Two-element Array

Two-element Array
• When greater directivity is required than can be obtained by
a single antenna, antenna arrays are used.
• An antenna array is a system of similar antennas, similarly
oriented.
• Antenna arrays make use of wave-interference phenomena
that occur between the radiations from the different elements
of the array.
• Consider the two-element array of Fig. 11-9 in which the antennas (0)
and (1) are non directional radiators in the plane under consideration
• When the point P is sufficiently remote from the antenna
system, the radius vectors to the point can be considered
parallel, and it is possible to write
𝑟1 = 𝑟0 − 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
in the phase factor of the fields, and
1 1
=
𝑟1 𝑟0
as far as the magnitudes of the fields are concerned.
The phase difference between the radiations from the two
antennas will be
Ψ = 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝛼
• where 𝛽𝑑 = 2𝜋Τλ 𝑑 is the path difference in radians and
• α is the phase angle by which the current I1 leads I0.
• The phasor sum of the fields will be
𝐸 = 𝐸0 1 + 𝑘𝑒 𝑗Ψ
• where E0 is the field strength due to antenna (0) alone, and where k is
the ratio of the magnitudes of I1 and I0 .
• The magnitude of the total field strength is given by
• Radiation patterns of two nondirectional radiators fed with equal currents
at the phasings shown.
• In the particular but important case where the antenna currents equal
magnitudes, this becomes
 Linear Arrays
• For point-to-point communication at the higher
frequencies the desired radiation pattern is single
narrow lobe or beam.
• To obtain such a characteristic (at least
approximately) a multielement linear array is usually
used
• An array is linear when the elements of the array are
spaced equally along a straight line
• In a uniform linear array the elements are fed with
currents of equal magnitude and having a uniform
progressive phase shift along the line.
• The pattern of such an array can be obtained as before by
adding vectorially the field strengths due to each of the
elements.
• For a uniform array of nondirectional elements the field
strength would be

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸0 1 + 𝑒 𝑗Ψ + 𝑒 𝑗2Ψ + 𝑒 𝑗3Ψ … … … … . . +𝑒 𝑗 𝑛−1 Ψ

Where Ψ = 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝛼
and α is the progressive phase shift between elements.
α is the angle by which the current in any element leads
the current in the preceding element.
For the purpose of computing the pattern of the linear
array, above eq. may be viewed as a geometric
progression and written in the form
𝑛𝛹
𝐸𝑇 1−𝑒 𝑗𝑛Ψ 𝐸𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
= = 𝛹
𝐸0 1−𝑒 𝑗Ψ 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
• The maximum value of this expression is n and occurs
when Ψ = 0.
• This is the principal maximum of the array.
• Since Ψ=𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑+𝛼 the principal maximum occurs
𝛼
when 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = −
𝛽𝑑
• For a broadside array the maximum radiation occurs
perpendicular to the line of the array at φ= 90 degrees, so
α= 0 degrees.
• For an endfire array the maximum radiation is along the
line of the array at φ= 0, so α=-βd for this case
• The expression (14) is zero when
𝑛𝛹
= ±𝑘𝜋 k=1,2,3,………………..
2
• These are the nulls of the pattern.
• Secondary maxima occur approximately midway between
the nulls,
• when the numerator of expression (14) is a maximum,
that is when
𝑛𝛹 𝜋
= ± 2𝑚 + 1 m=1,2,3,……
2 2
• The first secondary maximum occurs when
𝛹 +3𝜋
=
2 2𝑛
𝛹 𝜋
• = does not give a maximum.
2 2𝑛
• The amplitude of the first secondary lobe is
1 1 2𝑛
= ≈ for large n
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛹 Τ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝜋Τ2𝑛 3𝜋

• The amplitude of the principal maximum was n so the

amplitude ratio of first secondary maximum to principal
maximum is 2/3π = 0.212.
Two-dimensional
normalized field
pattern (linear
scale), power
pattern
• This means that the first secondary maximum is about 13.5 db
below the principal maximum, and this ratio is independent of the
number of elements in the uniform array, as long as the number is
large.
• The width of the principal lobe, measured between the first nulls, is
twice the angle between the principal maximum and first null. This
latter angle is given by
𝑛𝛹1 2𝜋
• = 𝜋 or 𝛹1 =
2 𝑛
• For a broadside array Ψ=𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 and the principal maximum occurs
at φ= π/2.
• The first null occurs at an angle 𝜋Τ2 + ∆𝜑
𝛹1 λ
• Where c𝑜𝑠 𝜋Τ2 + ∆𝜑 = =
𝛽𝑑 𝑑𝑛
• If ΔΦ is small, it is given approximately by
λ
∆𝜑 =
𝑑𝑛
and the width of the principal lobe is
2λ
2∆𝜑 =
𝑑𝑛
For a uniform broadside array the width of the principal
lobe (in radians) is approximately twice the reciprocal of
the array length in wavelengths.
• For the end-fire array Ψ=𝛽𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑-1).
• The principal maximum is at Φ = 0, and the first null is at
Φ1 = ΔΦ where
2𝜋
𝛹1 = 𝛽𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑1 − 1 = −
𝑛

