Certificate

This is to clarify that Asisha Dehury has carried out a research work
entitled “Life Cycle Of Butterflies” for fulfilment of zoology project
work, 2021. The study was conducted under my supervision. I further
certify that project work has been submitted to the other university for
the award of any other degree or diploma.

Sri Birupakshya Mishra

Department of zoology
A.M.C.S. college Tikabali

Declaration
I do here by declare that the project work entitled “Life Cycle Of
Butterflies” Presented for the fulfilment of +3 final year DSE-4 paper
exam of 6 semester, 2022 has been carried out by me and has not been
previously submitted to any other university, college or organization for
academic qualification on certificate or any degree.
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 I do here by warrant that the work, I have presented does not match
to any existing copy right acts.

Asisha Dehury
+3 final year, science
ROLL NO: - TK2023182
A.M.C.S. College, Tikabali

Acknowledgement
I would like to gratefully acknowledge the following people and
organization or their assistance and advice that have made the project
successful. I am grateful to Honrable
Mr. Birupakshya Mishra Lect. in zoology for giving me permission to
pursue this study. I am especially thankful to my friend Smrutirekha
Deepa for this guidance and cooperation during my project work. They
have encouraged me during my project work. A special word of thanks to
him, for all light moments and very memorable times of being together. I
also thankful to all my department student who has helping me to
complete my work. Finally express my deep sense of gratitude and
devotion to my parents and family members who have support and
motivate me in all adversities and good times and respect my choice to
pursue my interest.
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 Asisha Dehury

Introduction
It is estimated that eighty percent of all animal species are
insects. There are approximately 800,000 species of insects,
180,000 of which are Lepidoptera (Arnett & Jacques, 1981). In
this paper I hope to describe the attributes of butterflies and
moths which make them unique from other insects. In doing so
I will explain their evolutionary history, physical attributes,
stages of development and metamorphosis, unique survival
mechanisms, and colonization and migration habits.

Butterflies are the most commonly observed among insects.

They are the most beautiful and spectacular forms of life with
varied sizes, shapes and all kinds of colours and patterns.
Reference to them as whites and yellows (Pieridae), Browns
(Satyrinae) and Blues (Lycaenidae) is owing to their dominant
colours.

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 wings surfaces of butterflies

Evolutionary History
Butterflies and moths, like all insects, are members of the
phylum Arthropoda. Arthropods, which are believed to have
evolved from an annelid (earthworm) type ancestor are divided
into the three major branches; the chelicerates (spiders, ticks,
scor pions, etc.), the crustaceans (crabs, lobster, crayfish) and
the mandibulates (the Onychophora, centipedes, millipedes,
and insects). All members of the phylum arthropoda are similar
in that they exhibit the body segmentation of arthropods; head,
thorax and abdomen.

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Butterflies and moths, like other members of the class Insecta
possess three pairs of legs (one on each thoracic segment), one
pair of antennae, a pair of maxillae with a pair of sensory palpi,
a pair of mandibles, a hypopharynx (a tongue like structure), a
labium (a specialized pah" of head appendages behind the
maxillae) and two pair of wings (some insects have one or no
pair of wings).

Of the twenty-nine orders of insects in the world, Lepidoptera,

which includes moths, butterflies and skippers, is one of the
largest. There are approximately 13,700 species of Lepidoptera
in North America, and 1 80,000 in the world.

Lepidoptera, like other insect orders possess wings. There are

several theories to explain the evolution of winged insects. The
most accepted view is the paranotal theoiy, which suggests that
the first wings of insectsdeveloped as flat, widely attached flaps
that protruded out from the thorax.

It is believed that wings may have developed to aid in "aerial

dispersal" of minute insects, for sexual display to lure mates, or
as moveable winglets to protect openings to air tubules.

The thermoregulatory hypothesis shows that an increase in the

size of winglets aids in body temperature elevation by

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absorbing solar radiation to increase body temperature more
quickly.

Warming occurs in pockets of air beneath winglets, increasing

tempertures of leg muscles, enabling winged insects to forage
longer and further, and increasing response rates to aid in
escape from predators.

It is likely that these advantages also led to increased dispersal

of the species. Basking the sun is a common means of
thermoregulation for winged insects.

Butterflies and moths, which are broad winged insects, are

believed to have arisen during the Triassic period from the
Stonefly.

Reproduction
Butterflies reproduce sexually, with the male contributing the
sperm, while the female contributes the egg.

Both sperm and egg are haploid in their chromosome number.

That is, each sex cell contains half the number of chromosomes
of the body cells.

