See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/228656295

Reciprocal Teaching for Reading Comprehension in Higher Education: A

Strategy for Fostering the Deeper Understanding of Texts

Article · January 2006

CITATIONS READS

85 6,464

6 authors, including:

Peter Doolittle David Hicks

Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
77 PUBLICATIONS   1,734 CITATIONS    73 PUBLICATIONS   965 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Cheri Triplett William Nichols

Radford University University of Maine
11 PUBLICATIONS   260 CITATIONS    42 PUBLICATIONS   1,003 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Multimedia View project

Lab-in-a-Box View project

All content following this page was uploaded by David Hicks on 06 April 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2006, Volume 17, Number 2, 106-118
http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ ISSN 1812-9129

Reciprocal Teaching for Reading Comprehension in Higher Education:

A Strategy for Fostering the Deeper Understanding of Texts

Peter E. Doolittle, David Hicks, and Cheri F. Triplett William Dee Nichols
Virginia Tech University of North Carolina – Charlotte
Carl A. Young
Virginia Tech

Assigning students the reading of historical texts, scholarly articles, popular press books, and/or
Internet publications is common in higher education. Perhaps equally common is instructor
disappointment in students' comprehension of assigned readings. This lack of good reading
comprehension skills is exacerbated by the central role of reading comprehension in higher
education success. One solution to this problem of poor reading comprehension skills is the explicit
teaching of reading comprehension strategies to both undergraduate and graduate students,
specifically, reciprocal teaching. In the following article the foundations and methods of reciprocal
teaching are defined and then each author, in turn, delineates how he or she uses reciprocal teaching
in his or her classroom. These examples demonstrate the flexibility and transferability of this basic
strategy as the five authors teach in an array of domains.

Assigning students the reading of historical texts, Winne, 1995); students may have too little prior
scholarly articles, popular press books, and/or Internet knowledge, relative to the task at hand, to employ
publications is common in higher education. Perhaps particular strategies effectively (Carpenter & Just,
equally common is instructor disappointment in 1986); students may be more focused on grade
students’ comprehension of the assigned readings. That performance than on knowledge acquisition (Mayer,
is, “although every student knows how to read, many 1996); students may view strategy usage as too
have never learned good reading skills” (Royse, 2001, demanding or difficult (Palmer & Goetz, 1988); and,
p. 127). This lack of good reading skills is exacerbated instructors may assign tasks that are too simplistic to
by the central role of reading comprehension in higher warrant the use of explicit strategies (van Meter, Yokoi,
education success. According to Hart and Speece & Pressley, 1994).
(1998), “one of the greatest demands on students Given that the explicit teaching of reading
attending post-secondary institutions is the comprehension strategies has been demonstrated to be
comprehension of many different and difficult texts” (p. effective in enhancing learning and performance (see
670). Hattie, Briggs, & Purdie, 1996; Rosenshine, Meister, &
One solution to this problem of poor reading Chapman, 1996), the question arises, “What
comprehension skills is the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies can be effectively employed
comprehension strategies to both undergraduate and in the college classroom?” One answer to this question
graduate students (e.g., reciprocal teaching, SQ4R, is reciprocal teaching. In the following sections, the
induced imagery). Hodge, Palmer, and Scott (1992) foundations and methods of reciprocal teaching are
determined that college-aged students who were defined and then each author, in turn, delineates how he
ineffective readers often did not monitor the or she uses reciprocal teaching in his or her classroom.
comprehension of their reading, and rarely instigated These examples demonstrate the flexibility and
any strategies to adjust to deficiencies in reading transferability of this basic strategy.
comprehension. In addition, Meyer, Young, and Bartlett
(1989) demonstrated that explicit instruction in reading Reciprocal Teaching
comprehension strategies is an effective means for
improving reading comprehension in adults. Reciprocal teaching is an instructional strategy
Unfortunately, explicit instruction in reading based on modeling and guided practice, in which the
comprehension is rarely taught at the higher education instructor first models a set of reading comprehension
level (see Pressley, Woloshyn, Lysynchuk, Martin, strategies and then gradually cedes responsibility for
Wood, & Willoughby, 1990; Wilson, 1988). these strategies to the students (Brown & Palaincsar,
If strategy usage is known to be effective in 1989; Palincsar, 1986; Palincsar & Brown, 1984).
promoting reading comprehension, why do instructors Specifically, reciprocal teaching consists of three main
and students not employ such strategies? Several components, (a) the teaching and learning of specific
reasons may apply: students may not see the reading comprehension strategies, (b) the dialogue
relationship between strategy use and success (Butler & between a instructor and students where the instructor
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 107

