overcharging of
with no load applied when the cell is exposed
batteries by controlling the charge cycle-
to STC.
usually adjustable to conform to specific
P battery needs.
Parallel connection: interconnection of two S
or more panels, so that the voltage produced
Safety plan: a list of basic points for health
is not increased and the current is additive.
and safety during the construction phase.
Peak (Maximum) Power Point (MPP): The
Semiconductor: a material of a crystalline
point on the I-V curve’s knee where the
structure that will allow current to flow under
maximum power output is achieved
certain conditions, making it a good medium
Peak Sun hours: The equivalent number of for the control of electrical current.
hours per day when solar irradiance averages
Series connection: interconnection of two or
1 kW/m2.
more panels so that the voltage is additive
Performance ratio: the performance of the but the same current passes through them.
system in comparison to a lossless system at
Series Controller: a controller that interrupts
the same design and rating at the same
the charging current by open-circuiting the
location.
PV array. The control element is in series with
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): the PV array and battery.
equipment used to reduce employees
Shunt Controller: charge controller that
exposure to hazards, when engineering and
redirects or shunts the charging current away
administrative controls are not feasible or
from the battery.
effective.
Silicon: a non-metallic element, sensitive to
Protective earthing: network of conductors
light and capable of transforming light into
transferring current to the main earth
electricity. Silicon is the basic material of
terminal for safety purposes.
most beach sand, and is the raw material
PV array: PV modules linked together used to manufacture most PV cells.
PV phenomenon: creation of a voltage in a Solar Spectrum: the total distribution of
material exposured to light electromagnetic radiation emanating from
the sun.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 202

 9
GLOSSARY

Stand-alone PV system: autonomous PV Z

system not connected to the grid.
Zenith: imaginary point directly above a
Standard test conditions: radiation: particular location, on the imaginary celestial
1000W/m2, temperature: 25°C, and air mass: sphere
1.5.
Zenith angle: the angle between the
Stratification: the condition in which acid direction to the zenith and the direction of a
concentration varies from top to bottom in light ray.
the battery electrolyte.
String: number of modules or panels
electrically interconnected in series to
produce the operating voltage required by
the load.
Sulfation: the formation of lead-sulfate
crystals on the plates of a lead-acid battery.

T
Thermomagnetic switch: a current limiter
(electromechanical device) that prevents
excessive hired power.
Tracking system: a system that traces the
position of the sun during the day so that
sunrays hit the panel at right angles, and its
efficiency is improved.

V
Volt (V): unit of electrical force equal to that
amount of electromotive force that will cause
a steady current of one ampere to flow
through a resistance of one ohm.
Voltage: The amount of electromotive force,
that exists between two points, measured in
volts.

W
Wafer: thin sheet of semiconductor
Watt: unit of power in the International
System of Units.
Winter Solstice: the shortest day and the
longest night of the year, the sun's daily
maximum position in the sky is the lowest.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 203

10. ANNEXES
Imax INV Maximum permitted DC input A
i. Abbreviations and Acronyms current of the inverter
In string Nominal string current A
TABLE 32.
In String fuse Trigger current of the string fuse A
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
In AC AC nominal current of the inverter A
Acronym Explanation ISC Short circuit current A
ISC PV PV generator short-circuit current A
AC Alternating Current
ISC String Short-circuit current of one string A
ASTM American Society for Testing
IST String current A
and Materials
kMMP MPP voltage factor -
BAPV Building Applied Photovoltaics
LAC cable Simple line length of the AC connect m
BIPV Building Integrated
Lm Simple wiring length m
PhotoVoltaics
Lmin Minimum distance between PV and m
BOS Balance Of System
obstacle
CEN – Committee for Standardization
Lopti Optimum distance between PV rows m
European
DC Direct Current Ls Distance Earth to sun km
n Number of strings of the PV -
DIF Diffuse Irradiance
generator
DIN Direct Normal Irradiance
nPV Module’s efficiency
DOD Depth of Discharge
P Consumer power W
ΕPBT Energy Pay-Back Time
PAC c able Cable loss
FIT Feed-In-Tariff
PINV DC DC power rating of the inverter W
IEC International Electrotechnical
Commision PΝ Maximum power point W
Impp Current at maximum power PPV PV array power rating W
point PR Performance Ratio %
IRR Internal Rate of Return Q Minimum required battery capacity Ah
ISO International Organisation for R Electrical resistance Ω (ohm)
Standardization TC Voltage temperature coefficient V/oC
o
LCA Life Cycle Analysis Tmin Minimum expected module C
LED Light-Emitting Diode temperature
o
MPP Maximum Power Point Tmax Maximum expected module C
PPE Personal Protective Equipment temperature
PR Performance Ratio Tstc Module temperature at STC (25 oC) o
C
PSH Peak Sun Hours Vmax(INV) Maximum input voltage of the V
PV Photovoltaic inverter
STC Standard Test Conditions VMPP(INV- Minimum input voltage of the V
UL Underwriter Laboratories Inc min) inverter at the MPP
Standards V(MPP -T) VMPP at different temperature o
C
VMMP-STC MPP-voltage of the PV array at V
STC
ii. Symbols and Units VOC Open circuit voltage V
VOC-STC Open circuit voltage at STC V
TABLE 33. Voc-Tmin Maximum open circuit voltage of V
SYMBOLS AND UNITS the array at irradiance 1kW/m2
and Tmin
Symbol Explanation Units
Voc-Tmax Maximum open circuit voltage of V
A DC cable Cross-section of the DC cable mm2
the array at irradiance 1kW/m2
CINV Inverter sizing factor %
and Tmax
d Diameter of the obstacle m
WPV Peak wattage of the array
ds Diameter of sun km
ΔV Voltage drop V
Ε Daily energy requirement, Wh Wh o
φ Latitude
FF Filling factor % o
β Optimum Tilt
G Average daily number of PSH h
κ Electrical conductivity, m/Ω
H Height of an obstacle m mm2
Iz cable Current rating of the cable A Ν Loss factor %

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 205

 Environments
iii. International and EU standards Standard Test Methods for Insulation
ASTM
with relevance to PVs E1462
Integrity and Ground Path Continuity of PV
Modules
TABLE 34. ASTM Test Methods for Solar Radiation
STANDARDS FOR TEST METHODS AND REFERENCE CELLS E1596 Weathering of PV Modules
(Source: www.pvresources.com, 2011) Standard Test Method for Saltwater
ASTM Pressure Immersion and Temperature
Test methods and reference cells
E1597 Testing of PV Modules for Marine
Standard Test Method for Determination Environments
of the Spectral Mismatch Parameter ASTM Standard Practice for Visual Inspections of
ASTM E973
Between a PV Device and a PV Reference E1799 PV Modules
Cell ASTM Standard Test Methods for Wet Insulation
Test Methods for Measuring Spectral E1802 Integrity Testing of PV Modules
ASTM E1021
Response of PV Cells ASTM Standard Test Methods for Determining
Standard Specification for Physical E1830-09 Mechanical Integrity of PV Modules
ASTM E1040 Characteristics of Nonconcentrator ASTM Standard Test Method for Wet Insulation
Terrestrial PV Reference Cells E2047 Integrity Testing of PV Arrays
Standard Test Method for Determining Standard Test Methods for Measurement of
ASTM E1143 the Linearity of a PV Device Parameter ASTM Electrical Performance and Spectral
with Respect To a Test Parameter E2236 Response of Nonconcentrator Multijunction
Standard Test Method for Calibration of PV Cells and Modules
ASTM E1125 Primary Non-Concentrator Terrestrial PV ASTM Standard Test Method for Hot Spot
Reference Cells Using a Tabular Spectrum E2481 Protection Testing of PV Modules
Standard for Flat-Plate PV Modules and
UL 1703
Panels
TABLE 35.
STANDARDS FOR SOLAR MODULES (Source:
www.pvresources.com, www.epia.org, 2011) TABLE 36.
Solar Modules STANDARDS FOR GRID-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS (Source:
www.pvresources.com, 2011)
Datasheet and nameplate information of PV
EN 50380
module Grid-Connected PV Systems
Crystalline silicon terrestrial PV (PV) Electrical installations of buildings – Part 7-
IEC 61215 modules - Design qualification and type IEC 60364- 712: Requirements for special installations
approval 7-712 or locations – Solar PV (PV) power supply
Terrestrial PV power generating systems - systems
IEC 61277
General and guide PV (PV) systems – Characteristics of the
PV devices – Procedures for temperature IEC 61727
utility interface
IEC and irradiance corrections to measured I-V PV systems – Power conditioners –
60891:2009 characteristics IEC 61683
Procedure for measuring efficiency
Balance-of-system components for PV
IEC 60904 IEC 62093 systems – Design qualification natural
PV devices (principals for measurements)
Series environments
IEC 61345 UV test for PV (PV) modules Test procedure of islanding prevention
Thin-film terrestrial PV modules - Design IEC 62116 measures for utility-interconnected PV
IEC 61646
qualification and type approval inverters
IEC 61701 Salt mist corrosion testing of PV modules Grid connected PV systems – Minimum
PV module safety qualification - Part 1: IEC 62446 requirements for system documentation,
IEC 61730-1
Requirements for construction commissioning tests and inspection
PV module safety qualification - Part 1: Electrical installations of buildings –
IEC 61730-2 IEC 60364-
Requirements for testing Requirements for special installations or
7-712
Crystalline silicon PV array - On-site locations – Solar PV power supply systems
IEC 61829
measurement of I-V characteristics
Concentrator PV modules and assemblies -
IEC 62108
Design qualification and type approval
Recommended practice for qualification of
IEEE 1513
concentrator PV modules
Standard Test Method for Determining
ASTM
Resistance of PV Modules to Hail by Impact
E1038
with Propelled Ice Balls
ASTM Standard Test Method for PV Modules in
E1171 Cyclic Temperature and Humidity