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 Pair of mating Cecropia moths. The female
moth is on the upper left, identifiable
because females have a larger abdomen.

The Egg

Eggs are produced within the tubular ovaries of the female and
travel to the oviducts which join to form one duct through
which the eggs are deposited to the outside (oviposition).

Just before the egg is released, it is fertilized by a sperm cell

that was stored in the corpus bursae, which is the female
butterfly's internal sperm receptacle.

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The female usually lays her eggs onor close to the larval
butterfly's food supply.

For example, the Monarch butterfly lays her eggs on the young,
tender leaves of the milkweed plant, while the Black
Swallowtail commonly deposits its eggs on garden parsley
plants, which the larvae quickly devour.

Butterfly eggs are often white or cream colored, with variations

in color, size an shape depending on the species and develop
mental stage of the egg.

The surface structure or chorion of eggs is a common means of

specie identification. In the center of each egg is a small hole or
micropyle, through which sperm permeates the chorion to
fertilize the egg.

While the chorion facilitates the exchange of oxygen and

carbon dioxide, it is strong and resistant to injury.

Gas exchange takes place via ducts or air pockets called

plastrons, which act as gills to diffuse gases, even when the egg
is immersed in water.

The micropyle may also participate in respiration.

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 The eggs of the Cecropia moth are generally laid in small
clutches on the leaves of lilac, apple, cherry, boxelder, maple,
birch, willow, plum and elderberry trees.

The Larva

Young larva feed on their host plants until they reach full size.
Some caterpillars are carnivorous, eating aphids and related
insects (ie. the larvae of the North American Harvester
butterfly) or ant larvae and pupae (ie. the larvae of the

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hairstreak Harkenclenus thus and the blues Glaucopsyche
lygdamus and Celastrina argiolus pseudargiolus).

Larvae are composed of a head and thirteen body segments.

The head of the larva contains antennae, mandibles for
crushing food, and six pairs of simple eyes called ocelli.

The ocelli are separated six to each side of the head by a

triangular section called the frons.

A labrum, which acts as an upper lip, is found just above the

mandibles, while the labia which is located just below the
mandibles serves as a lower lip.

The maxilla, which works with the labia to holdfood during

consumption, is found behind the mandibles.

Lastly, the larval spinneret, from which silk is released, is found

between the maxillae and the labium.

The thirteen segments of the larval body are divided into three
thoracic segments, each possessing a pair of jointed legs with a
terminal claw (for food manipulation and locomotion).

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And ten abdominal segments, five of which possess non-jointed
larval prologs with ventral crochets I hooks (for locomotion and
grasping).

The exoskeleton of the caterpillar, with the exception of the

head, is soft and "worm like".

A large puncture to the exoskeleton could cause collapse of the

exoskeleton, resulting in fluid loss and death.

Gas exchange does not occur through the exoskeleton, but via
abdominal and thoracic spiracles located along the sides of the
larva.

The spiracles are valve regulated air openings that connect to

the tracheae which extend throughout the body to supply all
body organs and muscles with oxygen.

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The five larval instars of the Cecropia moth

MORPHOLOGY

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The body of an adult butterfly consists of head, thorax and
abdomen.

The head bears a pair of long segmented antennae

situated in front of or between the compound eye and a
proboscis (long coiled sucking tube) arising between the paired
labial palpi. The shaft of antenna, thickens abruptly or gradually
at the distal end forming a distinct club which may be grooved
on its lower side. The club usually narrows towards tip which
may be pointed or rounded.

The compound eyes are large and immobile and may be

smooth or hairy. During feeding, the butterfly extends its
proboscis which otherwise remains coiled up. The labial palpi
are three segmented which may be porrect or erect.

The basal (first) segment being short while second and third
segements vary in length, shape and scaling which an of
taxonomic value.

The thorax is made up of three . segments namely

prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax, each carrying a pair of
legs. The mesothorax and metathorax also bear a pair of
forewings and hindwings respectively.

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 Each leg consists of five segments, the coxa articulating with
the thorax; trochanter is a very small segment interposed
between the coxa and femur; tibia of medium length or long
and armed with one or two pairs of movable tibial spurs, may
be spiny or densely fringed with hair ; and lastly tarsus which is
five segmented.
The terminal or fifth segment ends in a pair of
claws beneath which is usually a small pad called the pulvillus.
Adjacent to each claw is a brush-like attachment known as the
paronychium.

The legs are of major importance in the classification of

butterflies. The forelegs are short, slender and not fully
developed as in subfamily Nymphalinae.