models why, when, and where to use these reading 1. Questioning: Questioning involves the
comprehension strategies, and (c) the appropriating of identification of information, themes, and
the role of the instructor by the students, that is, ideas that are central and important enough to
students begin to model the reading comprehension warrant further consideration. The central or
strategies for other students. Thus, the goals of important information, themes, or ideas are
reciprocal teaching are for students to learn the used to generate questions that are then used as
reading comprehension strategies, learn how and when self-tests for the reader. Questioning provides
to use the strategies, and become self-regulated in the a context for exploring the text more deeply
use of these strategies. and assuring the construction of meaning.
The general methodology of reciprocal teaching 2. Summarizing: Summarizing is the process of
involves the instructor and students, usually in small identifying the important information, themes,
groups, reading a section of text. The instructor then and ideas within a text and integrating these
leads a discussion of the text, while modeling into a clear and concise statement that
appropriate reading comprehension strategies. During communicates the essential meaning of the
this dialogue and modeling process, the instructor text. Summarizing may be based on a single
encourages students to ask questions of both the text paragraph, a section of text, or an entire
and strategies. The instructor uses this dialogue to passage. Summarizing provides the impetus to
foster both reading comprehension and strategic create a context for understanding the specifics
cognition. This general process of reading, dialoguing, of a text.
and clarifying, continues throughout the length of the 3. Clarifying: Clarifying involves the
text. However, as students become more facile with identification and clarification of unclear,
the dialogue process and the reading comprehension difficult, or unfamiliar aspects of a text. These
strategies, the instructor begins to have students take aspects may include awkward sentence or
the role of instructor or dialogue leader. As students passage structure, unfamiliar vocabulary,
begin to lead the dialogue process, the instructor unclear references, or obscure concepts.
assumes the role of guide or facilitator, rather than Clarifying provides the motivation to
leader: remediate confusion through re-reading, the
use of context in which the text was written
The instructor models and explains, relinquishing and/or read, and the use of external resources
part of the task to novices only at the level each (e.g., dictionary or thesaurus).
one is capable of negotiating at any one time. 4. Predicting: Predicting involves combining the
Increasingly, as the novice becomes more reader’s prior knowledge, new knowledge
competent, the instructor increases her demands, from the text, and the text’s structure to create
requiring participation at a slightly more hypotheses related to the direction of the text
challenging level. (Palincsar & Brown, 1984, p. and the author’s intent in writing. Predicting
13) provides an overall rationale for reading – to
confirm or disconfirm self-generated
This shift from an instructor-centered approach hypotheses.
to a student-centered approach is a central
component of the reciprocal teaching process and In Palincsar and Brown (1984), these four reading
encourages self-regulation on the part of the comprehension strategies were taught during the
students. dialogue in which the instructor modeled the use of
each of the strategies; however, others have
Comprehension Strategies successfully taught the reading comprehension
strategies prior to engaging in the dialogue process
The use of comprehension strategies is one of (Palincsar, Brown, & Martin, 1987; Taylor & Frye,
three central pillars, along with dialogue and the 1992).
appropriation of the role of instructor by the
students, of the reciprocal teaching strategy. Dialogue and Appropriation
Comprehension strategies are organized approaches
to engaging in and better understanding texts – to The aforementioned reading comprehension
facilitate the creation of meaning during the reading strategies alone are not sufficient to achieve the goals of
process. Palincsar and Brown (1984), in there reciprocal teaching. Dialogue is also a key component.
original research, used four discrete reading Dialogue refers to the discussions, questions and
comprehension strategies within reciprocal teaching: answers, and feedback that occur during the process of
questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and predicting. reading and understanding the text (see Carter &
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 108

Fekete, 2001; Palinscar, 1986). During the early stages (see Hart & Speece, 1998, and Rosenshine & Meister,
of reciprocal teaching the instructor explains, in small 1994).
groups, the overall nature of the reading comprehension
strategies, the reasons for their use, and when to use the Philosophical and Theoretical Foundations for the Use
strategies. The instructor then selects a section of the of Reciprocal Teaching
text and the instructor and students silently read that
section. Typically, reciprocal teaching begins with the The use of the reciprocal teaching strategy,
reading of short passages (e.g., a paragraph or two) and including the achievement of the goals of reciprocal
proceeds to longer passages (e.g., an entire section or teaching, is well grounded in the literature on social
text). constructivist philosophy and cognitive psychology
After reading a section of text the instructor begins theory. This grounding is essential as it separates the
to model the reciprocal teaching process by generating reciprocal teaching strategy from folk psychology
and asking a question which the students help to strategies, and provides a robust rationale for its use.
answer. The instructor may ask several questions before Social constructivism, as a foundation for the use
summarizing the section of text that was read. of reciprocal teaching, emphasizes the social genesis of
Following the summarization process, the instructor knowledge; that is, "every function in the [student's]
will clarify any difficult passages, vocabulary, or cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
structures within the text. Finally, through the use of level, and later, on the individual level" (Vygotsky,
text-based cues, the instructor will provide a prediction 1978, p. 57). This social genesis of knowledge
for the next section of text. As the instructor progresses construction is comprised of three primary assumptions:
through questioning, summarizing, clarifying, and (a) knowledge and meaning are active creations of
predicting, the students are not passive, but instead are socialization; (b) knowledge and meaning are social
encouraged to engage in discussion. Specifically, creations and as such reflect social negotiation and
consensus; and (c) knowledge and meaning are
students’ participation can include (a) elaborating constructed for the purposes of social adaptation,
or commenting on another student’s summary, (b) discourse, and goal achievement (Gergen, 1999; Prawat
suggesting other questions, (c) commenting on & Floden, 1994). These three assumptions are evident
another’s predictions, (d) requesting clarification of in reciprocal teaching; specifically, reciprocal teaching
material they did not understand, and (e) helping to is based on active socialization, both instructor-student
resolve misunderstandings. (Rosenshine & Meister, and student-student interactions, where the knowledge
1994, p. 480) that is constructed from the given text is negotiated
within discourse communities and is not merely
This cycle of dialogical questioning, summarizing, transferred from instructor to student. In addition,
clarifying, and predicting continue as an instructor-led reciprocal teaching emphasizes the instrumentalist
process until students begin to understand the processes supposition that knowledge is to be useful. That is,
themselves. Gradually the instructor begins to transfer reciprocal teaching emphasizes the role of language in
control of the process to the students by having students communication, understanding, and action.
adopt the role of discussion leader. These leaders then While social constructivism provides a solid
initiate the dialogical questioning, summarizing, philosophical foundation for the use of reciprocal
clarifying, and predicting process, while the instructor teaching, cognitive psychology provides a solid
assumes the role of observer and facilitator. theoretical foundation. There is ample empirical
It is at this point that the process of dialogue evidence from cognitive psychology to suggest the
begins to flourishes with one student asking a question usefulness of reciprocal teaching in fostering
and others providing answers and comments, one comprehension. Rosenshine and Meister (1994)
student summarizing and others providing conducted a meta-analysis of 16 quantitative studies
elaborations and simplifications, one student focusing on reciprocal teaching and concluded that (a)
identifying difficult passages and others clarifying and reciprocal teaching had a significant positive effect on
obtaining relevant resources, and one student students' reading comprehension performance relative
predicting the upcoming text and others refining and to instructor-made assessments (effect size =. 88), and
provide alternative hypotheses. The use of this (b) reciprocal teaching had a significant and positive
dialogue, in conjunction with the reading effect on students' reading comprehension performance
comprehension strategies, leads to the satisfaction of relative to standardized tests (effect size =. 32). Further,
the previously identified goals of reciprocal teaching – Rosenshine and Meister's analysis also revealed that
for students to learn the reading comprehension reciprocal teaching is most effective for older and
strategies, learn how and when to use the strategies, poorer reading students. These results bode well for the
and become self-regulated in the use of these strategies effective use of reciprocal teaching in higher education.
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 109