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 206

 10
ANNEXES

TABLE 37. Selection of generator sets for rural

STANDARDS FOR OFF-CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS (Source: electrification systems
www.pvresources.com, 2011) Recommendations for small renewable
energy and hybrid systems for rural
Off-Grid PV Systems
electrification – Part 8-1: Selection of
Characteristic parameters of stand-alone PV
IEC 61194 IEC/TS batteries and battery management systems
(PV) systems
62257-8-1 for stand-alone electrification systems –
Rating of direct coupled PV (PV) pumping Specific case of automotive flooded lead-
IEC 61702
systems acid batteries available in developing
Specifications for the use of renewable countries
IEC/PAS
energies in rural decentralized Recommendations for small renewable
62011
electrification IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural
IEEE Std IEEE Recommended Practice for Testing the 62257-9-1 electrification – Part 9-1: Micropower
1526 Performance of Stand-Alone PV Systems systems
PV Stand-Alone Systems – Design Recommendations for small renewable
IEC 62124 IEC/TS
Qualification and Type Approval energy and hybrid systems for rural
Portable solar PV lanterns – blank detail 62257-9-2
electrification – Part 9-2: Microgrids
specification Approval under the IEC system Recommendations for small renewable
IEC PVRS11
for conformity testing and certification of IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural
electrical equipment (IECEE) 62257-9-3 electrification – Part 9-3: Integrated system
Portable solar PV lanterns – design – User interface
IEC qualification and type approval Amendment Recommendations for small renewable
PVRS11A 1, extension to include lanterns with nickel- IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural
metal hydride batteries 62257-9-4 electrification – Part 9-4: Integrated system
– User installation
TABLE 38. Recommendations for small renewable
STANDARDS FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION (Source: energy and hybrid systems for rural
www.pvresources.com, 2011) IEC/TS
electrification – Part 9-5: Integrated system
62257-9-5
Rural Electrification – Selection of portable PV lanterns for rural
Recommendations for small renewable electrification projects
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural Recommendations for small renewable
62257-1 electrification – Part 1: General introduction energy and hybrid systems for rural
IEC/TS
to rural electrification electrification – Part 9-6: Integrated system
62257-9-6
Recommendations for small renewable – Selection of PV Individual Electrification
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural Systems (PV-IES)
62257-2 electrification – Part 2: From requirements Recommendations for small renewable
to a range of electrification systems energy and hybrid systems for rural
Recommendations for small renewable IEC/TS electrification – Part 12-1: Selection of self-
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural 62257-12-1 ballasted lamps (CFL) for rural electrification
62257-3 electrification – Part 3: Project development systems and recommendations for
and management household lighting equipment
Recommendations for small renewable Test Procedure of Islanding prevention
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural IEC 62116 measures for utility –interconnected
62257-4 electrification – Part 4: System selection and inverters
design
Recommendations for small renewable TABLE 39.
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural STANDARDS FOR MONITORING (Source:
62257-5 electrification – Part 5: Protection against www.pvresources.com, 2011)
electrical hazards
Recommendations for small renewable Monitoring
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural PV system performance monitoring –
62257-6 electrification – Part 6: Acceptance, IEC 61724 Guidelines for measurement, data exchange
operation, maintenance and replacement and analysis
Recommendations for small renewable Communication networks and systems for
IEC/TS power utility automation – Part 7-420: Basic
energy and hybrid systems for rural IEC 61850-7
62257-7 communication structure – Distributed
electrification – Part 7: Generators
Recommendations for small renewable energy resources logical nodes
IEC/TS energy and hybrid systems for rural IEC 60870 Telecontrol equipment and systems
62257-7-1 electrification – Part 7-1: Generators – PV
arrays
Recommendations for small renewable
IEC/TS
energy and hybrid systems for rural
62257-7-3
electrification – Part 7-3: Generator set –

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 207

TABLE 40. composition and form of wrought products -
STANDARDS FOR INVERTERS (Source: www.pvresources.com, Part 1: Numerical designation system
www.epia.org, 2011) Hot dip galvanized coatings on fabricated
ISO 1461 iron and steel articles - Specifications and
test methods
Inverters
Stainless steels - Part 1: List of stainless
Datasheet and nameplate information of PV EN 10088-1
EN 50524 steels
inverters
Stainless steels - Part 2: Technical delivery
Safety of power converters for use in PV
conditions for sheet/plate and strip of
IEC 62109-1 power systems – Part 1: General EN 10088-2
corrosion resisting steels for general
requirements
purposes
Safety of power converters for use in PV
Stainless steels - Part 3: Technical delivery
IEC 62109-2 power systems – Part 2: Particular
conditions for semi-finished products, bars,
requirements for inverters
EN 10088-3 rods, wire, sections and bright products of
PV systems – Power conditioners –
IEC 61683 corrosion resisting steels for general
Procedure for measuring efficiency
purposes
Standard for Inverters, Converters, and
Designation systems for steels - Part 1: Steel
UL 1741 Controllers for Use in Independent Power EN 10027-1
names
Systems
Designation systems for steels - Part 2:
Overall efficiency of grid connected PV EN 10027-2
EN 50530 Numerical system
inverters
TABLE 44.
TABLE 41. STANDARDS FOR JUNCTION BOXES (Source:
STANDARDS FOR CHARGE CONTROLLERS (Source: www.pvresources.com, 2011)
www.pvresources.com, www.epia.org, 2011)
Junction Boxes
DIN V VDE
Charge Controllers Junction Boxes for PVs
0126-5
Battery charge controllers for PV systems - EN 50548 Junction Boxes for PVs
IEC 62509
Performance and functioning
Balance-of-system components for PV TABLE 45.
IEC 62093 systems - Design qualification natural STANDARDS FOR WIRES/CABLES (Source: www.epia.org, 2011)
environments
Wires/Cables
UL-SU 4703 PV wire
TABLE 42. UL 854 Service Entrance Cables
STANDARDS FOR BATTERIES (Source: www.epia.org 2011) TUV Rheinland
Requirements for cables for PV systems
Batteries 2Pfg1169
Secondary cells and batteries for solar PV
IEC 61427 energy systems - General requirements and TABLE 46.
methods of test STANDARDS FOR CONNECTORS Source: www.epia.org, 2011
Recommended practice for installation and
IEEE Std Connectors
maintenance of lead-acid batteries for PV
937 Connectors for PV systems-Safety
systems EN 50521
IEEE Std Recommended Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid requirements and tests
1013 Batteries for PV (PV) Systems UL-SU 6703 Connectors for use in PV systems
Recommended practice for determining UL 486A/486B Wire Connectors
IEEE Std
performance characteristics and suitability
1361
of batteries in PV systems
TABLE 47.
OTHER BOS STANDARDS (Source: www.pvresources.com,
TABLE 43. 2011)
STANDARDS FOR MOUNTING STRUCTURES (Source:
Other BOS standards
www.pvresources.com, 2011)
Overvoltage protection for PV (PV) power
IEC 61173
Standards related to mounting structures generating systems - Guide
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-2:
EN 1991-1-
General actions - Actions on structures
2
exposed to fire
EN 1991-1- Eurocode 1 - Actions on structures - Part 1-
3 3: General actions - Snow loads
EN 1991-1- Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4:
4 General actions - Wind actions
EN 573-1 Aluminium and aluminium alloys - Chemical