The shape of the wing is very variable. 'The upper or

anteriorm,argin IS known ,as the costa and lower or posterior
edge is inner margin or dorsum, the proximal part of wing next
to, thorax is the base and margin remote from the thorax is
distal margin, outer margin or termen.

In some cases, in hind wing, a small vein or a trace of such a

vein arises from near base of vein 8 and it is called precostal or
humeral vein or spur. The abdomen consists of ten segments
and 8th to 10th segements contain male genital apparatus in
male and female genital organs in female.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTERFLIES

The superfamily Papilionoidea includes true

butterflies and Hesperioidea includes skippers. The Hesperiids
are distinguished from true butterflies by having antennal club
hooked. The superfamily Papilionoidea includes four families,
viz. Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae;
whereas the superfamily Hesperioidea includes two families,
viz. Hesperiidae and Megathymidae of which only the former is
represented in India.

KEY TO SEPARATION OF FAMILIES OF

BUTTERFLIES

❖ Antennae approximated at the base. Fore wing with two

or more veins coincident or forked beyond the cell

❖ Antennae widely separated at the base. Fore wing and

hind wing with all the veins present and arising separately
from the cell or base of the wing Hesperiidae

❖ Hind wing with a precostal vein present (except in a few

Pieridae)

❖ Hind wing without a precostal vein ........................

Lycaenidae

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 ❖ Forelegs with tarsi perfect in both sexes
❖ Forelegs with tarsi imperfect and brush-like in one or both
Sexes……….. Nym phalidae

❖ Hind wing with inner margin channeled to receive the

abdomen; modified and upturned; vein la usually absent
......... Papilionidae.

❖ Hind wing with inner margin not channelled to receive the

abdomen; neither modified nor upturned; vein la always
present ................................................ Pieridae.

SUPERFAMILY PAPILIONOIDEA
FAMILY PAPILIONIDAE

Antennae comparatively short and usually with a distinct

club;proboscis well developed; palpi short and appressed to
frons (except Teinopalpus where they project); fore legs fully
developed. Fore tibia with spur on the innerside, hind tibia with
middle spur, claws simple and rarely with toothed,
paronychium and pulvillus absent. Cell closed in both sexes.
Fore wing with all veins, in a4dition vein la ending on the inner
margin, a short transverse vein also present near the base\of
wing between cell and vein Ib (with few exceptions), veins 7

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and 8 stalked, vein 2 arising before middle of cell, four veins
arising from the outer lower edge of the cell.

Hind wing usually with a tail atvein 4 which may

be slender or broad and spatulate, inner margin of hind wing
being frequently folded over and within the fold, in male
bearing a patch of specialized scales or scent scales
(androconia);vem ·-1b absent, the basal cell and precostal vein
present. vein 4 which may be slender or broad and spatulate,
inner margin of hind wing being frequently folded over and
within the fold, in male bearing a patch of specialized scales or
scent scales (androconia); vem ·-1b absent, the basal cell and
precostal vein present.

SUBFAMILY PARNASSINAE

Head small; frons rough-hairy; eyes large; palpi short,

acute and not projecting above the head. Antennae short, more
or less club shaped, the shaft being often ringed with black and
white. Thorax normal, densely hairy. Wings broad and rounded,
white rarely yellow, distally with black spots and grey or
blackish bands, hind wing often with red-spotted ocelli. Much
variation in colour and pattern.

Fore wing without a median spur (small transverse

vein between Ib an cell}, vein 9 absent; hind wing with basal cell
almost obsolete, without preoostalspur. Abdomen strongly

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hairy in the male, in the female spaYsely hairy or with scarcely
any hairs; a horny pouch at the apex below (Parnassius).

Butterfly Life Cycle

A butterfly is an insect and its life cycle has more stages than
that of a mammal. The offspring of a mammal is essentially a
smaller version of its adult form. This is not the case with a
butterfly. It has a highly complex and very interesting lifecycle.
During its lifecycle a butterfly transforms from egg to larva to
pupa and eventually into adult butterfly. This transformation is
called complete metamorphosis.

Some insects, such as stick insects, simply hatch from an egg to

a nymph, miss out the pupa stage and eventually shed their last
nymph skin to become an adult form. This is known as
incomplete metamorphosis.

The butterfly’s life cycle is described in more detail below. The

example used in this description is a Tree Nymph, a tropical
butterfly that can be seen within the flight area at Stratford
Butterfly Farm.

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1.The butterfly starts life as an egg, laid by a female butterfly.
The egg is usually laid on the underside of a leaf, specifically the
food plant of the larva.