Variations on a Theme employed for reading the dense philosophical and

theoretical texts include summarizing, clarifying,
While the methodology delineated by Palincsar and integrating, and elaborating. The reading
Brown (1984) and Palincsar (1986) is well defined, comprehension strategies of summarizing and
three variations on this methodology have also been clarifying have been defined previously and will not
demonstrated to be effective. These variations include be reiterated here.
using different reading comprehension strategies, Integration, however, involves making explicit
modeling to different sized groups, and teaching the connections between (a) the new section of the text
reading comprehension strategies directly and at and the previously read sections of the same text, and
different times relative to the dialogue. The Miami- (b) the new section of the text and previous readings
Dade County Public Schools’ Project MERIT (i.e., different texts). Thus, integration occurs both
(Reciprocal teaching, n.d.) successfully added the within the current text and between texts. Integration
strategy of visualizing to the Palincsar and Brown’s provides the catalyst to synthesize one’s knowledge,
original three strategies. In addition, De Corte, in order to avoid inert knowledge and foster functional
Verschaffel, and Van de Ven (2001) successfully knowledge (Bransford & Vye, 1989). In addition to
modeled the reading comprehension strategies in front integration, students are to engage in elaboration.
of the whole class, rather than in small groups. Elaboration involves explicitly relating the new
Finally, Palincsar, David, Winn, Stevens, and Brown section of the text to one’s prior knowledge.
(1990) successfully taught students the reading Elaboration moves beyond relating the new text to
comprehension strategies before the dialogue process. previously read texts and includes making a broad
These variations on the Palincsar and Brown array of connections to one’s educational experiences,
(1994) methodology are important as they vocational experiences, and general knowledge of the
demonstrate the flexibility and transferability of the world (see Dole, Duffy, Roehler, & Pearson, 1991).
reciprocal teaching strategy. The next section Specifically, elaboration leads to an enhanced
delineates how the authors of this article have personalization of the text and its meaning.
effectively used the basic reciprocal teaching These four reading comprehension strategies -
methodology within different contexts. summarizing, clarifying, integrating, and elaborating
- are implemented in the following manner. After
Reciprocal Teaching in Action reading a section of text, the lead student summarizes
his or her current understanding of the text. The
Case #1: Reciprocal Teaching and the Reading of other students add to and/or comment on the lead
Scholarly Articles (Peter Doolittle) student’s summary as needed. The lead student then
identifies sections of the text where clarification is
In a graduate educational psychology class that is needed. The lead student elicits the help of the other
taught by the first author, Constructivism and students in this process of clarification. The lead
Education, students are required to read student then attempts to integrate the current section
philosophically and theoretically dense texts peppered of text with the preceding sections of the same text.
with novel, polysyllabic, and multi-definitional words. These connections are extended by other students
Early in the semester, reading these types of texts is before the lead student attempts to make connections
frustrating to the students, as they tend to lack the between the current text and other relevant texts.
necessary prior knowledge of philosophy, After making inter- and intra-textual connections, the
constructivism, and educational psychology to unpack lead student guides a discussion that focuses on
the text to the point of comprehension. To combat this connecting the current text passage to the individual
frustration, a version of reciprocal teaching that is in group member’s prior knowledge. Finally, the
general accord with the methodology proposed by reciprocal teaching cycle ends where it began, with
Palincsar (1986) and Palincsar and Brown (1994) is the lead student summarizing the section of text just
used. The methodology for this augmented version of read.
reciprocal teaching involves the same dialogic This augmented reciprocal teaching
methodology used by Palincsar and Brown (i.e., a methodology fosters meaningful learning where
progression from instructor-centered to student- knowledge is integrated with other texts, one’s prior
centered text inquiry), with a variation in the reading knowledge, and others’ perspectives. The use of this
comprehension strategies used. These strategies are augmented reciprocal teaching methodology has
taught explicitly and modeled to the entire class, resulted in students that are more adept at reading,
simultaneously, in a manner similar to that of interpreting, and comprehending difficult texts, as
Palincsar, David, Winn, Stevens, and Brown (1990). well as students that are better equipped to write
The modified reading comprehension strategies more highly integrated papers.
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 110

Case #2: Facilitating Historical Inquiry in the Social move through this process they are provided with the
Studies (David Hicks) source analysis chart (see Figure 1). The chart can be
used in a number of ways. Often students copy this
Teaching history to students who have simply chart onto full sized chart paper placed on the
experienced high school history via the traditional classroom wall. The students place, copy, or describe a
textbook is often a frustrating experience for both source in the central Source Description box. Each
professor and students, especially when the time subsequent layered box represents one of the specific
arrives to engage in historical inquiry. Wineburg’s stages of the analysis process. Students’ answers to
(1991) research on how students analyze multiple each stage’s trigger questions are written within the
historical sources reveals that students approach corresponding box. However, telling students how to
historical sources as they would any narrative. The engage in this process of historical inquiry is not
historical texts were viewed as nothing more that a enough, instead the process is modeled for students
“repository of facts.” The dangers of such an approach using a think-aloud protocol – the instructor verbalizes
to reading historical sources is that students simply his or her thoughts, unfiltered, as he or she works
accept what is written within the texts at face value through an analysis. An example of this modeling
and fail to recognize and take into account the process, and the subsequent progression from an
importance of the historical context of which the instructor-centered analysis to a student-centered
source is a part. analysis, follows.
Seixas (1998) contends that if students are to learn Consider the following question as a focus of
to read historical texts, instructors must be willing and historical analysis: How did World War II impact life in
able to teach students, explicitly, the metacognitive southwest Virginia? The historical analysis process
strategies and historical habits of mind required to begins by placing a text document focusing on price
engage in the process of historical inquiry. This is by no controls in the center box. Students are asked to listen
means an easy task but professors can facilitate the to the types of questions asked by the instructor during
process of analyzing historical sources by guiding the think-aloud, the responses generated, and the
students through a process of asking spiraling questions rationales for the questions and answers within each
designed to encourage students to go beyond a stage of analysis. A second example is also modeled
superficial glance at a source. using the think-aloud, a photograph from the same
The process of teaching students how to analyze World War II period.
historical sources can be broken into five overlapping Following the completion of both think-aloud
stages: Summarizing, Contextualizing, Inferencing, modeling protocols, students are asked to identify
Monitoring, and Corroborating. Summarizing begins specific instructor based questions that aided in the
with having students quickly examine the documentary analysis of these sources. Using these student generated
aspects of the text, by asking such basic questions as: questions, a third source from the period is placed
What does the source directly tell us? Contextualizing within a new chart. This time the instructor guides the
begins the process of having students spend more time students through the process by asking them what
with the source in order to explore the authentic aspects questions they would ask of the source at each stage
of the text in terms of locating the source within time and discussing, refining, and writing up student
and space. Inferencing is designed to provide students responses on the chart. The goal is for the classroom
with the opportunity to revisit initial facts gleaned from exchange to shift from an instructor-led to a student-led
the source and begin to read subtexts and make discussion and analysis. Upon completion of the guided
inferences based upon their developing understanding class analysis, students are divided into groups of three
of the context and continued examination of the source. or four and each supplied with an historical source
Monitoring is a key stage in examining individual pertaining to the question under exploration. Students
sources. Here students are expected to question and are then asked to analyze their source in the same way
reflect upon their initial assumptions and process in they have seen modeled and subsequently practiced in
terms of the overall focus on the historical question class.
being studied. Corroborating only starts when students The result is that the walls of the classroom are
have analyzed a series of sources, and are ready to covered with historical sources that have been
extend and deepen their analysis through comparing thoroughly interrogated by students as they explore a
and contrasting the evidence gleaned from each source specific historical question. Each group presents their
in light of the overall topic of investigation. analysis of their source to the class. During the initial
Within each stage, there exists a series of spiraling presentations, the instructor directs the students to take
trigger questions that students should learn to ask as notice of the final stage of the analysis process –
they initially begin to examine specific historical corroboration. Between presentations, the instructor,
sources (see Figure 1). To help students learn how to again using the think aloud protocol, begins to model
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 111

