WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to:
Define semiconductor memories
Identify the types of RAM
Define ROM

SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORIES:

Semiconductor memory is a digital electronic data storage device, implemented

with semiconductor devices. It is often used as computer memory, implemented
with metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) memory cells on an integrated circuit (IC)
chip. There are many different types of implementations using various technologies.
Most types of semiconductor memory have the property of random access,[1] which
means that it takes the same amount of time to access any memory location, so data
can be efficiently accessed in any random order.[2] This contrasts with data storage
media such as hard disks and CDs which read and write data consecutively and
therefore the data can only be accessed in the same sequence it was written.
Semiconductor memory also has much faster access times than other types of data
storage; a byte of data can be written to or read from semiconductor memory within a
few nanoseconds, while access time for rotating storage such as hard disks is in the
range of milliseconds. For these reasons it is used for main computer memory (primary
storage), to hold data the computer is currently working on, among other uses.
Shift registers, processor registers, data buffers and other small digital registers that
have no memory address decoding mechanism are not considered as memory
although they also store digital data.

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
Semiconductor memory is a type of semiconductor device tasked with storing data.
There are two electronic data storage mediums that we can utilize, magnetic or optical.

Magnetic storage:

 Stores data in magnetic form.

 Affected by magnetic fields.
 Has high storage capacity.
 Doesn't use a laser to read/write data.
 Magnetic storage devices are; Hard disk , Floppy disk, Magnetic tape etc.

Optical storage:

 Stores data optically, uses laser to read/write.

 Not affected by magnetic fields.
 Has less storage than a hard disk.
 Data accessing is high, compared to a floppy disc.
 Optical storage devices are; CD-ROM,CD-R, CD-RW, DVD etc.

There is also volatile memory. This is memory that loses its data once power is cut off,
while non-volatile memory retains data even without power.

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
Semiconductor Memory Types

* RAM (Random Access Memory) : Enables Read/Write of stored contents

* ROM (Read Only Memory) : Allows only Read operation

Characteristics of Various Types of Memory

RAM ROM
Volatility Non Volatility
Parameter
Mask
SRAM DRAM FeRAM EPROM EEPROM FLASH
ROM
Voltage
Data
Voltage Bias
Storage Unnecessary
Bias +
Method
Refresh
No. of
Read ∞ ∞ 10 billion∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Operations to
1 trillion 100,000 to10,000 to
No. of
∞ ∞ times 0 times 100 times 1 million100,000
Rewrites
times times

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
Write on
Possible Possible Possible × × Possible Possible
Substrate
Read Time ◎ ◎ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○
Write
◎ ◎ ○ - △ △ △
Time
Bit Cost △ ○ △ ◎ △ △ ◎
Larger
○ ◎ △ ◎ △ △ ◎
Capacity

Memory
Cell
Stored inMaintains Polarization Ions Maintains Maintains Maintains
a flipcharge inof theimplanted charge incharge incharge in
flop the ferroelectric in athe the the
circuit capacitor material transistor floating floating floating
gate gate gate

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

Random-access memory (RAM /ræm/) is a form of computer memory that can be read
and changed in any order, typically used to store working data and machine
code. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in
almost the same amount of time irrespective of the physical location of data inside the
memory. In contrast, with other direct-access data storage media such as hard
disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older magnetic tapes and drum memory, the time
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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
required to read and write data items varies significantly depending on their physical
locations on the recording medium, due to mechanical limitations such as media
rotation speeds and arm movement.
RAM contains multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry, to connect the data lines to
the addressed storage for reading or writing the entry. Usually more than one bit of
storage is accessed by the same address, and RAM devices often have multiple data
lines and are said to be "8-bit" or "16-bit", etc. devices.
In today's technology, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuit (IC)
chips with MOS (metal-oxide-semiconductor) memory cells. RAM is normally
associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM modules), where stored
information is lost if power is removed, although non-volatile RAM has also been
developed.[3] Other types of non-volatile memories exist that allow random access for
read operations, but either do not allow write operations or have other kinds of
limitations on them. These include most types of ROM and a type of flash
memory called NOR-Flash.
The two main types of volatile random-access semiconductor memory are static
random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).
Commercial uses of semiconductor RAM date back to 1965, when IBM introduced the
SP95 SRAM chip for their System/360 Model 95 computer, and Toshiba used DRAM
memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, both based on bipolar
transistors. Commercial MOS memory, based on MOS transistors, was developed in
the late 1960s, and has since been the basis for all commercial semiconductor memory.
The first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103, was introduced in October
1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with
the Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992.

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
TYPES

The two widely used forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic
RAM (DRAM). In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a six-
transistor memory cell. This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is
generally faster and requires less dynamic power than DRAM. In modern computers,
SRAM is often used as cache memory for the CPU. DRAM stores a bit of data using a
transistor and capacitor pair, which together comprise a DRAM cell. The capacitor
holds a high or low charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that
lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As
this form of memory is less expensive to produce than static RAM, it is the
predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers.
Both static and dynamic RAM are considered volatile, as their state is lost or reset when
power is removed from the system. By contrast, read-only memory (ROM) stores data
by permanently enabling or disabling selected transistors, such that the memory
cannot be altered. Writeable variants of ROM (such as EEPROM and flash memory)
share properties of both ROM and RAM, enabling data to persist without power and to
be updated without requiring special equipment. These persistent forms of
semiconductor ROM include USB flash drives, memory cards for cameras and portable
devices, and solid-state drives. ECC memory (which can be either SRAM or DRAM)
includes special circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults (memory errors) in the
stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes.
In general, the term RAM refers solely to solid-state memory devices (either DRAM or
SRAM), and more specifically the main memory in most computers. In optical storage,
the term DVD-RAM is somewhat of a misnomer since, unlike CD-RW or DVD-RW it
does not need to be erased before reuse. Nevertheless, a DVD-RAM behaves much like
a hard disc drive if somewhat slower.