Idea leuconoe
Tree Nymph Butterfly
EGG

2. The larval form is more commonly known as a caterpillar.

The caterpillar looks very different to the adult form. The
caterpillar eats from its specific food plant until it is ready to
pupate. During this time, the caterpillar will go through various
instars, stages of growth, and will shed its skin at each stage.

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Idea leuconoe
Tree Nymph
Butterfly
CATERPILLAR

3. The caterpillar will then attach itself to a surface using a

small pad of silk and sheds its skin to form a pupa. Butterfly
pupa are often known as chrysalis. Certain species of moths,
known as silk moths, can form an extra layer of protection
called a cocoon. The word cocoon should never be referred to
when discussing butterflies, as butterflies do not have a cocoon.

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 Idea leuconoe
Tree Nymph Butterfly
PUPA

4. Inside the pupa, dramatic changes take place. The body of

the caterpillar breaks down into a thick and usually green
liquid. The clusters of cells regroup and reform into the adult
form of a butterfly. This is metamorphosis.

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5. When the butterfly is ready to emerge, it breaks free from
its pupa. A newly hatched butterfly will be wet and small in
comparison to its finished state.

The butterfly uses a liquid that forms in the abdomen to pump

up the wings, it will then hang until the wings are dry.

6. Once the butterfly is dry they are ready to fly. The primary
aim for a butterfly is to mate and therefore produce offspring.
Once the female has been mated she will then lay her eggs and
the process begins all over again!

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 Idea leuconoe
Tree Nymph Butterfly BUTTERFLY

Lesson Plan Idea

Draw and label the life cycle of a butterfly. Make it as colourful
and detailed as you want. You could choose a specific butterfly,
like the Painted Lady or one that you have seen yourself.

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There are four stages in the life cycle of the Painted Lady
Butterfly.
The Egg (3-5 days)

Female butterflies lay their eggs on plants that Painted Lady

caterpillars like to eat, like thistle or hollyhock. The eggs are the
size of a pin head, each one containing a caterpillar beginning
to grow.
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The Larva or Caterpillar Hatches! (5-10 days)

The hungry caterpillar uses its strong jaws to munch through

leaves, eating constantly and growing quickly. As it eats, the
caterpillar’s skin gets tighter. Soon it sheds this tight skin,
emerging with new skin underneath. Each caterpillar sheds its
skin four times before it’s fully grown. When this hairy, black
and yellow caterpillar stops growing, it’s almost 2 inches long!

The Pupa Inside the Chrysalis (7-10 days)

The caterpillar finds a safe place to rest. With a silk thread that
comes out of a hole just below its mouth (spinneret), the
caterpillar spins a silk pad to attach to. The caterpillar hangs
from this pad. Soon, the caterpillars’ skin splits open, from head
to abdomen, revealing a dull, brownish case underneath called
the chrysalis.

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What is happening in the chrysalis? Inside the chrysalis, the
larva is becoming completely liquid and reforming itself into a
butterfly. The butterfly pushes from inside until the case splits
open, and it slowly struggles out.

The Butterfly Emerges! (2 weeks)

When the butterfly first emerges from the chrysalis, its wings
are soft and crumpled. The tired butterfly rests, and then slowly
unfolds its wings to dry.
After a few hours, the butterfly will be ready to fly. The Painted
Lady will live for approximately 2 weeks. During that time, its
main goal is to reproduce and lay eggs so the cycle can begin
again!

Background: Caterpillar Body

Parts

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 A Caterpillar or Larva

Larva—the second stage of metamorphosis, another term for

caterpillar
Head—the head includes the brain, a mouth, 2 antenna and 12
eyes called ocelli
Thorax—the midsection is called the thorax where the legs are
attached
Abdomen—the abdomen contains its heart, digestive system
and other organs
True Legs—all insects have 6 true legs with tiny claws attached
to the thorax
Pro-legs—on the abdomen, pro-legs have microscopic hooks
that help the caterpillar move and climb

Background: Butterfly Body Parts

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Abdomen—the third section includes the stomach, heart and
other organs

Antennae—on the butterfly’s head, used to taste the air and help
with balance

Compound eyes—thousands of tiny lenses help the butterfly

see in all directions

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Head—the head includes a brain, a proboscis, 2 antenna and 2
compound eyes

Leg—the butterfly has 3 pairs of legs attached to its thorax

Proboscis—the butterfly tongue, which works like a drinking

straw

Setae—setae are like hairs or bristles on a butterfly’s entire body

Spiracles—tiny openings on the abdomen that let the butterfly

breathe

Thorax—the midsection of the butterfly with 3 pairs of legs & 2

pairs of wings

Wings—2 pairs of wings on the thorax allow the butterfly to fly

Butterfly Behaviour
Most insects have a very high protein content and are therefore
a staple diet item for many animals. During each life stage the
butterfly can adapt and defend themselves in many ways.