the process of corroboration between sources. As improving comprehension, it is disappointing to hear

students begin to engage more fully in the corroboration that these are often the only instructions students
process themselves, by comparing and contrasting receive about reading in the content areas. "In order to
evidence and identifying similarities and differences comprehend a text," I explain, "you must think before,
between the sources in light of the historical question during, and after reading." Reciprocal teaching is a
being asked, the instructor begins to transfer ownership strategy that can help students think and comprehend
of the corroborating process to students. before, during, and after reading.
One of the paramount issues addressed in the
Case #3: Thinking Before, During, and After Reading literacy course is the content of the classroom
(Cheri Triplett) textbooks. It is essential for the preservice instructors to
critique the information they read in textbooks and
In my Theories and Practice in Content Literacy course, trade books. It is equally essential for them to consult
which is designed for preservice elementary school multiple sources when exploring a particular topic,
instructors; my students and I talk about comprehension especially in the area of history. Although school
and comprehension strategies on the first day of class. I textbooks have been criticized for their minimalist
am always dumbfounded by the students' stories of views of history, they continue to be the genre of choice
"reading the chapter and answering the questions at the in the social studies classroom (Schug, Western, &
end." At a time when we know so much about Enochs, 1997).

FIGURE 1
A Chart Designed to Foster Historical Inquiry Based on Historical Source Analysis.
Corroborating:
What similarities and differences exist between the sources and what factors may account this?
What gaps hinder your interpretation and what other sources would be useful to further your interpretation?

Monitoring:
What is missing from the source and what ideas, images, or terms need further defining?
How reliable is the source for answer the question of interest?

Inferring:
What is suggested and what conclusions may be drawn from the source?
What biases are indicated in the source?

Contextualizing:
Who produced and when, why, and where was the source produced?
What was happening locally/globally when this source was produced?

Summarizing:
What specific information does the source provide?
What is the subject, audience, or purpose of the source?

Source Description
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 112

In order to begin a discussion about the critical consisted of investigations in authentic classrooms,
reading of history texts; we read a chapter about thus taking into account the dynamic factors that
Abraham Lincoln from a classroom textbook; we read influence teaching and learning (Baumann, Dillon,
an award-winning children's book, Lincoln, a Shockley, Alverman, & Reinking, 1996; Reinking,
Photobiography (Freedman, 1987); and we read a Labbo, & McKenna, 1997). In one of the reports,
critical essay about Lincoln from Lies My Instructor Reinking and associates generated a list of
Told Me (Loewen, 1995). The purpose of reading pedagogical generalizations intended to serve as a
these three texts sequentially is three-fold. First, I basis for using technology in improving reading
want to challenge the preservice instructors' comprehension. According to these generalizations,
assumptions by exposing them to three very different technology can promote the integration of reading and
perspectives about Abraham Lincoln. Secondly, I writing activities for purposeful communication, and
want my students to be exposed to three very can facilitate students’ reading and writing by
different genres that are appropriate for social studies providing individualized assistance thus reducing the
instruction. Lastly, I want my students to learn to drudgery associated with some aspects of reading
think before, during, and after reading. difficult text.
The process of reciprocal teaching helps my In addition to these studies examining the benefits
students to think before, during, and after they read of using technologically enhanced instruction,
each text. The process I utilize introduces four numerous pedagogically-oriented studies have
specific comprehension strategies: activating prior demonstrated that students can be taught learning
knowledge, which takes place before the reading of strategies and that these strategies in turn will improve
text; questioning and clarifying, which takes place students comprehension of difficult text (Dole, Brown,
during the reading; and, summarizing, which takes & Trathen, 1996; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991). In
place after the reading. For example, when we read addition, students who are taught these strategies not
the chapter about Abraham Lincoln from a classroom only comprehend the text, but they also arrive at a
textbook, I usually lead in the process with the whole richer understanding of the text and are more likely to
group as follows: improve their abilities to use the strategies in other
settings (Auerbach & Paxton, 1997; Pearson &
1. I lead a discussion about what they already Fielding, 1991).
know about Abraham Lincoln. Nichols, Wood and Rickelman (2001) in a recent
2. I have students read the chapter, recording examination of using technology to engage students,
their questions and comments as they go. concluded that through the combination of technology
These may include questions about and learning strategies, instructors can design
vocabulary and text structure, as well as instruction that allows students to work
questions about Lincoln himself. collaboratively, help students remain purposefully
3. I lead a discussion about their questions and engaged in the learning task, and provide individual
comments, clarifying new and challenging responses to all students. In light of this investigation,
information. it has been my attempt to combine reciprocal teaching
4. I lead a discussion summarizing the article, with technology through an online content area
emphasizing what they have learned. reading course, Comprehending Processes and
Reading in the Content Areas Online.
By the time we read the chapter from Lies My Even though one of the generalizations of
Instructor Told Me (Loewen, 1995), students are able technology assisted instruction is that technology can
to lead themselves through this process in small create opportunities for purposeful communication,
groups, having a rich discussion about what they many students taking an online course often express
know, what has challenged their thinking, and what lack of instructor involvement and feelings of
they have learned from reading. Ultimately, these isolation (Wolcott, 1996). Typically, in a traditional
preservice instructors are more likely to implement classroom, the instructor provides an opportunity to
reciprocal teaching in their own classrooms because discuss the text assignments under their orchestrated
they have experienced the benefits of this process as movements, but during an online course, students’
learners. opportunities for discussion with others regarding the
text can be limited without proper planning and
Case #4: Reciprocal Teaching and Technology for intervention. In order to promote discussion regarding
the Reading of Assigned Texts (Dee Nichols) assigned readings and improving overall
comprehension, I have attempted to combine
Recent research into the uses of technology for reciprocal teaching with online threaded discussions
instruction in assisting reading comprehension have and virtual classrooms.
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 113