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 208

 10
ANNEXES

TABLE 48. bending strength of glass - Part 5: Coaxial

STANDARDS FOR GLASS AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN BUILDINGS double ring test on flat specimens with
WITH DETAILED REFERENCE TO BIPV SYSTEMS (Source: small test surface areas
www.pvresources.com, 2011) Glass in building - Laminated glass and
EN 14449 laminated safety glass - Evaluation of
Glass and its applications in buildings with detailed
conformity/Product standard
reference to BIPV systems
ISO 3585 Borosilicate glass 33 -- Properties
Glass in building - Determination of
EN 410 Glass in building -- Basic soda lime silicate
luminous and solar characteristics of glazing ISO 16293-
glass products -- Part 1: Definitions and
Glass in building - Security glazing - Testing 1
general physical and mechanical properties
EN 356 and classification of resistance against
Glass in building -- Laminated glass and
manual attack ISO 12543-
laminated safety glass -- Part 1: Definitions
Glass in building - Determination of thermal 1
and description of component parts
EN 673 transmittance (U value) - Calculation
Glass in building -- Laminated glass and
method ISO 12543-
laminated safety glass -- Part 2: Laminated
Glass in building - Basic soda lime silicate 2
safety glass
EN 572-1 glass products - Part 1: Definitions and
Glass in building -- Laminated glass and
general physical and mechanical properties ISO 12543-
laminated safety glass -- Part 3: Laminated
Glass in Building - Basic soda lime slicate 3
EN 572-2 glass
glass products - Part 2: Float glass
Glass in building -- Laminated glass and
Glass in Building - Basic soda lime silicate ISO 12543-
EN 572-5 laminated safety glass -- Part 4: Test
glass products - Part 5: Patterned glass 4
methods for durability
Glass in building - Basic soda lime silicate
Glass in building -- Laminated glass and
EN 572-8 glass products - Part 8: Supplied and final ISO 12543-
laminated safety glass -- Part 5: Dimensions
cut sizes 5
and edge finishing
Glass in building - Basic soda lime silicate
ISO 12543- Glass in building -- Laminated glass and
EN 572-9 glass products - Part 9: Evaluation of
6 laminated safety glass -- Part 6: Appearance
conformity/Product standard
ASTM Standard Specification for Laminated
Glass in building - Special basic products -
EN 1748-1- C1172 Architectural Flat Glass
Borosilicate glasses - Part 1-1: Definition and
1 ASTM Standard Test Method for Security Glazing
general physical and mechanical properties
F1233 Materials And Systems
Glass in building - Special basic products -
EN 1748-2-
Glass ceramics - Part 2-1 Definitions and
1
general physical and mechanical properties
PV-related standards can be downloaded
Glass in building - Special basic products -
EN 1748-1- from BSI (British Standards Institute) Online
Borosilicate glasses - Part 1-2: Evaluation of
2
conformity/Product standard http://shop.bsigroup.com/en/Navigate-by/
Glass in building - Special basic products -
EN 1748-2-
Glass ceramics - Part 2-2: Evaluation of
BSOL/ by subscription. All standards can also
2 be purchased through the webstore of each
conformity/Product standard
Glass in building - Thermally toughened standards organisation (ISO, IEC, ASTM etc).
EN 13024-1 borosilicate safety glass - Part 1: Definition
and description
Glass in building - Thermally toughened
EN 13024-2 borosilicate safety glass - Part 2: Evaluation
of conformity/Product standard
Glass in building - Pendulum test - Impact
EN 12600
test method and classification for flat glass
Glass in building - Determination of the
EN 1288-1 bending strength of glass - Part 1:
Fundamentals of testing glass
Glass in building - Determination of bending
strength of glass - Part 2: Coaxial double ring
EN 1288-2
test on flat specimens with large test
surface areas
Glass in building - Determination of the
bending strength of glass - Part 3: Test with
EN 1288-3
specimen supported at two points (four
point bending)
Glass in building - Determination of the
EN 1288-4 bending strength of glass - Part 4: Testing of
channel shaped glass
EN 1288-5 Glass in building - Determination of the

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 209

iv. National standardisation Double junction of
conductors
organizations
Primary cell or accumulator

Inductor, coil, winding, choke

TABLE 49. Machine, general symbol
NATIONAL STANDARDISATION ORGANISATIONS The asterisk is replaced by a
letter designation as follows:
Standardisation Link
Country C synchronous converter
Organisation
G generator
Belgium Institut belge de www.ibn.be GS synchronous generator
normalisation (IBN) M motor
The Bulgarian Institute http://www.bds- MG machine capable of use
Bulgaria
for Standardisation bg.org as a generator or motor
Croatian Standards www.hzn.hr MS synchronous motor
Croatia
Institute Battery of accumulators
Cyprus Organisation www.cysorg.cy or primary cells
Cyprus
for Standardisation
Hellenic Organization http://www.elotg
Greece for Standardization r Fuse, general symbol
(ELOT)
Asociacion Espanola http://www.aeno
Spain de Normalizacion y r.es Fuse with the supply
Certificacion (AENOR) side indicated
Asociatia de http://www.asr.or
Romania Standardizare din o/engleza2005/de
Connecting link, closed
România (ASRO) fault_eng.html
British Standards http://www.bsigr Connecting link, open
United Kingdom
Institution (BSI) oup.com

Circuit breaker

v. Graphical Symbols Make contact normally

open, also general symbol
IEC 60617 contains graphical symbols for use for a switch
in electrotechnical diagrams. The database is Conductor, group of
conductors, line, cable,
the official source of IEC 60617 including
circuit, transmission
more than1750 symbols. path

Some of the most commonly found are Three conductors

presented in the table below.
Conductors in a cable,
TABLE 50. three conductors
GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS (Source: Simmons and Maguire, 2004) shown

Links Description Earth or ground,

general symbol
Direct current
Ammeter
Alternating current

Voltmeter
Positive polarity

Negative polarity Contactor, normally open

Propagation, energy flow,

signal flow, one way Contactor, normally closed
Junction of conductors

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 210

 10
ANNEXES

Operating device (relay

coil), general symbol

Wattmeter

Semiconductor diode,
general symbol

Tunnel diode

Resistor, general symbol

Watt-hour meter

Signal lamp, general symbol

Photovoltaic cell

vi. Characteristic I-V curves for FIGURE 165.

RADIATION MAPS (Source: http://mappery.com, October
modules 2011)

FIGURE 163. C
HARACTERISTIC I-V CURVES FOR MODULES (Source:
www.energygridsolutions.com/solar-sharphtml, October 2011)

vii. Radiation maps

FIGURE 164.
EUROPE RADIATION MAPS (Source:
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/, October 2011)

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 211

viii. Useful links fields is provided
www.bipv.ch/index.php
?option=com_content&
view=article&id=209&Ite
Links Description mid=176&lang=en
Information on solar power
www.nrel.gov/pv/perfor
and its applications large Information on failures
mance_reliability/failure
www.pvresources.com scale PV power plants observed in PV installations
_database.html
database on reports
simulation tools IEC provides a platform to
companies, industries and
Data on best practices, urban
www.pvdatabase.org governments for meeting,
PV projects, BIPV products www.iec.ch
discussing and developing
National reports and
www.iea-pvps.org the International Standards
statistics on PV market
they require
Detailed information on the
American Society for Testing
administrative processes
and Materials international
that need to be followed in
www.pvlegal.eu www.astm.org standards for materials,
order to install a PV system
products, systems and
in each of the participating
services used in
countries
construction, manufacturing
Platform aiming to develop a and transportation
strategy and corresponding
Committee for
implementation plan for
Standardization platform for
www.eupvplatform.org/ education, research &
www.cen.eu the development of
technology development,
European Standards and
innovation & market
other technical specifications
deployment of PV energy
Underwriter Laboratories Inc
Information on www.ul.com database with more than
production equipment, solar 1.000 Standards for Safety
www.enf.cn/database/p components (eg inverters, International Organisation
anels.html batteries), solar materials, for Standardization
solar panels, sellers, Worldwide federation of
solar system installers www.iso.ch national standards institutes,
Extensive database with promoting the development
www.posharp.com/phot of standardization of goods
characteristics of many PV
ovoltaic/database.aspx and services
panels
Database of all commercially Database of more than
available solar panels with 50.000 standards rich in
http://pvbin.com functionality to search and http://shop.bsigroup.co business-critical content
sort by different data m/Navigate-by/BSOL/ covering a broad range of
parameters disciplines for all industry
http://en.wikipedia.org/ sectors
List of PV power stations
wiki/List_of_photovoltai Portal that aims to gather
larger than 25 MW in current
c_power_stations and promote the best that
net capacity
the Web has to offer in
www.yoursunyourenerg
Access to RE focused relation to solar PV energy in
y.com/
services, including daily a global and complements
www.renewableenergy news, products, technology information already available
world.com/rea/home overview, energy events elsewhere
calendar, job opportunities Information on production
etc equipment, solar
www.pv-tech.org/
Plenty of information in components and PV market
www.solarplaza.com different segments of the PV in general
market
IRENA targets to Foster all
Portal dedicated on PV http://www.irena.org/h types of RES and to consider
energy covering different ome/index.aspx?PriMen various RE policies at the
www.solarserver.com issues (solar magazines, uID=12&mnu=Pri local, regional, and national
funding, events, job market levels
etc)
Information and services
e of
opa

News, research, analysis and

eur

Eur
the
ec.

www.solarbuzz.com provided by the EU Energy

consulting on different PV

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 212

 10
ANNEXES

Strategy for Europe

(roadmaps, markets,
statistics etc)
http://europ
All EU environment law –
a.eu/pol/en
summaries (waste, noise, air
v/index_en.
pollution etc)
htm

European Personnel
Selection Office (EPSO)
http://europ target is to deliver a staff
a.eu/epso/in selection service to the
dex_en.htm highest professional
standards on behalf of the
EU Institutions.

http://epp.e Statistics at European level

urostat.ec.e that enable comparisons
uropa.eu/po between countries and
rtal/page/po regions.
rtal/eurostat
/home/