Egg
The life of a butterfly is a difficult one and the percentages of
butterflies who reach the adult stage is commonly around 3% In
the wild.

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The female butterfly has developed clever ways to improve the
chances of her offspring surviving to the adult stage. One of the
ways is to lay many eggs, the more eggs a female lay, the
higher the chance of survival. Some butterflies will lay an
individual egg on one leaf. This can be beneficial in two ways; if
a butterfly laid all her eggs on one leaf and that leaf became
damaged, she would lose all her offspring.
If she distributes her eggs, it is more likely some will survive,
and each caterpillar has their own leaf to eat. The female can
also choose to lay her eggs on the underside of a leaf in order
to hide the egg from predators and protect them from adverse
weather.

Caligo memnon
Owl Butterfly
EGG & CATERPILLAR

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Larva / Caterpillar

The caterpillar can defend itself in many ways:

Camouflage - Many animals use camouflage to hide in their

surroundings in the hope that a predator will not spot them!
Some even camouflage to look like bird poo during their early
instars - see below.

Greta oto
Glass wing Butterfly CATERPILLAR

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Papilio demodocus
Christmas Butterfly
CATERPILLAR Left-3rd instar Right-4th instar

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Smell - Some caterpillars smell horrible enough to put off even
the hungriest of birds. The blue morpho caterpillar lets off a
nasty odour when disturbed. Swallowtail caterpillars have a
special forked organ, osmeterium, that comes out of the back
of their necks when they are disturbed. The osmeterium smells
terrible and also has the appearance of a snakes tongue.

Papilio demodocus
Christmas Butterfly
CATERPILLAR

Spines - Some caterpillars have sharp spines all over their

bodies so that birds and other predators will not try to eat

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them. These spines can also act as an irritant, designed to
distract predators.

Heliconius charitonius
Zebra Long Wing Butterfly CATERPILLAR
Bright colours - Most bright colours in nature are a warning of
something quite nasty. In the case of caterpillars, bright colours
often advertise bad taste or even poison.

Morpho peleides
Blue Morpho Butterfly
CATERPILLAR

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Anatomy – Some caterpillars will also try to make their back
end look the same as their front end. A predator will always try
and attack the head of an animal. If the predator gave a
caterpillar a nip on the wrong end, it may very well survive.

Idea leuconoe
Tree Nymph Butterfly
CATERPILLAR

Mimicry - To mimic something means to copy it. There are lots

of caterpillars and butterflies that are not poisonous, spiky, bad
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tasting or smelling but copy the colour markings and shape of
others that are. They are then safe from predators because
they are thought to be bad to eat. Mimicry is a strategy that
lots of animals and even plants use to avoid predation. There
are some caterpillars that even mimic snakes to try and defend
themselves from predators!

Hermeroplanes triptolemus
Hawk Moth
CATERPILLAR

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Pupa

Camouflage – Pupa has no form of defence, so caterpillars will

also ensure their pupa can hide in their surroundings. Some
caterpillars can choose what colour their pupa will be in order
to truly camouflage themselves.

Morpho peleides
Blue Morpho Butterfly
PUPA

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 Papilio Lowi
Great Yellow Mormon
Brown PUPA formed on
a twig Green PUPA
formed under a leaf

Bright colours - Caterpillars will also advertise their bad taste or

poison in their pupa stage by displaying bright colours.

Idea leuconoe
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 Tree Nymph Butterfly
PUPA

Tithorea harmonia
Harmonia Tiger Wing Butterfly
PUPA
Butterfly

Camouflage – Butterflies will also camouflage in order to hide

from their predators. The Indian Leaf butterfly disguises itself
as a dried leaf!

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 Kallima paralekta
Indian Leaf Butterfly
BUTTERFLY

Mimicry – Butterflies themselves can also use mimicry to hide

from predators. Some butterflies mimic other animals. The owl
butterflies wing mimic the head of an anole which is a type of
lizard.

Caligo memnon
Owl Butterfly
BUTTERFLY
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 Butterfly & Caterpillar Anatomy

Butterfly Anatomy

Insects are invertebrates with identifiable features.

Invertebrates are animals that don’t have a backbone or bony
skeleton.