Using a team-oriented approach, I assign chapters words and worlds of the students with whom we
of the text to teams of learners. For example, I may interact. Together, we explore what it means to be an
break down the Vacca and Vacca (2002) Content Area instructor of literacy in the 21st Century. While
Reading text into the following assignments: Team 1 is practical aims of teaching are addressed, we also
responsible for Chapter 1, Reading Matters; Team 2 is explore the symbiotic relationship between theory and
responsible for Chapter 2, Learning with Textbooks, practice in order to gain a sense of the continuum along
Trade Books and Electronic Texts; and Team 3 is which we can construct a vision of pedagogical theory
responsible for Chapter 3 Making Authentic capable of meeting the needs of all students.
Assessments. All students are responsible for reading As a part of our focus on better understanding the
all chapters, but the assigned teams are responsible for complexities of literacy, students read selections from
leading the discussion and utilizing comprehension Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo’s Literacy: Reading
strategies for their specific chapter. Once the chapters the Word and the World (1987), a theoretical text that
are assigned to teams of five, I then assign the rotating often proves difficult for many students. Part of what
reciprocal teaching tasks to the team members. For Freire and Macedo accomplish in their text is to provide
example, Member 1 of the team is responsible for a historical overview and critique of the traditional
providing a summary of the chapter; Member 2 is approaches to reading (e.g., academic, utilitarian,
responsible for clarifying confusing parts of the text and cognitive, and romantic). As an alternative, they
making connections between the text and personal advocate for a different approach, one characterized as
experiences; Member 3 is responsible for generating a literacy of empowerment in which “educators should
questions from the chapter that they feel are key to the never allow the students’ voice to be sacrificed, since
comprehension of the text and feel could be included on it is the only means through which they make sense of
an exam; Member 4 is responsible for predicting the their own experience in the world” (p. 152).
authors’ intentions of the chapter and the rationale for Getting students, most of whom are privileged, to
the chapter; and Member 5 is responsible for designing see themselves as anything but an outsider to the
some type of visual representation or graphic organizer language or the issues with which Freire and Macedo
for the chapter. While the graphic organizer component engage can be a challenge. If students remain
is not part of the comprehension strategies associated outsiders to Freire’s work on pedagogy and literacy,
with reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), it they miss one of his central messages – that one must
is my addition to the reciprocal teaching model that I remake Freire’s language (e.g., words like critical
currently use. Once the individual team members have literacy, oppression, dominant culture, liberatory
completed their tasks, I encourage them to meet in the pedagogy, etc.) in one’s own particular context and
virtual classroom, a modified chat room, to discuss the that this has to happen before they can even begin to
chapter and their individual assignments. They are consider language instruction in more global contexts.
responsible for making sure that each team member has Making the transition from theory to practice is
each of the comprehension strategies associated with important, but it is not without complications.
reciprocal teaching. Once each team has completed Consequently, I try to create practical applications to
their assignment, they then post their chapter on the inspire student participation in the process of enacting
threaded discussion board where other students respond critical literacy. Reciprocal teaching is a strategy that
and interact as a continuation of the reciprocal teaching allows students to experiment with making the
process. transition from theory to practice while extending
After all of the teams have posted their reciprocal their understanding of texts. The process I utilize in
teaching components for the assigned chapters the other conjunction with reading the Freire and Macedo text
students are instructed to respond or reply to the team involves a series of carefully constructed steps which
regarding the chapter. The expert team then, in essence aim to engage students in the theory and practice of
teaches their chapter to the other learners in the class, critical literacy advocated by the authors while
thus promoting meaningful communication regarding students simultaneously engage in specific
the text and improving comprehension of text often comprehension strategies: activating prior knowledge;
viewed as cumbersome. key word identification and definitions (during the
reading process); summary rewritings (after reading
Case #5: Theory Into Practice: Extending the text); and keyword reflections (after class
Comprehension (Carl Young) discussion and the creation of culture notebooks). To
be more specific, the process usually follows along
In my Teaching English in the Middle and these lines:
Secondary Schools methods class, the course themes of
language, literacy, and culture are explored in the 1. Using their own schooling histories and
context of the English language arts classroom and the previous course readings, students activate
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 114

prior knowledge by entertaining questions investigations of word origins, illustrations