For ΔΦ small, there results approximately

• The width of the principal lobe of a uniform end-fire
array, as given approximately by expression (15b) is
greater than that for a uniform broadside array of the
same length
Multiplication of Patterns
 Patterns in Other Planes
• Figure 11-11(a) is the pattern, in the plane normal to the axes of the
antennas, of two antennas spaced one-half wavelength apart and fed
in phase.
• In this plane the antennas are nondirectional or uniform radiators.
• If the pattern in the plane containing the antennas is desired (in which
plane the antennas are directional), it is necessary to multiply the pattern
of Fig. 11-11(a) (that is, the array factor) by the directional pattern of the
antenna in the plane being considered.
• The resultant pattern is then obtained as a multiplication of the group
pattern by the unit pattern.
• If the antennas are fed 180 degrees out of phase (end-fire array) the
directions of maxima of group and unit patterns coincide and the
desirable directional characteristic of Fig. l l-18(b) results.
Binomial Array
 Binomial Array
• With a uniform linear array it is found that, as the array
length is increased in order to increase the directivity
• Secondary or minor lobes always appear in the pattern.
• For some applications a single narrow lobe without minor
lobes is desired.
• Thus in the uniform four-element array of Fig. 11-16, the
secondary lobes appear in the resultant because the group
pattern has four lobes.
• The group pattern has four lobes because the effective
sources producing the group pattern are spaced a full
wavelength.
• Reduction of the spacing of the elements of the group to
one-half wavelength results in a two-lobed figure-eight
pattern for the group pattern, and a resultant pattern that
has only primary lobes.
• The antenna arrangement that will result in half-
wavelength separation of the elements of the group is
shown in Fig. 11-22 along with the resultant patterns.
• In this case antennas (2) and (3) coincide so they would be
replaced with a single antenna carrying double the current
in the other elements.
• In other words, the result is a three-element array that has
the current ratios 1 : 2 : 1.
• Since this pattern is the product of two figure eight
patterns, it can be called a "figure-eight squared" pattern.
• Using this three-element array as a unit with a second
similar unit spaced one-half wavelength from it results in
the four-element array shown in Fig. 11-23.
• The current ratios of this array are 1:3:3:1
• The current ratios of four elements 1 : 3 : 3 : 1 can be
divided into two arrays of three elements (1:2:1)
• The pattern is the "figure-eight squared" pattern of the unit
times a figure-eight group pattern that results in a "figure-
eight cubed“ pattern.
• This process may be continued to obtain a pattern having
any desired degree of directivity and no secondary lobes.
• The numbers that give the current ratios will be recognize
as the binomial coefficients.
• For an array n half-wavelengths long the relative current in
th 𝑛!
the r element from one end is given by:
𝑟! 𝑛−𝑟 !
Where r = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
ANTENNA ARRAYS
The Mathematics of Linear Arrays.
• Schelkunoff has shown that linear arrays can be represented
as polynomial and that this representation becomes a very
useful tool in the analysis and synthesis of antenna arrays .
• For a general linear array of equally spaced elements(Fig.
12-1), the relative amplitude or the radiated field strength is
given by antenna arrays
• Figure 12-1. A linear array.
• d is the spacing between elements·
• The coefficients ao,a1, a2, etc., are propotional to the current
amplitudes in the respective elements.
• α is the progressive phase shift (lead) from left to right; α1 , α2
etc., are the deviations from this progressive phase shift.
• The coefficients A1, A2 etc., are now complex and indicate
the amplitude of current in each element and the phase
deviation of that current from the progressive phase shift of
the array.