European portal for energy

efficiency in building,
www.buildup.eu valuable knowledge on how
to reduce energy
consumption in buildings

World's largest industry

association devoted to the
solar PV electricity market
(information on latest
legislative developments,
www.epia.org advising key decision-makers
on the most adequate
policies to develop a
sustainable PV market,
technical and economic
issues etc)

The model algorithm

estimates beam, diffuse and
reflected components of the
clear-sky and real-sky global
irradiance/irradiation on
http://re.jrc.ec.europa.e horizontal or inclined
u/pvgis surfaces The total daily
irradiation [Wh/m2] is
computed by the integration
of the irradiance values
[W/m2] calculated at regular
time intervals over the day
Climatological database for
solar energy applications: a
meteorological database
www.meteonorm.com containing comprehensive
climatological data for solar
engineering applications at
all points of the globe

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 213

 TFM

FURTHER READING
1. M. Drifa, P.J. Pereza, J. Aguilera, J.D. 4. J.P. Dunlop, Batteries and Charge Control in
Aguilar, A new estimation method of Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems.
irradiance on a partially shaded PV generator Fundamentals and Application. Sandia
in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, National Laboratories USA, 1997 (relevant
Renewable Energy vol 33, pp 2048–2056, §2210)
2008 (relevant §2.1.3)
The PV technician can gain specialized
PV installers can study a new method for knowledge on battery technology and charge
estimating irradiance on a partially shaded PV control strategies commonly used in stand-
system. The principles of the proposed alone PV systems. Details are provided on the
method and the algorithm used for common types of flooded lead-acid, valve
calculating the irradiance on shaded planes is regulated lead-acid, and nickel-cadmium
presented in the aricle. cells. Comparisons are provided for various
battery technologies, and considerations for
battery subsystem design, auxiliary systems,
2. H. Haeberlin, Optimum DC operating maintenance and safety are discussed.
Voltage for grid connected PV plants, 20th
European PV Solar Energy Conference,
Barcelona, Spain, June 2005 (relevant §222). 5. Danish Energy Agency, Optimisation of the
Design of Grid-Connected PV Systems under
The technician may find answers to such
Danish Conditions” (PV-OPT), 2009 (relevant
questions as: at which VMPP should an
§231)
inverter be tested and at which interval
should the STC array voltages of a PV plant be The trainee can study the design of several
chosen. The design procedure is also case studies, in order to comprehend the
presented in the conference paper with some theory presented in chapter 2. Three
numerical examples. examples are provided on designing a PV
plant on a roof of a single house, using
commercially available products. In the
3. IEA PVPS, International Energy Agency examples, the expected annual yield is
Implementing Agreement on PV Power calculated using 3 different methods: a
Systems, Use of PV Power Systems in Stand- manual calculation based on data sheets for
Alone and Island Applications, 2003 modules and inverter; the web-based PVGIS
PV installers can deepen their knowledge of software program; and, the PVSYST software
common practices and practical techniques system. Trainees can study practical
to set up lightning protection (relevant §228). examples.

6. P. Arun, R. Banerjee, S. Bandyopadhyay,

Optimum sizing of photovoltaic battery

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 215

systems incorporating uncertainty through 10. B. Yu, M. Matsui, G. Yu, A review of
design space approach, Solar Energy current anti-islanding methods for
photovoltaic power system, Solar Energy
vol 83, pp 1013-1025, 2009 (relevant §2210)
vol 84, pp 745-754, 2010
The trainee can study a methodology for the
The technician can learn about different anti-
optimum sizing of PV battery system for
islanding method developments for grid-
remote electrification. The proposed
connected PV power generation based on
methodology is based on the design space
single phase systems. Active and passive anti-
approach involving a time series simulation of
islanding methods are evaluated and
the entire system.
compared through experimental results.
7. L. Lu, H.X. Yang, Environmental payback
time analysis of a roof-mounted BIPV system
in Hong Kong, Applied Energy 11. X. Gong, M. Kulkarni, Design optimization
vol 87, 3625-3631, 2010 (relevant §2.4.1) of a large scale rooftop PV system, Solar
Energy, vol 78, pp 362-374, 2005 (relevant
The energy payback time and greenhouse-gas
§2.7.1)
payback time of a rooftop BIPV system (grid-
connected) in Hong Kong is investigated in Optimization of PV systems is an essential
order to measure its sustainability. issue when designing a system. The article
presents the technician with the optimization
process of a grid-connected PV system, on
8. EPIA, Solar generation 6; Solar Photovoltaic the rooftop of a Federal office building and a
Electricity Empowering the World, 2011 PV energy conversion model. Based on this
(relevant §2.4.2) model, array surface tilt angle and array size
The PV technician can collect valuable market are optimized. The optimization method is
information from the current status of PVs based on maximizing the utilization of the
worldwide and will also be informed of array output energy, and, at the same time,
environmental issues, potentials and growth minimizing the electricity power sold to the
prospects over coming years. This grid.
information will be valuable in discussions
with potential clients.
12. A. Salaymeh, Z. Hamamre, F. Sharaf,
M.R. Abdelkader, Technical and economical
9. M. A. Eltawil, Z. Zhao, Grid-connected assessment of the utilization of photovoltaic
photovoltaic power systems: Technical and systems in residential buildings: The case of
potential problems—A review, Renewable Jordan, Energy Conversion and Management,
and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 51, pp 1719-1726, 2010 (relevant §271)
vol14, pp 112-129, 2010 The trainee can study a case study that
The paper reviews the literature on expected examines the cost of a PV system and the
potential problems associated with high payback period. The feasibility of utilizing PV
penetration levels and islanding prevention systems in a standard residential apartment
methods of grid tied PV. According to the in Jordan is presented. An apartment is
survey, PV grid connection inverters have chosen as a case study to conduct energy and
fairly good performance. economic calculations. The electrical power
needs and cost are calculated for the
apartment.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 216

 FURTHER READING

13. SEAI, Sustainable Energy Authority of Further Reading, in Greek

Ireland, Best Practice Guide– PVs, Ireland,
2010 (relevant §2.7.1) 1 Οδηγίες για την εγκατάσταση Φ/Β
συστημάτων σε κτιριακές εγκαταστάσεις,
The PV technician can study the preliminary ΚAΠΕ, 2009
design of a BIPV system. The case study
describes the design and planning of a PV The manual is available from the CRES
installation, including the integration of PV website and summarizes information for
into the building. professionals on PV installation in buildings.
2 Μηχανική των Φωτοβολταϊκών
Συστημάτων, Τεχνολογία, Μελέτες,
14. NABCEP, North American Board of Εφαρμογές, ΣΝ Καπλάνης, Εκδόσεις ΙΟΝ
Certified Energy Practitioners, NABCEP study 2004
guide for photovoltaic system installers, USA
2009 (relevant §272) Plenty of PV exercises and examples for the
trainee to comprehend the theory and the
Different questions and answers are design issues presented in chapter 2.
presented in this article that tests the
knowledge of trainees on different PV issues.
The answers are also presented in the same
study guide.

15. Photovoltaics in Buildings Guide to the

Installation of PV Systems 2nd edition 2006
(DTI publication DTI/pub URN 06/1972). (3rd
edition to be published shortly). Available
from
www.bre.co.uk/filelibrary/pdf/rpts/Guide_to
_the_installation_of_PV_systems_2nd_Editio
n.pdf

16. BRE Digest 489 ‘Wind loads on roof-based

photovoltaic systems.’ Available from
www.brebookshop.com

17. BRE Digest 495 ‘Mechanical installation of

roof-mounted photovoltaic systems.’
Available from www.brebookshop.com

18. ‘Photovoltaics in Buildings – Safety and

the CDM Regulations’, (BSRIA/DTI February
2000, ISBN 086022 548 8

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 217

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1. TYPICAL TYPE AND SIZE OF TABLE 19. PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS FOR
APPLICATIONS PER MARKET SEGMENT FOR GRID- THE INSTALLATION OF PV MODULES ON PITCHED
CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS. (Source: Solar ROOFS. (Source: SEC) 72
Generation VI, EPIA and Greenpeace) 12 TABLE 20. ORIENTATION AND TILT FACTORS
TABLE 2. INDICATIVE MONTHLY VALUES 14 (Source: SEC ) 82