about and free writing on the concept of of the word’s use in the text and the world at
literacy, each developing a tentative large, explorations of figurative
definition for "literacy" before they read the possibilities, relationships to other words
text. As a part of this initial step, I model the (synonyms or antonyms), and meditations on
creation of a schooling timeline and discuss its relevance to literacy, the teaching of
how our histories might inform our literacy, and society in general. Prior to their
perceptions of literacy. beginning, I provide students with examples
2. With the above prewriting, students have of keyword entries that serve as possible
created an immediate context for beginning to models.
read and process Freire and Macedo's 4. Once compiled, copies of the class culture
thoughts. Taking Freire’s assertion that notebook are provided to students as an
"reading always involves critical perception, anthology of keyword entries. The culture
interpretation, and rewriting of what is read" notebook not only allows students the
(p. 36) as a cue, we then attempt to put his opportunity to learn from one another
suggestion into practice. through their keyword entries but also
Difficult texts often pose challenges to through the use of the notebook as a
the reader when the language employed has working dialogical journal. In other words,
few reference points for the reader, either in students not only read the entries, but they
their personal experience or in their also compose critical reflections on selected
vocabulary. One strategy for approaching keyword entries—an additional means of
such a text is to inquire into its vocabulary. If meta-analysis while further developing
students can get a handle on the words that critical reading and thinking skills. Thus, the
carry the essence of a text’s meaning, the keyword entries as well as the keyword
“keywords” that shape the narrative, then entry critical reflections then become texts
they can create shared points of reference to for students to share and discuss—a means
bring into discussions of the text. to teach and to learn from one another while
After I introduce, discuss, and model the pushing for a greater critical awareness of
keyword strategy, students then are directed their own life experiences.
to make a list of what they perceive to be
"keywords" in each chapter as they read. For In this case, reciprocal teaching takes the form
each keyword, they are to write in their own of a process aimed at helping students to forge
words what they understand the authors to connections between theory and practice as they
mean through their use of the word. After I engage in the reading and analysis of a challenging
model the approach with the initial chapter, text. Freire's choice of words can be viewed as a way
students then complete chapter rewrites in of recording, investigating, and presenting problems
which they rewrite the chapter in their own of meaning in the area of literacy. While to
words as a means of critical summary. understand the meaning of any given word is a step
3. With keywords and chapter rewrites in hand, toward effective communication with others, our
we begin a discussion of the text and start to inquiry is ultimately about meanings being made
identify the larger body of keywords that we with those words. By modeling critical reading and
have in common. Here, students take on the comprehension strategies for students (e.g.,
role of identifying and categorizing the key activating prior knowledge, keyword entries, chapter
vocabulary driving the text. Then they take rewrites, culture notebooks, critical reflections, and
this a step further using an adaptation of a dialogue) and then having them experiment with
methodology of Freire's called the "popular them, students realize that literacy is not about the
culture notebook" as a means of clarifying the isolated practice of using a dictionary. Instead, it is
text and its meaning. Students take on the about garnering meaning from the context in which
role of lexicographer for specific keywords, an author writes and developing a critical
meaning that they are responsible for understanding of how the different words connect
providing additional insights into Freire’s and interact with each other. Ultimately, reciprocal
language by creating an engaging, teaching, as employed here, is a way for readers to
informative, and dynamic keyword entry. In map the meaning of a specific text as they begin to
effect, students create their own shared seek their own meaning and, in doing so, come to
course text or culture notebook comprised of discover connections between the word and the
keyword entries. These might include world they might not otherwise have thought existed.
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 115

Conclusion strategies are effective (Paris & Paris, 2001;

Pressley, Borkowski, & Schnieder, 1987).
Reading comprehension is an essential component 6. Strategy instruction is effective when
to higher education success; yet, reading students are taught to self-monitor and self-
comprehension instruction receives short shrift in evaluate their own strategy use and strategy
higher education. This short shrift is not due to a lack of results (Belfiore & Hornyak, 1998;
research in reading comprehension – there is a plethora Zimmerman, Bonner, & Kovach, 1996).
of research regarding the teaching and learning of
reading comprehension strategies, as well as the Reciprocal teaching, when used appropriately, is a
positive effects of these strategies, on comprehension strategy that encompasses each of these effective
and critical thinking (see Pearson & Felding, 1991; strategy instruction criteria. In addition, the case
Tierney & Cunningham, 1984; Tierney & Readence, examples previously discussed provide a broad range
2000). Unfortunately, as Anderson, Reder, & Simon of text-based models of effective strategy use.
(1998) have lamented, the "science of human learning Reciprocal teaching is a reading comprehension
has never had a large influence on the practice of strategy that has withstood the tests of time, usage,
education" (p. 227). and empirical research. Ultimately, reciprocal
This lamentable situation can be easily changed teaching provides a theoretically sound avenue for
through the conscious application of reading fostering the deeper understanding of texts within the
comprehension strategies in the higher education higher education academic environment.
classroom. While there are many reading
comprehension strategies available (see Tierney & References
Readence, 2000), the current article has focused on
reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching provides the Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1998).
higher education instructor with a useful tool for Radical constructivism and cognitive psychology.
engaging students, individually and socially, in the In D. Ravitch, (Ed.), Brookings papers on
exploration and critical evaluation of texts. In educational policy: 1998 (pp. 227-255).
addition, the use of reciprocal teaching also satisfies Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institute.
the criteria for promoting effective strategy use. These Auerbach, E. R., & Paxton, D. (1997). “It’s not the
criteria include the following: English thing”: Bringing reading research into the
ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 31 (2), 237-
1. Strategy instruction is effective when 262.
students learn a strategy within the contexts Baumann, J. F., Dillon, D. R., Shockley, B. B.,
in which the strategy will eventually be Alverman, D. E., & Reinking, D. (1996).
employed, using contextually relevant tasks Perspectives in literacy research. In L. Baker, P.
(Paris & Paris, 2001; Pressley, Harris, & P. Afflerbach, & D. Reinking (Eds.), Developing
Marks, 2001). engaged readers in school and home communities
2. Strategy instruction is effective when a new (pp. 217-246). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
strategy is practiced with a wide variety of Belfiore, P. J., & Hornyak, R. S. (1998). Operant
tasks, in a wide variety of contexts, and on a theory and application to self-monitoring in
continual basis (Brown & Palincsar, 1987; adolescents. In D. H. Schunk & B. J. Zimmerman
Mayer & Whittrock, 1996). (Eds.), Self-regulated learning: From teaching to
3. Strategy instruction is effective when self-reflective practice (pp. 184-202). New York:
students are provided scaffolding during early Guilford Press.
strategy use that is curtailed as students Bransford, J. D., & Vye, N. J. (1989). A perspective
become more effective in their strategy use on cognitive research and its implications for
(Katayama & Robinson, 2000; Rogoff, 1990). instruction. In L. Resnick & L. Klopfer (Eds.),
4. Strategy instruction is effective when Toward the thinking curriculum: Current
instructors model effective strategy use for cognitive research (pp. 173-205). Alexandria,
students, especially when this modeling takes VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
the form of thinking aloud (Pressly, El- Development.
Dinary, Marks, Brown, & Stein, 1992; Brown, A., & Palincsar A. (1987). Reciprocal
Pressley, Harris, & Marks, 1992). teaching of comprehension strategies: A natural
5. Strategy instruction is effective when history of one program for enhancing learning. In
students understand why strategies are J. Borkowski & J. D. (Day (Des.), Cognition in
important and under what conditions specific special education: Comparative approaches to
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 116