• The following fundamental theorems are due to Schelkunoff,

and lay the foundations for the method:
THEOREM I: Every linear array with commensurable
separations between the elements can be represented by a
polynomial, and every polynomial can be interpreted as a
linear array.
• Since the product of two polynomials is a polynomial,
a corollary to Theorem I is:
• THEOREM II: There exists a linear array with a space
factor equal to the product of the space factor of two
linear array.
• THEOREM III: The space factor of a linear array of n
apparent elements is the product of (n-1) virtual
couplets with their null points at the zeros of E
• The space factor of an array is defined as the radiation
pattern of a similar array of nondirective or isotropic
elements.
• The degree of the polynomial which represents an array is
always one less than the apparent number of elements.
• The actual number of elements is at most equal to the
apparent number.
• The total length of the array is the product of the apparent
separation and the degree of the polynomial.
• Consider a simple two-element array in which the currents in
the elements are equal in magnitude.
•
 The relative radiation field strength is represented by
|E|= l1 + zl ……………………..(3)

𝑍 = 𝑒 𝑗Ψ = 𝑒 𝑗(𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑+𝛼 )
• Making use of Theorem II, a second array can be constructed
which will have a radiation pattern that is the square of that
given by (3), that is,
|E| =|1 + 𝑍|2 = |1 + 2Z+ 𝑍 2 |
• It is seen that the array that will produce this pattern is a three
element array having the current ratios
1 : 2: 1
• The current in the center element will lead the left-
hand element by α and the current in the right-hand
element will lead that in the left hand element by 2α.
• If the polynomial of (3) is raised to the mth power,
there result the general binomial array.
• When the elements spacing d is not greater than λ/2
such an array produces a pattern with no secondary
lobes.
• However, the principal lobe is considerably broader
than that produced by a uniform array having the
same number of elements.
• An array haying a narrower principal lobe than that given by
the binomial distribution and smaller secondary lobes than
that given by the uniform distribution can be obtained by
raising the polynomial of the uniform array of n elements
(where n > 2) to any desired power.
• For an n-element uniform array
𝐸 = |1 + 𝑍 + 𝑍 2 + 𝑍 3 + 𝑍 4 + … … … … + 𝑍 𝑛−1 |…..(4)
• when n, the number of elements, is large, the ratio of the
principal maximum to the first secondary maximum is
approximately independent of n and is 13.5 dB for the
uniform array.
• If an array is formed to produce a pattern that is the square of that
given by (4), the ratio of the principal to first secondary maximum will
be 27 db.
• This second array is given by
𝐸 = |1 + 𝑍 + 𝑍 2 + 𝑍 3 + 𝑍 4 + … … … … + 𝑍 𝑛−1 |2

• The current ratios for this array have the triangular distribution 1, 2, 3
... ( n - I), n, ( n - 1 ), ... 3, 2, 1
• The significance of Theorem III, the decomposition theorem,
can be understood by studying the variable z,
Where 𝑍 = 𝑒 𝑗Ψ Ψ = 𝛽𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝛼

• Since Ψ real, j Ψ is a pure imaginary, and the absolute value

of z is always unity.
• Plotted- in the complex plane, z is always on the
circumference of the unit circle.
• As 𝜑 increases from zero to
180 degrees
• Ψ decreases from βd + α to -βd
+α
• and z moves in a clockwise
direction.
• Because of symmetry the
range of 𝜑 to be considered is
from zero to 180 degrees.
• Thus the range of Ψ described
by z is Ψ = 2βd
radians.
• For example, for a separation between elements of λ/4,
ψ varies through π radians as φ goes from zero to 180
degrees, and z describes a semicircle.
• For d = λ/2 the range of ψ is 2π radians and z describes
a complete circle as φ varies from zero to 180 degrees.
• If dis greater than λ/2, the range of ψ is greater than 2
π, and z will overlap itself.
Active range of z
• For the simple two-element uniform array given by (3), the field strength
is the sum |Z+1|
• which may be written as the difference |Z-(-1)|
• This value is given geometrically by the distance between z and the
point -1 (Fig. 12-5).
• By the fundamental theorem of algebra, a polynomial of
the (n - l)th degree has (n - 1) zeros
• And can be factored into (n - 1) binomials. Thus

• The relative radiation field in any direction is given by

the products of the distances from z to the null points of
the array.
 Antenna Synthesis.
• It is a simple and straightforward job to compute the
radiation pattern of an array having specified
configuration and antenna currents.
• A somewhat more difficult problem is the design of an
array to produce a prescribed radiation pattern.
• It is convenient to consider an array having an odd number
of elements with a certain symmetry of current distribution
about the center element.
• The polynomial for an array with n = 2m +1 elements is
• Now the absolute value of z is always unity, so equation (10)
can be divided by zm without changing the value of |E|. That
is

• The currents in corresponding elements on either side of the

center element be equal in magnitude,
• but that the phase of the left-side element shall lag that of the
center element by the same amount that the corresponding
right-side element leads the center element (or vice versa).
• That is, the coefficients of corresponding elements are
made complex conjugates with