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
MEMORY CELL

The memory cell is the fundamental building block of computer memory. The memory
cell is an electronic circuit that stores one bit of binary information and it must be set to
store a logic 1 (high voltage level) and reset to store a logic 0 (low voltage level). Its
value is maintained/stored until it is changed by the set/reset process. The value in the
memory cell can be accessed by reading it.
In SRAM, the memory cell is a type of flip-flop circuit, usually implemented
using FETs. This means that SRAM requires very low power when not being accessed,
but it is expensive and has low storage density.
A second type, DRAM, is based around a capacitor. Charging and discharging this
capacitor can store a "1" or a "0" in the cell. However, the charge in this capacitor
slowly leaks away, and must be refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh process,
DRAM uses more power, but it can achieve greater storage densities and lower unit
costs compared to SRAM.

DRAM Cell (1 Transistor and one capacitor)

SRAM Cell (6 Transistors)

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
ADDRESSING

To be useful, memory cells must be readable and writeable. Within the RAM device,
multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry is used to select memory cells. Typically, a
RAM device has a set of address lines A0... An, and for each combination of bits that
may be applied to these lines, a set of memory cells are activated. Due to this
addressing, RAM devices virtually always have a memory capacity that is a power of
two.
Usually several memory cells share the same address. For example, a 4 bit 'wide' RAM
chip has 4 memory cells for each address. Often the width of the memory and that of
the microprocessor are different, for a 32 bit microprocessor, eight 4 bit RAM chips
would be needed.
Often more addresses are needed than can be provided by a device. In that case,
external multiplexors to the device are used to activate the correct device that is being
accessed.
MEMORY HIERARCHY
One can read and over-write data in RAM. Many computer systems have a memory
hierarchy consisting of processor registers, on-die SRAM caches,
external caches, DRAM, paging systems and virtual memory or swap space on a hard
drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers,
even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the
original concept behind the random access term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level
such as DRAM, the specific row, column, bank, rank, channel,
or interleave organization of the components make the access time variable, although
not to the extent that access time to rotating storage media or a tape is variable. The
overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the highest possible average
access performance while minimizing the total cost of the entire memory system
(generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at
the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom).

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
In many modern personal computers, the RAM comes in an easily upgraded form of
modules called memory modules or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of
chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or when
changing needs demand more storage capacity. As suggested above, smaller amounts
of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the CPU and other ICs on
the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CD-ROMs, and several other parts of the
computer system.

READ-ONLY MEMORY
Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of storage medium that permanently stores data
on personal computers (PCs) and other electronic devices. It contains the
programming needed to start a PC, which is essential for boot-up; it performs major
input/output tasks and holds programs or software instructions.

Because ROM is read-only, it cannot be changed; it is permanent and non-volatile,

meaning it also holds its memory even when power is removed. By contrast, random
access memory (RAM) is volatile; it is lost when power is removed.

There are numerous ROM chips located on the motherboard and a few on expansion
boards. The chips are essential for the basic input/output system (BIOS), boot up,
reading and writing to peripheral devices, basic data management and the software for
basic processes for certain utilities.
Other types of non-volatile memory include:

 Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

 Electrically Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)
 Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM; also called
Flash ROM)
 Electrically Alterable Read-Only Memory (EAROM)

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WEEK 7: Semiconductor Memories, Random Access Memory, Read Only Memory
However, these types of non-volatile memory can be altered and are often referred to
as programmable ROM. One of the original forms of non-volatile memory was mask-
programmed ROM. It was designed for specific data such as bootstrap, which contains
the startup code. Mask-programmed ROM can never be changed.

Because ROM cannot be changed and is read-only, it is mainly used for firmware.
Firmware is software programs or sets of instructions that are embedded into a
hardware device. It supplies the needed instructions on how a device communicates
with various hardware components. Firmware is referred to as semi-permanent
because it does not change unless it is updated. Firmware includes BIOS, erasable
programmable ROM (EPROM) and the ROM configurations for software.

ROM may also be referred to as maskROM (MROM). MaskROM is a read-only

memory that is static ROM and is programmed into an integrated circuit by the
manufacturer. An example of MROM is the bootloader or solid-state ROM, the oldest
type of ROM.

Some ROM is non-volatile but can be reprogrammed, this includes:

 Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM): This is programmed with

the use of very high voltages and exposure to approximately 20 minutes of
intense ultraviolet (UV) light.
 Electrically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM): This is used
in many older computer BIOS chips, is non-volatile storage that can be erased
and programmed several times and allows only one location at a time to be
written or erased. An updated version of EEPROM is flash memory; this allows
numerous memory locations to be altered simultaneously.
 Ultraviolet-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (UV-EPROM): This is
read-only memory that can be erased by the use of ultraviolet light and then
reprogrammed.

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ROM is also often used in optical storage media such as various types of compact
discs, including read-only memory (CD-ROM), compact disc recordable (CD-R) and
compact disc rewritable (CD-RW).

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REFERENCES:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_memory

https://www.rohm.com/electronics-basics/memory/what-is-semiconductor-memory

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory

https://www.techopedia.com/definition/2804/read-only-memory-rom

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