retardation, learning disabilities, and giftedness Loewen, J. (1995). Lies My Teacher Told Me. New
(pp. xx-xx). Norwood, JH: Ablex. York: Touchstone.
Brown, A., & Palincsar, A. (1989). Guided, cooperative Mayer, R. (1996). Learning strategies for making
learning and individual knowledge acquisition. In sense out of expository text: The SOI model for
L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and guiding three cognitive processes in knowledge
instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. construction. Educational Psychology Review, 8,
393-451). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 357-371.
Butler, D. & Winne, P. (1995). Feedback and self- Mayer, R. E., & Whittrock, M. C. (1996). Problem-
regulated learning: A theoretical synthesis. Review solving transfer. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee
of Educational Research, 65, 245-281. (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp.
Carpenter, P., & Just, M. (1986). Cognitive processes in 47-62). New York: Macmillan.
reading. In J. Orasanu (Ed.), Reading McCarty L. P., & Schwandt, T. A. (2000). Seductive
comprehension: from research to practice. illusions: Von Glasersfeld and Gergen on
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. epistemology and education. In D. C. Phillips
Carter, C., & Fekete, D. (2001). Reciprocal teaching: (Ed.), Constructivism in education: Opinions and
The application of a reading improvement strategy second opinions on controversial issues (pp. 41-
on urban students in Highland Park, Michigan, 85). Chicago, IL: National Society for the Study
1993-95 [Innodata Monographs - 8]. Geneva, of Education.
Switzerland: International Bureau of Education. Meyer, B. J., Young, C. J., & Barlett, B. J. (1989).
De Corte, E., Vershaffel, L., & Van de Ven, A. (2001). Memory improved Reading and memory
Improving reading comprehension strategies in enhancement across the life span through
upper primary school children: A design experiment. strategic text structures. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, Nichols, W. D., Wood, K. D., & Rickelman, R.
531-559. (2001). Using technology to engage students in
Dole, J. A., Brown, K. J., & Trathen, W. (1996). The reading and writing. Middle School Journal, 45-
effects of strategy instruction on the 50.
comprehension performance of at-risk students. Palincsar, A. (1986). The role of dialogue in providing
Reading Research Quarterly, 31(1), 62-88. scaffolded instruction. Educational Psychologist,
Dole, J., Duffy, G., Roehler, L., & Pearson, P. (1991). 21, 73-98.
Moving from the old to the new: Research on Palincsar, A.., & Brown, A. (1984). Reciprocal
reading comprehension instruction. Review of teaching of comprehension-fostering and
Educational Research, 61, 239-264. comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition
Freedman, R. (1987). Lincoln: A photobiography. and Instruction, 2, 117-175.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company Palincsar, A., Brown, A., & Martin, S. (1987). Peer
Freire, Paulo & Macedo, Donaldo. (1987). Literacy: interaction in reading comprehension instruction.
Reading the Word and the World. South Hadley, Educational Psychologist, 22, 231-253.
Mass: Bergin & Garvey Publishers, Inc. Palincsar, A., David, Y., Winn, J., Stevens, D., &
Gergen, K. (1999). An introduction to social Brown, A. (1990, April). Examining the
construction. Boston: Sage. differential effects of instructor versus student
Hart, E. & Speece, D. (1998). Reciprocal teaching goes controlled activity in comprehension instruction.
to college: Effects for postsecondary students at Paper presented at the annual meeting of the
risk for academic failure. Journal of Educational American Educational Research Association,
Psychology, 90(4), 670-681. Boston.
Hattie, J., Briggs, J., & Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of Palmer, D., & Goetz, E. (1988). Selection and use of
learning skills interventions on student learning: A study strategies: The role of the studier’s beliefs
meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, about self and strategies. In C. Weinstein, E.
66, 99-136. Goetz, & P. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study
Hodge, E., Palmer, B., & Scott, D. (1992). strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction, and
Metacognitive training in cooperative groups on evaluation (pp. 41-61). San Diego, CA: Academic
the reading comprehension and vocabulary of at- Press.
risk college students. College Student Journal, 26, Paris, S. G., & Paris, A. H. (2001). Classroom
440-448. application of research oh self-regulated learning.
Katayama, A. D., & Robinson, D. H. (2000). Getting Education Psychologist, 36, 89-101.
students "partially" involved in note-taking using Paris, S. G., Wasik, B. A., & Turner, J. C. (1991). The
graphic organizers. Journal of Experimental development of strategic readers. In R. Barr, M.
Education, 68, 119-133. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & D. Pearson (Eds.),
Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 117