Insects have three parts to their body and three pairs of legs.
This is an easy way of deciding if an animal is an insect.

The head holds most of the sensory organs including

compound eyes and mouth parts. Different insects have
different mouthparts depending on what type of food they eat.
Butterflies use their proboscis to drink nectar from flowers or

1
the juice from rotting fruits. They use their antennae to smell
their food and they taste through their feet!

The thorax is the part of the body which is connected to the

wings and legs. The wings are used for flight and the legs used
for walking. Remember a butterfly is an insect, so it will have
six legs. In flight butterflies appear to have two wings, one on
each side, but they actually have four wings. The upper side
and the underside of the wings can often be very different.

Many butterflies tend to have a well camouflaged underside, so

when they sit and their wings are closed they can hide into their
surroundings. The bright colours are usually seen on the upper
side.

The abdomen holds the stomach and reproductive organs.

They also have spiracles, tiny openings along the sides. These
spiracles are linked to air tubes that allow oxygen to be carried
throughout the insects’ body. The abdomen is around two
thirds of their length, a butterfly’s abdomen is usually very long
and thin. When the butterfly has just hatched it is full of a liquid
which is used to pump up the wings.

Caterpillar Anatomy

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The head has ocelli, basic eyes which can sense light and
dark, and mouth parts to eat leaves.

The thorax is full of muscles and has six true legs.

The abdomen is the largest part of the body, there are four
pairs of prolegs which help the caterpillar when travelling.
Spiracles, tiny openings, can be found along the body which
help the caterpillar to breathe. A pair of claspers, at the end of
the body are used to help the caterpillar hold on when climbing
and pupating.

Metamorphosis

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Moths and Butterflies undergo a sudden transformation from
larva to adult. The caterpillar progresses through a series of
molts as it increases in size. This is because the caterpillar must
produce progressively larger exoskeletons and shed the old
ones, to accom modate growth.

"The number of molts before becoming an adult is

characteristic of thespecies, although environmental factors can
increase or decrease the number.

The stages between the molts are called instars. Here, growth
of the larva is the major characteristic. After the last instar
stage, the larva undergoes a metamorphic molt to become a
pupa. The pupa does not feed, and its energy must come from
those foods ingested while a larva".

The Cecropia moth undergoes six molts in its life cycle. The
embryo develops into the first-instar larva and then molts to
become the second-instar larva. Subsequent molts separate the
second instar from the third instar, the third instar from the
fourth instar, the fourth instar from the fifth instar, and the fifth
instar from the pupa, and the pupa from the adult.

"The molting process is a very complex series of biochemical

reactions under neural and hormonal (neurosecretory)

1
control"(Douglas,1989). Stretch receptors or neural sensors
inform the brain when the exoskeleton has been stretched to
capacity. This and other physiological responses inform the
larva that it is ready to molt. Consequently, the brain hormone

PTTH (prothoraciocotropichormone) that stimulates the

production of other hormones is released. PTTH travels from
the neurosecretory pars intere ere balls down nerves to the
corpora cardiaca, which is the neurohaemal area of the brain.

PTTH is released from the corpora cardiac and stimulates the

Prothoracic glands to produce the molting hormone ecdysone.
However, ecdysone is not an active hormone, and must be
activated by a heme-containing oxidase to become the active
hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone.

Each molt involves one or more pulses of 20-hydroxyecdysone,

which stimulates epithelial cells to divide and secrete
substances that form the newexoskele.

"For a molt from a larva, the first pulse produces a small rise in
the hydroxyecdysone concentration in the larval haemolymph
and elicits a change in cellular commitment. The second, large
pulse of hydrox yecdysone initiates the differentiation events
associated with molting.

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The hydroxyecdysone produced by these pulses commits and
stimulates the epidermal cells to synthesize enzymes that
digest and recycle the components of the exskeleton.

In the case of the Cecropia moth,environmental conditions can

impact molting. The Cecropia pupa over-winters in a state of
diapause. If the pupa is not exposed to at least fourteen days of
cold weather, the pupa will remain in diapauses indefinitely.

If the larva is molting to yet another larval instar, the corpora

allata, a pair of neurosecretory lobes in the brain, secretes
juvenile hormone.

Juvenile hormone is the second major effector hormone in

butterfly and moth development, and stimulates the epithelial
cells to maintain "the larval status quo".