• Then the sum of terms of two corresponding elements

may be written
• The expression for |E| is now

• These are the first 2m + 1 terms of a Fourier series in

which the coefficients of the cosine terms are the ak 's,
and the coefficients of the sine terms are ( -bk's).
• Now any radiation pattern specified as a function f(ψ) may
be expanded as a Fourier series with an infinite number of
terms.
• Such a pattern may be approximated to any desired
accuracy by means of the finite series .
• When this is done the required current distribution of the
array can be written down directly.
• From the theory of Fourier series, this approximation is in
the least-mean- square sense; i.e., the mean-square
difference between the desired and the approximate pattern
for ψ from 0 to 2π is minimized.
EXAMPLE 4: Synthesized Bidirectional Array
• Design an array that will produce approximately a
pattern of Fig. 12-13. This pattern is defined by
• By symmetrical about the line of the array, φ= 0.
• If the spacing is chosen to be λ/2, then ψ = 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝛼
• The corresponding ψ function is
• Choosing α= -π: for an end-fire array results in the function
shown in Fig. 12-14.
• The Fourier series expansion for this function is
• Comparison with (12) determines the coefficient

• The pattern obtained using the value of m = 4, is given from eq. (I I) as

• This is a five-element array having the current ratios indicated and an
overall length of three wavelengths
• The apparent spacing between elements is one-half wavelength, but four
of the elements are missing.
• The pattern produced by this array is shown in Fig. 12-13. Also shown in
this figure is the pattern obtained with an I I-element array formed using m
= 9 in the series.
 The Tchebyscheff Distribution.
• The Tchebyschejf polynomials occur quite frequently in
design and
synthesis problems. They are defined by

• The general shape of Tm(x) is shown in Fig. 12-19 for

both m even and m odd.
• By inspection, T0(x) = 1, T1(x) = x
• The higher-order polynomials can be derived as follows:
• Similarly, it can be shown that

• As x is allowed to vary from some point c up to a value x0

and then back to its starting point,
• The function Tm(x) traces out a pattern consisting of
several small side lobes and one major lobe.
• The secondary lobes will all be of equal amplitude (unity) and will be down
from the main lobe by the ratio l/b.
• This ratio can be chosen at will by suitable choice of x0
• Consider the Tchebyscheff polynomial of mth degree

• The nulls of the pattern are given by the roots

• For an n-element uniform array
𝐸 = |1 + 𝑍 + 𝑍 2 + 𝑍 3 + 𝑍 4 + … … … … + 𝑍 𝑛−1
|…..(4)
• By the fundamental theorem of algebra, a polynomial of
the (n - l)th degree has (n - 1) zeros
• And can be factored into (n - 1) binomials. Thus

• The relative radiation field in any direction is given by

the products of the distances from z to the null points of
the array.
• Next consider the function ψ. For a broadside array for
which α=0,

• As φ varies from 0 to π/2 to π, ψ goes from βd to 0 to -βd

and the range of ψ is 2βd.
• Now let x = x0 cos ψ/2.
• φ varies from 0 through π/2 to π,
• ψ varies from βd through zero to -βd,
• and x will vary from x0 cos πd/λ to x0 back to X0 cos ( -πd/λ.)
= X0 cos πd/λ.
• For example, if d = λ/2,
• ψ will range from π through zero to -π,
• and x will range from 0 to +x0 and back to zero.
• Again, if d = λ,
• Ψ will range twice around the circle from 2π through 0 to -
2π,
• And x will range from –x0 to x0 and back to -x0•
• This is the correspondence desired.
• The nulls in the Tchebyscheff pattern occur at values of x given by

• so the corresponding position for the nulls on the unit circle will be given by
• Above equation (14) gives the required spacing of the nulls
on the unit circle for a pattern whose side lobes are all equal.
• The degree m of the polynomial used will be equal to the
number of nulls on the unit circle, and this will be one less
than n, the apparent number of elements.
• The value of x0 is determined by the desired ratio b of
principal sidelobe amplitudes.
• The value of x0 is given in terms of b by
• It can be calculated by noting that if b = coshρ, then

• The graphical-analytical method for obtaining the pattern of the array from
the location of the nulls yields a detailed and accurate plot of relative field
strength versus the defined angle ψ
 EXAMPLE 6:

• Design a four-element broadside array having a

spacing d = λ/2 between elements. The pattern is
to be optimum with a side lobe level
which is 19.l db down (b = 9.0)
• For d = λ/2, the range of operation is 2βd = 2π.
• Since there will be 3 nulls, use T3(x) = 4x3- 3x.
• Then

• Solving for x0,

• The nulls are given by cos (mδ) = cos (3δ) = 0. Therefore

• Then
• The polynomial representing the array is

• The required relative currents in the elements are

I : 1.667: 1.667 : I
• In