Handbook of reading research, Volume II (pp. Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1994). Reciprocal
609-640). White Plains, NY: Longman. teaching: A review of the research. Review of
Pearson, P., & Fielding, L. (1991). Comprehension Educational Research, 64(4), 479-530.
instruction. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996).
& D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading Teaching students to generate questions: A
research, Volume II (pp. 815-860). White review of the intervention studies. Review of
Plains, NY: Longman. Educational Research, 66, 181-221
Phillips, D. C. (Ed). (2000). Constructivism in Royse, D. (2001). Teaching tips for college and
education: Opinions and second opinions on university instructors: A practical guide.
controversial issues. Chicago, IL: National Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Society for the Study of Education. Schug, M. C., Western, R. D., & Enochs, L. G.
Prawat, R. S. (1996). Constructivisms, modern and (1997). Why do social studies teachers use
postmodern. Educational Psychologist, 31(3/4), textbooks? The answer may lay in economic
215-225. theory. Social Education, 61(2), 97-101
Prawat, R. S., & Floden, R. E. (1994). Seixas, P. (1998) Student instructor thinking
Philosophical perspectives on constructivist historically. Theory and Research in Social
views of learning. Educational Psychologist, Education, 26(3): 310-341.
29(1), 37-48. Taylor, B., & Frye, G. (1992). Comprehension
Pressley, M., Borkowski, J. G., & Schneider, W. strategy instruction in the intermediate grades.
(1987). Cognitive strategies: Good strategy Reading Research and Instruction, 92, 39-48.
users coordinate metacognition and knowledge. Tierney, R. J., & Cunningham, J. (1984). Research
In R. on teaching reading comprehension. In P.E.
Vasta & G. Whitehurst (Eds.) Annals of child Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research
development (Vol. 5) (pp. 89-129). New York: (pp. 609-656). New York: Longman.
JAI Press. Tierney, R. J., & Readence, J. E. (2000). Reading
Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., Marks, M. B., strategies and practices: A Compendium.
Brown, R., & Stein, S. (1992). Good strategy Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
instruction is motivating and interesting. In K Van Meter, P., Yokoi, L., & Pressley, M. (1994).
A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A Krapp (Eds.), The College students’ theory of notetaking derived
role of interest in learning and development from their perceptions of notetaking. Journal of
(pp. 239-254). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Educational Psychology, 86, 323-338.
Pressley, M., Harris, K. R., Marks, M. B. (1992). Vacca, R. T., & Vacca, J. L. (2002). Content area
But good strategy instructors are constructivist! reading: Literacy and learning across the
Educational Psychology Review, 4, 3-31. curriculum. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Pressley, M. Woloshyn, V., Lysynchuk, L., Martin, Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The
V., Wood, E., & Willoughby, T. (1990).A development of higher psychological processes.
primer of research on cognitive strategy Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
instruction: The important issues and how to Wilson, J. (1988). Implications of learning strategy
address them. Educational Psychology Review, research and training: What is has to say to the
2, 1-58. practitioner. In C. Weinstein, E. Goetz, & P.
Reciprocal teaching (n.d.) Retrieved August, 15, Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study
2002, from Miami-Dade County Public Schools strategies: Issues in assessment, instruction,
http://www.dade.k12.fl.us/pers/prodev/reciproc and evaluation (pp. 323-331). San Diego, CA:
al_teaching.htm Academic Press.
Reinking, D., Labbo, L., & McKenna, M. (1997). Wineburg, S. (1991) On the reading of historical
Navigating the changing landscape of literacy: texts: Notes on the breach between school and
Current theory and research in computer-based academy. American Educational Research
reading and writing. In J. Flood, S. B. Heath, & Journal, 28: 495-519
D. Lapp (Eds.), Handbook of research on Wolcott, L. (1996). Distanced but not distanced a
teaching literacy through the communicative learner-centered approach to distance education.
and visual arts. New York: Simon & Schuster Techtrends, 41(7), 23-27.
Macmillan. Zimmerman, B. J., Bonner, S., & Kovach, R. (1996).
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking: Developing self-regulated learners: Beyond
Cognitive development in social context. New achievement to self-efficacy. Washington, DC:
York: Oxford University Press. American Psychological Association.
 Doolittle, Hicks, Triplett, Nichols, and Young Reciprocal Teaching 118

PETER DOOLITTLE is an associate professor of WILLIAM DEE NICHOLS is an associate

educational psychology within the Department of professor in the Department of Reading and
Learning Sciences and Technology in the School of Elementary Education at the University of North
Education at Virginia Tech. He is Director of the Carolina at Charlotte. He teaches undergraduate
Educational Psychology Research Program at Virginia and graduate courses in the areas of literacy
Tech and his research focus includes the investigation development, literacy teaching methods and
of the development of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, reading diagnosis and young adult
strategies within multimedia environments. His literature. His research interests include
academic background includes 17 years teaching K- vocabulary instruction and reading comprehension
12, undergraduate, and graduate students, in public with particular interest in professional
schools and private schools, using traditional and development in these areas. He is also interested
online formats, across several subject areas including in the early stages of reading development. He
mathematics, computer science, statistics, and can be contacted at 388 College of Education,
educational psychology. He can be contacted at 305 Department of Reading and Elementary Education,
War Memorial Hall (0313), Virginia Tech, UNCC, 9201 University City Boulevard,
Blacksburg, VA 24061. E-mail: [email protected]. Charlotte, NC 28223-0001. E-mail:
[email protected] .
DAVID HICKS is an associate professor of social
studies education in the Department of Teaching and CARL A. YOUNG, a former middle and high
Learning at Virginia Tech. He serves as the co-editor school English language arts teacher, is an
of the social studies current issues section of assistant professor of English Education and the
Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher program advisor for the MAED Licensure
Education. David's publications have appeared in Social Program in English Education within the
Education, The Mathematics Teacher, Contemporary Department of Teaching and Learning in the
Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, Teachers School of Education at Virginia Tech. He also
College Record, Theory and Research in Social serves as the Vice-President for the Virginia
Education and the International Journal of Social Association of Teachers of English (VATE) and
Education. Currently he is investigating how concepts as lead editor of the English language arts strand
of citizenship and the integration of technology can of Contemporary Issues in Technology and
influence how teachers approach the teaching and Teacher Education (http://www.citejournal.org ).
learning of history and social science. He can be Dr. Young teaches courses in secondary English
contacted at 313 War Memorial Hall (0313), Virginia methods and teaching composition, and he
Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061. E-mail: [email protected]. conducts research on content area reading and
writing strategies. His research interests also
CHERI F. TRIPLETT is an assistant professor in the include teaching English in rural and inner-city
Elementary Education Program at Virginia Tech. She schools, making the transition from preservice to
teaches a range of literacy courses for pre-service, inservice English teacher, responding effectively
graduate, and doctoral students. Her research interests to student writing, and integrating critical
include the emotional lives of children at school and the literacy, technology, and inquiry-based
emotional issues of students identified as "struggling applications into the English language arts
readers." She can be contacted at 318 War Memorial classroom. He can be contacted at 310 War
Hall (0313), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061. E- Memorial Hall (0313), Virginia Tech, Blacksburg,
mail: [email protected]. VA 24061. E-mail: [email protected].

View publication stats