If the larva is undergoing the last molt to become the pupa,

only a small amount of JH is released. Lastly, if the transition is
from pupa to adult, no JH is produced (the medial nerve from
the brain to the corpora allata inhibits the gland from producing
JH), and the neurosecretory cells release only 20-
hydroxyecdysone and another eclosion hormone.
Consequently, it is the amount of JH that determines what the
next stage will.
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Researchers have found that when the corpora allata is
removed from larvae, premature metamorphosis occurs,
resulting in the formation of small pupae and small adults.
Conversely, "absorption of exogeneously supplied JH into the
last-instar can elicit an extra larval molt, delaying the pupal
molt" (Gilbert, 1994).

The giant caterpillar may then molt to a giant chrysalis that

produces a giant adult. These strange changes are possible
because even the first instar caterpillars have imaginal discs,
which are groups of immature cells that must potentially
become adult tissue.

During the last instar, the larva increases in size and gains much
weight. Just prior to pupation the caterpillar's color may change
as the larval exoskeleton forms under the skin. Caterpillars
often travel significant distances to locate a suitable site for
pupation.

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1
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The Adult

Adult butterflies and moths have many traits in common with

other insects including three main body divisions (head, thorax
and abdomen), compound eyes, antennae, three pair of legs
and a hard exoskeleton of chitin. All higher Lepidoptera also
possess a suctioning proboscis, long antennae, and two pair of
scale covered wings (Opler, 1992). The main difference
between butterflies and moths is that most butterflies are
diurnal, have brightly colored wings, possess clubbed antennae,
and lack the wing coupling anatomical feature, the frenulum,
which most moths possess. The majority of moths are
nocturnal, and have feather-like antennae.

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1
Thorax
The thorax, like the head and abdomen is mostly covered by
scales and fine hair. It is made up of the three segments: pro
thorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each thoracic segment has
a pair of legs attached, while the wings attach to the
mesothorax and metathorax.

Abdomen

The abdomen is an elongated structure that tapers at the ends,

and houses the majority of digestive, excretory and
reproductive organs, as well as the energy storage structures,
the fat body (Opler, 1992). There are eight pregenital segments
composed of a sclerotized dorsal tergite and a ventral sternite,
with an unsclerotized pleurite on each side.

The last two segments of the abdomen contain the genitalia.

Insemination occurs when the male grasps the female using its
paired claspers, and inserts its penis into the female opening,
the atrium, and into the ductus bursae.

The penis delivers the males sperm package, the

spennatophore, into the ductus bursae, to the corpus bursae of
the female, where it is stored.

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 The spermatophore is opened and sperm swim up the ductus
seminalis, and penetrate the micropyle (outer covering) of the
egg as it passes down the oviduct.

The male of a few species secrete a sphragis around the female

genitalia during mating, which prevents the female from mating
with other males, thus ensuring that the eggs are fertilized by
his sperm.

Methods of Self Defense

All of the developmental stages of the butterfly are at risk of

predation by other insects and spiders as well as by vertebrates
like birds, reptiles and small mammals.

Butterflies have in turn evolved protective methods that

reduce the risk of predation, like closely resembling their
environment, makingthemselves appear startling and
unattractive. or possessing coloration that indicates that they
are unpalatable or poisonous.

The small eggs of butterflies and moths are usually laid on the
underside of leaves, where they have less chance of being
noticed. Yet, the eggs of numerous species are parasitized by
wasps and other insects.

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The slow moving, soft bodied larvae on the other hand are
much more at risk for attack, and have consequently evolved a
variety of protective adaptations.

Some larvae spin webs of silk, and live in groups within them
(ie. The commonly seen Tent caterpillar). The skippers produce
a shelter of silk and leaves or grass to hide themselves. Many
larvae are camouflaged by their host food plant.

Migration
Many butterfly species disperse in what appears to be a
random manner, with their range of distribution varying from
year to year.

Yet, others travel great distances, often thousands of miles, en

masse or individually on their migration.

While dispersion is fre quently undirected, migrations are

usually pre dictable, directed, and seasonally determined.

Migration may be in response to changes in day light hours and

temperatures, scarcity of adult food sources or because or
because of "overcrowding in the larval stage".

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The Monarch (Danus plexippus)and Painted Lady (Vanessa
cardui) occupy large expanses of the temperate zone during
summer, then environmental changesstimulate the fall brood
to migrate south.

They migrate in large groups whereas many other butterflies

species, like the Dainty Sulfur migrate as individuals.

Monarch's over winter in Mexico's Central Transvolcanic

mountain range, and remain there in a state of reproductive dia
pause until lengthening daylight hours and warmer
temperatures stimulate the butterflies to leave their tree roosts
and to become reproductively active.