TABLE 3. OPTIMUM TILT FOR THE PV TABLE 21. ELECTRICAL FEATURES (Source:
PANEL (NORTH HEMISPHERE) (Source: Markvart & Tknika, 2004) 110
Castafier, 2003) 23 TABLE 22. SCHEDULE OF TEST RESULTS.
TABLE 4. VALUES OF TYPICAL ENERGY (Source: DTI, 2006) 133
CONSUMPTION (Source: Markvart & Castafier, TABLE 23. TEST METHOD TABLE (Source:
2003) 26 DTI, 2006) 135
TABLE 5. PENETRATION DEPTH BY TABLE 24. COMMISSIONING TEST SHEET
LIGHTNING PROTECTION CLASS ACCORDING TO (Source: DTI, 2006) 136
VDE 0185-305. (Source: OBO-Betterman, 2010) 35
TABLE 25. PV Commssionning test sheets.
TABLE 6. INDICATIVE VALUES (Source: Source:( BRE et al,2006) 138
Antony, 2007) 36
TABLE 26. PV ARRAY AND INVERTER
TABLE 7. PV SIMULATION TOOLS 42 MATCHING PARAMETERS 164
TABLE 8. SHARES IN THE TOTAL SYSTEM TABLE 27. PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN
PRICE (Source: EPIA 2011) 46 A 9.59 kW PV PLANT OVER THREE YEARS 166
TABLE 9. LIFECYCLE GREENHOUSE GAS TABLE 28. BREAKDOWN OF OFFERS FOR PV
EMISSION ESTIMATES FOR ELECTRICITY EQUIPMENT (€) 166
GENERATORS. (Source: Sovacool, 2008). 49
TABLE 29. ECONOMIC COMPARISON OF
TABLE 10. MASS BASIC FRACTIONS OF A PV TWO SIMULATED SYSTEMS 167
MODULE (Source: Sander, 2007) 50
TABLE 30. TYPICAL FAILURES, CORRECTIVE
TABLE 11. STANDARDS FOR BOS (Source: MEASURES AND TROUBLESHOOTING (Source:
PVResources, 2011) 51 Karamchetti M, 2011) 183
TABLE 12. PRICES FOR ENERGY PRODUCED TABLE 31. MAINTENANCE CHECKLIST.
BY PV 52 (Source: http://www.contractorsinstitute.com/) 187
TABLE 13. PV DATABASES 54 TABLE 32. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 205
TABLE 14. ADMINISTRATIVE ISSUES (Source: TABLE 33. SYMBOLS AND UNITS 205
PVTRIN, 2011) 55
TABLE 34. STANDARDS FOR TEST METHODS
TABLE 15. SUPPORTING MECHANISMS FOR AND REFERENCE CELLS (Source:
PV INSTALLATION (Source: PVTRIN, 2011) 57 www.pvresources.com, 2011) 206
TABLE 16. APPLIANCES AND DAILY ENERGY TABLE 35. STANDARDS FOR SOLAR
REQUIREMENTS 58 MODULES (Source: www.pvresources.com,
TABLE 17. PV -MODULE CHARACTERISTICS 59 www.epia.org, 2011) 206

TABLE 18. INVERTER CHARACTERISTICS 60 TABLE 36. STANDARDS FOR GRID-

CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS (Source:
www.pvresources.com, 2011) 206

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 219

TABLE 37. STANDARDS FOR OFF-
CONNECTED PV SYSTEMS (Source:
www.pvresources.com, 2011) 207
TABLE 38. STANDARDS FOR RURAL
ELECTRIFICATION (Source: www.pvresources.com,
2011) 207
TABLE 39. STANDARDS FOR MONITORING
(Source: www.pvresources.com, 2011) 207
TABLE 40. STANDARDS FOR INVERTERS
(Source: www.pvresources.com, www.epia.org,
2011) 208
TABLE 41. STANDARDS FOR CHARGE
CONTROLLERS (Source: www.pvresources.com,
www.epia.org, 2011) 208
TABLE 42. STANDARDS FOR BATTERIES
(Source: www.epia.org 2011) 208
TABLE 43. STANDARDS FOR MOUNTING
STRUCTURES (Source: www.pvresources.com,
2011) 208
TABLE 44. STANDARDS FOR JUNCTION
BOXES (Source: www.pvresources.com, 2011) 208
TABLE 45. STANDARDS FOR WIRES/CABLES
(Source: www.epia.org, 2011) 208
TABLE 46. STANDARDS FOR CONNECTORS
Source: www.epia.org, 2011 208
TABLE 47. OTHER BOS STANDARDS (Source:
www.pvresources.com, 2011) 208
TABLE 48. STANDARDS FOR GLASS AND ITS
APPLICATIONS IN BUILDINGS WITH DETAILED
REFERENCE TO BIPV SYSTEMS (Source:
www.pvresources.com, 2011) 209
TABLE 49. NATIONAL STANDARDISATION
ORGANISATIONS 210
TABLE 50. GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS (Source:
Simmons and Maguire, 2004) 210

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 220

 FIGURE 18. PV MODULES ON INCLINED ROOF
(Source: Flickr, Sun Switch, 2011) Scheuten
24 Solar

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. EXAMPLE OF THE PHOTOVOLTAIC FIGURE 19. PANELS MOUNTED ON A FLAT
EFFECT. (Source: EPIA) 2 ROOF (Source: Flickr, Entersolar, 2011) 24
FIGURE 2. TYPES OF SOLAR IRRADIANCE. FIGURE 20. GROUND MOUNTED PV PANELS
(Source: Tknika, 2004) 3 IN CRETE (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 25
FIGURE 3. SOLAR IRRADIATION AROUND FIGURE 21. TRACKING SYSTEM (Source:
THE WORLD. (Source: Gregor Czisch, ISET, Kassel, ReSEL, TUC) 25
Germany, 2007) 3
FIGURE 22. I-V CURVE OF A SOLAR CELL
FIGURE 4. SOLAR AZIMUTH AND ALTITUDE. (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 27
(Source: www.mpoweruk.com , 2011) 4
FIGURE 23. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON I-V
FIGURE 5. SSR 11 SOLAR RADIATION CURVE (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 27
SENSOR (PYRANOMETER). (Source: Hukseflux,
2011) 4 FIGURE 24. SERIES CONNECTION (Source:
ReSEL, TUC) 28
FIGURE 6. PV MODULE CELL CONNECTION.
(Source: Tknika,2004) 6 FIGURE 25. PARALLEL CONNECTION (Source:
ReSEL, TUC) 28
FIGURE 7. SOLAR POWER SYSTEM
CONFIGURATIONS. (Source: DTI, 2006) 6 FIGURE 26. SERIES AND PARALLEL
CONNECTION (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 28
FIGURE 8. OVERVIEW OF EFFICIENCY OF PV
TECHNOLOGIES. (Source: EPIA 2011, Photon FIGURE 27. PV MODULES CONNECTED TO A
International, February 2011, EPIA analysis) 10 CENTRAL INVERTER (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 29

FIGURE 9. DIFFERENT CONFIGURATION OF FIGURE 28. PV MODULES CONNECTED TO

SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS. (Source: EPIA) 11 MODULE INVERTERS (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 29

FIGURE 10. STEPS ON A SITE VISIT (Source: FIGURE 29. PV MODULES CONNECTED TO
ReSEL TUC) 18 STRING INVERTERS (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 30

FIGURE 11. SOLAR RADIATION IN EUROPE FIGURE 30. EXAMPLES OF PROTECTION

(Source: PVGIS, 2011) 19 (Source: IEA PVPS, 2003) 34

FIGURE 12. SHADING FROM NEIGHBOURING FIGURE 31. SMALL PV IN LIGHTNING SYSTEM
OBSTACLES (Source: Energia e Domotica, Flickr, MESH. (Source: Schletter Solar, 2005). 34
2011) 20 FIGURE 32. LARGE PV SYSTEM ON ROOF.
FIGURE 13. MINIMUM DISTANCE OF PVS (Source: Schletter Solar, 2005). 35
FROM OBSTACLES TO AVOID SHADING (Source: FIGURE 33. ROLLING SPHERE METHOD.
ResEL, TUC) 21 (Source: OBO-Betterman, 2010) 35
FIGURE 14. Lmin, BASED ON THE THICKNESS FIGURE 34. CHARGE CONTROLLER SET
OF THE OBJECT (Source: ResEL, TUC) 21 POINTS (Source: Dunlop, 1997) 38
FIGURE 15. MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN FIGURE 35. SHUNT CHARGE CONTROLLER
ARROWS (Source: ResEL, TUC) 22 (Source: DGS LV, 2008) 39
FIGURE 16. SUN ORBIT DIAGRAM WITH FIGURE 36. SERIES CHARGE CONTROLLER
SURVEYED SURROUNDINGS (Source: ResEL, TUC) 22 (Source: DGS LV, 2008) 39
FIGURE 17. PV PANELS FOR SUN SCREENING. FIGURE 37. DESIGN OF AN AUTONOMOUS
(Source: ReSEL, TUC, 2010) 23 SYSTEM (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 41

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 221

FIGURE 38. DESIGN OF A GRID CONNECTED FIGURE 59. BIPV IN WARM FAÇADE
SYSTEM (Source: ReSEL, TUC) 41 (Source:SST) 74
FIGURE 39. ON LINE PV*SOL TOOL 42 FIGURE 60. BIPV IN WARM FAÇADE (Source:
Roman et al, 2008) 75
FIGURE 40. INPUT DATA EXAMPLE ON DEMO
VERSION OF PV F-CHART 43 FIGURE 61. BIPV IN COLD FAÇADE (Source:
SST) 76
FIGURE 41. OUTPUT OF EXAMPLE ON DEMO
VERSION OF PV F-CHART (BASED ON FIGURE 40) 43 FIGURE 62. OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF
PV SYSTEMS ON GLASS ROOFS (Source: ECN). 76
FIGURE 42. EXAMPLE FOR ATHENS ON DEMO
VERSION NSOL. 44 FIGURE 63. OPTIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION
OF PV PARASOL SYSTEMS (Source: ECN). 77
FIGURE 43. ONLINE TOOL FROM THE
AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY 45 FIGURE 64. EXAMPLE OF GLASS ROOF WITH
PV MODULES (Source:SEC) 77
FIGURE 44. BIPV VISUALIZATION ON
EXISTING BULDING IN CHANIA USING ECOTECT FIGURE 65. OPTIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION
(Source: Papantoniou and Tsoutsos, 2008) 45 OF PV SYSTEMS IN SHADING DEVICES (Source:
ECN). 78
FIGURE 45. PV MODULE PRICE EXPERIENCE
CURVE (US$/Wp & MW) (Source: EPIA, 2011) 46 FIGURE 66. PV SHADING (Source:ECN) 78
FIGURE 46. ESTIMATING THE COST OF PV FIGURE 67. INSTALLATION OF PV MOVABLE
SYSTEMS (Source: ReSEL,TUC) 47 SHADING ELEMENT (Source:SST) 78
FIGURE 47. PV ENERGY PAYBACK TIMES OF FIGURE 68. COMBINED PV-SOLAR TERMAL
PV TECHNOLOGIES (Source: Sovacool, 2008)¡Error! Marcador
FUNCTION
no definido.
(Source: ECN) 79
FIGURE 48. STANDARDS FOR PV SYSTEMS FIGURE 69. ROOF OF BUS STOP AND CYCLE
INSTALLATION (Source: PVResources, 2011) 51 PARK WITH PV MODULES (Source: SEC) 80
FIGURE 49. FBAPV ON FALT ROOF. (Source: FIGURE 70. PLANNING SOLUTION FOR ONE
SEC ) 68 SITE. (Source: ECN) 81
FIGURE 50. BAPV ON PITCHED ROOF. FIGURE 71. SHADING FROM TREES (Source:
(Source:SEC ) 68 ECN) 83
FIGURE 51. BIPV ON ROOF. (Source: SEC ) 68 FIGURE 72. SELF-SHADING (Source: ECN) 83
FIGURE 52. ALTERNATIVES FOR FIGURE 73. SNOW SLIPPAGE OVER A
INTEGRATING PVs IN BUILDINGS (Source: PURE MODULE(Source: ECN) 84
project. Roman et al,2008) 69
FIGURE 74. IMPACT OF THE TYPE OF
FIGURE 53. OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF INSTALLATION ON TNE TEMPERATURE AND
PV SYSTEMS ON FLAT ROOFS (Source: ECN) 70 ENERGY YIELD (Source: Fraunhofer ISE, 1997) 85
FIGURE 54. FPV INSTALLATION ON FLAT FIGURE 75. PV ON ROOF (Source:ECN) 85
ROOF – EXTERNAL VIEW AND STRUCTURE. (Source:
FIGURE 76. INTEGRATION OF PV MODULES IN
SEC ) 71
AN EXISTING BUILDING (Source: SEC ) 86
FIGURE 55. OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF
FIGURE 77. WATER DISTRICT NEW LAND
PV SYSTEMS ON PITCHED ROOFS (Source: ECN) 71
BIPV ON ROOFS OF SINGLE FAMILY HOUSES
FIGURE 56. BIPV ON RESIDENTIAL BUILDING (Source: SEC ) 86
(Source: SEC) 72
FIGURE 78. WATER DISTRICT NEW LAND,
FIGURE 57. OPTIONS FOR INTEGRATION OF BAPV ON FAÇADE OF MULTI-FAMILY DWELLING
PV SYSTEMS ON FAÇADES (Source: Education and BUILDING (Source: SEC ) 86
training material for architects (ECN) 73
FIGURE 79. WATER DISTRICT NEW LAND,
FIGURE 58. FBAPV ON REFURBISHED BAPV ON FAÇADE OF SINGLE-FAMILY HOUSES
RESIDENTILA BUILDING (Source:SEC) 74 (Source: SEC ) 86

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 222

 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 80. RESIDENTIAL AREA FIGURE 101. SOLAR REGULATOR. (Source:

AMERSFOORT. BIPV ON ROOFS OF SINGLE FAMILY Solostocks, 2011) 120
HOUSES (Source: SEC ) 87
FIGURE 102. DETAILS OF PV REGULATOR
FIGURE 81. RESIDENTIAL AREA AMERSFOORT, CONNECTIONS. (Source:Tknika)¡Error! Marcador no definido.
BIPV ON ROOFS OF KINDERGARTEN (Source: SEC ) 87
FIGURE 103. PHOTOVOLTAIC FIGURE. (Source:
FIGURE 82. RESIDENTIAL AREA AMERSFOORT, TKNIKA) 122
BIPV ON ROOFS OF CAR AND CYCLE PARKS
FIGURE 104. DIFFERENT LOCATIONS (Source:
(Source: SEC ) 87
Tknika, 2004) 123
FIGURE 83. PV MODULES ON THE FLOATING
FIGURE 105. TRACKING THE ALTITUDE OF THE
ISLANDS OF LAKE TITICACA (Source: SEC ) 87
SUN (Source: Tknika, 2004) 123
FIGURE 84. ARC FLASH HAZARD (Source:
FIGURE 106. TRACKING THE SOLAR AZIMUTH
OSEIA,2011 ) 97
(Source: Tknika, 2004) 124
FIGURE 85. CURRENT CLAP (Source:
FIGURE 107. TRACKING FROM A SINGLE
OSEIA,2011) 97
NORTH-SOUTH AXIS (Source: Tknika, 2004) 124
FIGURE 86. PLANNING WORK AT HEIGHT
FIGURE 108. DUAL-AXIS TRACKING (Source:
(Source: OHSA, 2011) 98
Tknika, 2004) 124
FIGURE 87. WORK AT HEIGTH in Cristal
FIGURE 109. B) DUAL-AXIS TRACKING (Source:
Tower (Source: Martifer Solar SA.) 98
Tknika, 2004) 124
FIGURE 88. MOBILE TOWER (Source: OHSA,
FIGURE 110. POINTS OF SUPPORT (Source:
2011) 99
Tknika, 2004) 125
FIGURE 89. MOBILE ELEVATING WORK
FIGURE 111. ANCHORAGE ELEMENTS (Source:
PLATFORM (Source: OHSA, 2011) 99
Tknika, 2004) 125
FIGURE 90. LEANING LADDER (Source: OHSA,
FIGURE 112. GRID-CONNECTED INSTALLATION
2011) 100
(Source: Tknika, 2004) 126
FIGURE 91. ARRAY FRAME EARTHING
FIGURE 113. GRID-CONNECTED INSTALLATION
DECISION TREE (Source: BRE et al, 2006). 107
UNIFILAR DIAGRAM (Source: Tknika, 2004) 126
FIGURE 92. UNION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC
FIGURE 114. A BLOCK DIVISION OF A GRID-
MODULES ( Source: Flickr, 2011) 111
CONNECTED INSTALLATION (Source: Tknika, 2004) 127
FIGURE 93. ATTACHING PV MODULES TO THE
FIGURE 115. STAND-ALONE PV SYSTEM
STRUCTURE. (Source: EKILOR) 111
(Source: TKNIKA) 128
FIGURE 94. SOLAR INVERTER. (Source: Saecsa
FIGURE 116. DO NOT STEP ON PV MODULES
energia solar, 2011) 114
(Source: ECN) 129
FIGURE 95. DIFFERENT AVAILABILITY
FIGURE 117. MANAGEMENT OF PV MODULES
OPTIONS. (Source: Tknika, 2004) 117
(Source: ReSEL, TUC) 129
FIGURE 96. PARALLEL AND CROSSED
FIGURE 118. BALLAST AND ANCHORAGE
PARALLEL CONNECTIONS. (Source:Tknika) 117
(Source: TECNALIA) 130
FIGURE 97. 48 V. 100 Ah. SERIES
FIGURE 119. ENSURE ROOF STABILITY AND
CONNECTION. 4 BATTERIES. (Source: Tknika, 2004) 118
WEATHER TIGHTNESS (Source: Biohause) 130
FIGURE 98. 24 V. 100 Ah. SERIAL
FIGURE 120. INSTALLATION OF RUBBER
CONNECTION. 2 BATTERIES. (Source:Tknika) 118
BLANKETS WITH AMORPHOUS SILICON CELLS
FIGURE 99. 4V. 200Ah. MIXED CONNECTION. (Source: Gisscosa-Firestone) 130
2 GROUPS OF 2 SERIAL BATTERIES PARALLEL
FIGURE 121. INSTALLATION OF FLEXIBLE
CONNECTED. (Source: Tknika) 118
PANELS (Source: Biohouse) 130
FIGURE 100. LOCATION OF THE CURRENT /
FIGURE 122. INSTALLATION SEQUENCE OF
VOLTAGE BATTERY IN A PHOTOVOLTAIC
SELF-ADHESIVE PANELS (Source: Lumeta Inc) 131
INSTALLATION. (Source: Tknika,2004) 120

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 223

FIGURE 123. SENSOR PLACING ( Source: Ekain FIGURE 145. ECONOMIC SIMULATION RESULTS
Taldea- Spain) 131 – CASH BALANCE AND PAYMENT FROM UTILITY 167
FIGURE 124. REPAIR OF WIRING AT A PV FIGURE 146. EXAMPLE OF PREFABRICATED
INSTALLATION (Source: Zubigune, Spain) 132 METAL SUPPORT STRUCTURE (WITH MODULES)
FOR METAL ROOFS 169
FIGURE 125. DIFFERENT TYPES OF
CONECTIONS IN GLASS-GLASS MODULES FOR FIGURE 147. METAL FOUNDATION FRAME 169
FAÇADES (Source: MSK and Sheuten Solar) 132
FIGURE 148. SIDE VIEW ON MODULE SUPPORT
FIGURE 126. AURINKOLAHTI SCHOOL. (Source: STRUCTURE (Source: ETEK) 169
City of Helsinki) 145
FIGURE 149. CABLES AND CONDUIT PLACED
FIGURE 127. PV SYSTEM DISPLAY (Source: Kari BEHIND PV MODULES 170
Ahlqvist) 146
FIGURE 150. PLACING OF INVERTER 170
FIGURE 128. PV SYSTEM ON SCHOOL. (Source:
FIGURE 151. FASTENING A PV MODULE TO A
Kari Ahlqvist) 146
RAIL (Source: SOLVIS) 170
FIGURE 129. PV SYSTEM ON ROOF. (Source:
FIGURE 152. ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF THE
Kari Ahlqvist) 147
MODULES – BACKSIDE 171
FIGURE 130. BERDEN SOLAR PLANT. (Source:
FIGURE 153. OUTLINE OF THE PV SYSTEM 172
www.plan-net.si) 148
FIGURE 154. KEEPING RECORDS FOR
FIGURE 131. PV SYSTEM ON ROOF. (Source:
ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION FROM PV GRID
BISOL Group d.o.o) ¡Error! Marcador no definido.
CONNECTED SYSTEMS, CYPRUS. (Source: Cyprus
FIGURE 132. ATHENS METRO MALL. 151 Energy Agency) 176
FIGURE 133. LATOKARTANO SCHOOL. (Source: FIGURE 155. PERIODICAL INSPECTION OF A PV
City of Helsinki) 152 GRID CONNECTED ROOF SYSTEM, CYPRUS. (Source:
Conercon Ltd, Cyprus) 177
FIGURE 134. BLACKPOOL CENTRE FOR
EXCELLENCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT. (Source: FIGURE 156. BATTERY INSPECTION IN STAND-
Blackpool City Council) 153 ALONE PV SYSTEMS, CYPRUS. (Source: Cyprus
Energy Agency) 177
FIGURE 135. BLACKPOOL CENTRE FOR
EXCELLENCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT. (Source: FIGURE 157. INSPECTION OF INVERTERS IN
Halcrow Group ltd) 154 GRID-CONNECTED PV ROOF SYSTEMS, CYPRUS.
(Source: Conercon Ltd) 178
FIGURE 136. ORTHOPHOTO OF BUILDING AND
SUROUNDINGS 158 FIGURE 159. POSSIBLE SHADING FROM
GROWING VEGETATION. (Source: Terza Solar Ltd) 179
FIGURE 137. SOUTHERN TERRACE (view from
NW) 158 FIGURE 160. ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
MAINTENANCE. (Source: Conercon Ltd) 179
FIGURE 138. SOLAR IRRADIATION AND AIR
TEMPERATURE FOR SELECTED LOCATION 159 FIGURE 161. MEASUREMENTS ON A ROOF
GRID CONNECTED PV SYSTEM (Source: Conercon
FIGURE 139. DISTANCE BETWEEN MODULES 162
Ltd) 184
FIGURE 140. DISTIBUTION OF PV MODULES ON
FIGURE 162. EXAMPLE OF A BAR GRAPH OF A
FLAT ROOF – MAXIMUM SIZE 163
1KW PV SYSTEM 185
FIGURE 141. SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF PV
FIGURE 163. CHARACTERISTIC I-V CURVES FOR
SYSTEMS FOR FIRST CASE 164
MODULES (Source:
FIGURE 142. FINAL LAYOUT OF PV ARRAY 164 www.energygridsolutions.com/solar-sharphtml,
October 2011) 211
FIGURE 143. EXAMPLE OF SHADINGS AT THE
LOCATION 165 FIGURE 164. EUROPE RADIATION MAPS
(Source: http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/, October
FIGURE 144. SIMULATION OF RESULTS – 2011) 211
ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION 165

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 224

 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 165. RADIATION MAPS (Source:

http://mappery.com, October 2011) 211

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 225

 Scheuten Solar

REFERENCES
- Antony F., Durschner C., Remmers K.H., Photovoltaics for professionals, Beuth Verlag GmbH,
Earthscan, 2007.
- ASIF (Asociación de la industria fotovoltaica), Sistemas de energía fotovoltaica. Manual del
instalador, 2002
- Roman E., Tsoutsos Τ., Gkouskos Z., Eisenschmid I., Alonso R., BIPV Technical Solutions and best
practices, PURE Project , European Commission, DG Energy and Transport, 2008.
- Brooks Engineering, Field Inspection Guideline for PV systems, June 2010 (Version 1.1)
- Daniel J., Vivar M., Suganthi L., Iniyan S., Skryabin, I.L. Everett V. A., Blakers A. W., Power
conditioning unit for a Concentrating Photovoltaic system in urban areas International Photovoltaic
Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Beijing November 18-19, 2009
- DGS, German Energy Society (Deutsche Gesellshaft fur Sonnenenergie), Planning and Installing
Photovoltaic Systems. A guide for installers, architects and engineers second edition, Earthscan,
UK, 2008. Autor:LV Berlin BRB
- Drifa M., Pereza P.J., Aguilera J., Aguilar J.D., A new estimation method of irradiance on a partially
shaded PV generator in grid-connected photovoltaic systems, Renewable Energy vol.33, pp. 2048–
2056, 2008.
- DTI (Department of Trade and Industry) Photovoltaics in buildings. Guide to the installation of PV
systems. 2002 - Autors: BRE, EA technology, Halcrow Group, SunDog energy, Halcrow group,
nd
Energy Saving Trust. 2 Edition 2006- Autors: Halcrow Group, SunDog energy, Energy Saving Trust.
- DTI, PV domestic field trial good practice guide: Good Practice Guide: Part I Project management
and installation issues (S/P2/00409,URN 06/795 ), 2006.
- DTI, PV domestic field trial good practice guide, Good Practice Guide: Part II System Performance
Issues (S/P2/00409,URN 06/2219),2006. Autors: Munzinger M, Crick F, Daya EJ., N Pearsall
N.(NPAC), Martin C.(EMC)
- Dunlop J. P., Batteries and Charge Control in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems Fundamentals and
Application. Sandia National Laboratories USA, 1997.
- Energy Market Authority (EMA), Handbook for Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems, 2011
- Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN). Education and training material for architects.
- Emily Rudkin & Jim Thornycroft, Good practice guide “Managing Installation of PV systems” 2008,
BERR.
- EPIA, Solar generation 6; Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Empowering the World, 2011.
- Fthenakis V. and Alsema E., Photovoltaics Energy Payback Times, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and
External Costs: 2004–early 2005 Status, Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl. Vol. 14, pp. 275–280, 2006.
- Haeberlin H., Optimum DC operating Voltage for grid connected PV plants, 20th European PV Solar
Energy Conference, Barcelona, Spain, June 2005.
- Hopkins I., I.R.R – Internal rate of return explained, Finance & Property Research Pty Ltd, 2009.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 227

- IEA PVPS, International Energy Agency Implementing Agreement on Photovoltaic Power Systems,
Use of Photovoltaic Power Systems in Stand-Alone and Island Applications, 2003.
- IEC, International Electrotechnical Commission, www.iec.ch, accessed August 2011
- Infinite Power, Estimating PV system size and cost, 2009.
- Karamchetti J N., Maintenance of Solar Photovoltaic & Renewable Energy Installations.
Presentation, 2011
- Kamnang T., Menke C., Proposal for a PV Curricculum for Colleges in the Caribbean, Final Draft,
April 2010
- Kirchensteiner W., Information for Photovoltaic module, Solateur, Notes of the Educational Centre
for Solar Technology Educational Centre for Solar Technology, Munich 2010.
- Lynn P.A., Electricity from Sunlight. An Introduction to Photovoltaics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd 2010.
- Markvart T. and Castafier L., Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications,
Elsevier Science Ltd, 2003.
- Moskowitz P., Fthenakis V., Environmental, Health and Safety Issues Associated with the
Manufacture and Use of II-VI PV Devices, Solar Cells, vol 30, pp. 89-99, 1991.
- Myrzik J.M.A., and Calais M., String and Module Integrated Inverters for Single-phase Grid
Connected Photovoltaic Systems, A Review IEEE Bologna PowerTech Conference, June 23-26,
Bologna, Italy, 2003.
- NABCEP (North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners), NABCEP study guide for
photovoltaic system installers, USA 2009.
- NABCEP, Study guide for photovoltaic system installers (Revised), 2005.
- NCSC, North Carolina Solar Center, Siting of Active Solar Collectors and Photovoltaic Modules, State
Energy Office N.Carolina, Department of Administration, USA 2001.
- OBO-Betterman, Solutions for photovoltaic systems, OBO BETTERMANN, Germany, 2010.
- Papantoniou S., Tsoutsos T., Building integrated PV application in the island of Crete, 23rd
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition (September 1-5), Valencia, Spain,
2008.
- Pearsall N.M., and Hill R., lean Electricity from Photovoltaics: Photovoltaic Modules, System and
Application (Chapter 15) University of Northumbria, Newcastle, 2001.
- PVTRIN, Training of Photovoltaic Installers, European Intelligent Energy, (IEE) project, 2011
- Quaschning V., and Hanitsch R., Irradiance calculation on shaded surfaces, Solar Energy vol. 62, pp.
369–375, 1998.
- Roman E., Tsoutsos Τ., Gkouskos Z., Eisenschmid I., Alonso R., BIPV Technical Solutions and best
practices, PURE Project , European Commission, DG Energy and Transport, 2008.
- Rhônealpénergie – Environment, PERSEUS, Guide des installations photovoltaÏques raccordées au
réseau électrique destiné aux particuliers.
- Rudkin E. & Thornycroft J., Good practice guide “Managing Installation of PV systems” 2008, BERR
- Salas V., Alonso-Abella M., Chenlo F. and Olías E., Analysis of the maximum power point tracking
in the photovoltaic grid inverters of 5 kW, Renewable Energy vol.34, pp. 2366-2372, 2009
- Schletter Solar–Montage système, Lightning protection of photovoltaic plants, Tips and hints for
the mounting system, 2005

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 228

 REFERENCES

- SEAI, Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, Best Practice Guide–Photovoltaics (PV), Ireland,
2010.
- SEIS, Solar Energy International Staff. Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual: Renewable
Energy Education, for a Sustainable Future; New Society Publishers, Canada, 2006.
- Solar Energy in Buildings, SEC.
- Sovacool B. K., Valuing the greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear power: A critical survey. Energy
Policy, vol. 36, pp. 2950, 2008.
- SST, Technical and Economic Solutions for Integration of PV into Buildings, Project PURE.
- Tknika. Manual de Fotovoltaica., 2004
- Turney D., Fthenakis V., Environmental impacts from the installation and operation of large-scale
solar power plants Review Article Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 15, pp. 3261-
3270, 2011.
- Velasco, G., Guinjoan, F., Pique, R., Negroni J. J., Sizing Factor Considerations for Grid-Connected PV
Systems, 32nd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Paris, 6-10 Nov. 2006
- Wenham S.R., Green M.A., Watt M.E., Corkish R., Applied Photovoltaics, 2nd Edition, Earthscan,
UK, 2007.
- Wiles J., To Ground or Not to Ground: That is Not the Question, Photovoltaic Systems Assistance
Center, Sandia National Laboratories, 1999

Websites

- Australian National University, (ANU), http://cecs.anu.edu.au/, accessed August 2011

- BIPV: http://www.bipv.ch/
- Contractors Institute: http://www.contractorsinstitute.com
- Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the introduction of measures to encourage
improvements in the safety and health of workers at work http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31989L0391:en:HTML
- Energybible: http://energybible.com/solar_energy/ calculating _payback.html, accessed August
2011.
- www.hse.gov.uk
- OSEIA: Solar construction safety.
http://www.coshnetwork.org/sites/default/files/oseia_solar_safety_12-06.pdf, accessed August
2011
- OSHA http://osha.europa.eu, accessed August 2011)
- OSHA riskassessment http://osha.europa.eu/en/topics/riskassessment, accessed August 2011
- PVGIS: http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/, accessed August 2011.
- www.pvlegal.eu/database.html , accessed August 2011.
- PVresources: http://www.pvresources.com/en/shading.php, accessed August 2011.
- PVsunrise project: http://www.pvsunrise.eu/pv-diffusion-in-the-building-sector-bipv/studies-
publications.html, accessed August 2011.

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 229

- saecsaenergiasolar
http://www.saecsaenergiasolar.com/catalogo1/inversores/imagenes/200w12v.jpg, accesed August
2011
- Solarpath: www.solarpath.org/?page_id=365, accessed August 2011.
- http://www.solostocks.com,
- http://imagenes.solostocks.com/z1_4269037/regulador-steca-pr-2020-20-a-12-24v- para-
sistema-solar.jpg, accesed September 2011
- Sunearthtools: www.sunearthtools.com/dp/photovoltaic/payback_photovoltaic.php#txtPB_1,
accessed August 2011.
- Sunglobal: http://www.sunsoglobal.com/faq/overview%20of%20solar%20panels.pdf, accessed
August 2011.
- Yingli Green Energy Holding Co. Ltd.: YINGLI_Installation-Safety-Manual-A306-v02
Yingsolar.com/frontend/uploads/downloads/YINGLI_Installation-Safety-Manual-A306-v02.pdf,
accessed August 2011
3TIER: http://www.3tier.com/en/support/glossary/ accesed August 2011

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for the Solar Installer 230

 Tecnalia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This Installers handbook was published within the framework of the PVTRIN project, supported by the Intelligent
Energy - Europe (IEE) programme.
The project steering committee members are:
Dr. Theocharis Tsoutsos (TUC/ENV, GR), Dr. Eduardo Román (TECNALIA, ES), Dave Richardson (BRE, UK), Gaetan
Masson (EPIA, EU-BE), Goran Granić (EIHP, HR), Christos Maxoulis (ETEK, CY), Ing. Camelia Rata (ABMEE, RO),
Antonis Pittaridakis (TEE, GR) and Violetta Groseva (SEC, BU).

The authors and the whole project consortium are deeply grateful to all those who have contributed with their
work in preparing, writing and reviewing this publication. Furthermore, we would like to express our thanks to the
Executive Agency for Competitiveness and Innovation (EACI) for their support.

AUTHORS: Ms. Ana Huidobro and Dr. Eduardo Román (TECNALIA), Dr. Theocharis Tsoutsos, Ms. Stavroula
Tournaki, Mr. Zacharias Gkouskos (ENV/TUC), Eleni Despotou, Gaëtan Masson, Pieterjan Vanbuggenhout and
Manoël Rekinger (EPIA), Dr. John Holden and Ms. Kim Noonam(BRE), Goran Grani and Andro Bačan (EIHP), Christos
Maxouli and Anthi Charalambous (ETEK), Antonis Pittaridakis and Dr.Charalambos Litos (TEE), Ing. Camelia Rata,
Leea Catincescu and Radu Gaspar (ABMEE), Mrs. Evelina Stoykova and Mrs. Violetta Groseva (SEC)

PHOTOGRAPHS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to Biohause; BISOL Group d.o.o; Blackpool City Council; BRE; ChrisRudge;
City of Helsinki; City of Zadar; Concentrix Solar GMBH;Conercon Ltd; Cyprus; Cyprus Energy Agency; DGS LV; DTI;
Dunlop; ECN; Ekain Taldea; EKILOR; Energia e Domotica; Entersolar; EPIA; ETEK; European Commission; Fraunhofer
ISE; Fotonapon; Gisscosa-Firestone; Gregor Czisch; ISET; Kassel; Germany; Halcrow Group ltd; Hukseflux; IEA PVPS;
Kari Ahlqvist; Lumeta Inc; Martifer Solar SA.; MSK; OBO-Betterman; OHSA; OSEIA; Papantoniou and Tsoutsos; PURE
project. Roman et al; PVGIS; PVResources; ReSEL TUC; Saecsa energia solar; Schletter Solar; SEC; Solostocks;
SOLVIS; Sovacool; Scheuten Solar; Sun Switch; Sunways; Tecnalia; Terza Solar Ltd; TFM;Tknika; Zubigune;

A great deal of additional information on the PVTRIN project is available on the web at: www.pvtrin.eu.
We would welcome feedback on this publication, if you have comments or questions please contact the project
coordinator.

Legal Notice:
The sole responsibility for the content of this document lies with the authors. It does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the
European Union. Neither the EACI nor European Commission are responsible for any use that may be made of the information
contained therein

PVTRIN Training course- Handbook for Solar Installers 231

C E R T I F I E D I N S T A L L E R

PVTRIN PARTNERS
Partner Country Website

Technical University of Crete Greece www.resel.tuc.gr

Environmental Engineering Dpt.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems Lab
PROJECT COORDINATOR

Agency of Brasov for the Management Romania www.abmee.ro

of Energy and Environment

Building Research Establishment Ltd UK www.bre.co.uk

Energy Institute Hrvoje Požar Croatia www.eihp.hr

European Photovoltaic Industry Association EU/ Belgium www.epia.org

Scientific and Technical Chamber of Cyprus Cyprus www.etek.org.cy

Sofia Energy Centre Bulgaria www.sec.bg

Tecnalia Spain www.tecnalia.com

Technical Chamber of Greece Greece www.teetdk.gr

Branch of Western Crete

www.pvtrin.eu