They make the journey north, depositing eggs on milkweed

plants along the way. Researchers do not know just how far the
spring migrants reach, but believe it is their offspring that
continue the journey north, in a "leap frog" type manner.

They ride the Southerly winds northward and orient using

negative sun orientation and magnetic compassing. Some
Monarchs over winter in Florida and Texas, where they remain
reproductively active. These butterflies may join up with the
spring migrants in their journey north.

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A few other migratory butterflies include: the Gulf Fritillary
(Agraulis vanillae) which migrates south in order to establish
breeding colonies, the Great SouthernWhite butterfly (Ascia
monuste) which can fly in an undulating cylindrical formation of
millions of individuals, and the noetropical pierid Kricogonia
castalia which fly in huge groups within a few feet of the
ground, and the Cloudless Sulfers which fly only a few inches
above water along Florida's northern coast.

Summary

Butterflies and moths are insects, and possess those

characteristics (three pairs of legs, one pair of antennae, a pair
of maxillae, a hypopharynx, a labium and wings) which typify
the Insecta. They are believed to have evolve during the Triassic
period from the Stonefly.

The four developmental stages of the life cycle include the egg,
larva, pupa, andadult. The process by which the immature
butterfly is transformed from one stage to the next is called
metamorphosis, which is a gene regulated process.

Butterflies reproduce sexually, and the females deposit eggs on

or near suitable larval food sources. The larvae hatch from
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between three to ten days of oviposition (unless in dia pause)
and feed on their host plants until they reach full size.

The larvae of many species go through a number of molts,

resulting in a series of larval instars, before becoming a pupae.

The two main hormones of metamorphosis are PTTH and JH.

When ready to proceed to the pupal stage, the larvae spins a
silk pad or girdle which it uses to suspend itself.

It then strips the larval skin (ecdysis) to reveal the new

chrysalis. During the pupal stage the larval features are
systematically broken down and the adult features are formed.
Pupation lasts from four to fourteen days, unless in diapause.

When the newly formed butterfly is ready to emerge, it inhales

air, splitting the exoskeleton of the pupa.

The basic anatomy of adults includes a three segmented body,

head, thorax and abdomen, two pair of wings, three pair of legs
(one to each body segment), antennae and a suctioning
proboscis.

Butterflies differ from moths in that most butterflies are

diurnal, are brightly colored, have clubbed antennae, and lack
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the wing coupling frenulum, while most moths are nocturnal,
are not as brightly colored, have feather like antennae and
possess the frenulum.

Moths and butterflies are prone to numerous natural threats,

and have consequently evolved unique survival mechanisms.

The individuals of some species migrate to warmer or more

hospitable climates to over winter. Though many have studied
the life cycles and habits of various butterflies and moths, there
are still many unanswered questions, and much more research
to be pursued.

Climate Science & Butterflies

Overview
This lesson introduces the concept of climate change and how it
relates to plants and insects.This lesson builds off of the
students’ knowledge from the Butterfly Lab by heightening
theirunderstanding of the needs of the plant and how those
needs are impacted by the environment.Students will learn the
meaning of climate change, and what they can do to help.

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Use the script below to engage the students. Write their
answers to your questions on the board.

What does a caterpillar need to survive?

• Water (Rain)
• Light (Sun)
• Food (Plants)
• Air
• Soil

What other things might affect butterflies?

• Weather (wind, rain, snow, heat)
• Extreme Weather (drought, floods, hurricanes,
tornadoes,fires)
• Climate (long periods of high or low temperatures)
• Plant Bloom Period
• Pollution
• Plant Pests
• Disease
Has anyone heard of Climate Change? What is Climate
Change?

Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather

patterns of the entire planet. To understand this, it is important
to know the difference between climate and weather. Weather
is local and temporary, it’s what happens at a particular time

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and place. Weather is rain, snow, wind, hurricanes, heat waves,
etc. Climate is the big picture of weather. If an area like a desert
has weather that is extremely hot with very little rain each year,
it has a dry climate. If an area like a rainforest is warm and gets
lots of rain, it has a tropical climate.
We are seeing the average temperatures across the
entire planet get higher and higher each year at a faster rate
than we’ve ever seen before. The higher temperatures will
change the climate all over the world, making dry areas dryer
and wet areas wetter. We also expect climate change to cause
more extreme weather events by changing the timing,
frequency and duration of precipitation and unusual
temperatures. This will affect the plants, animals, and humans
living there.

What is causing Climate Change?

Climate change is caused by humans burning fossil fuels.

Humans burn fossil fuels when we use electricity, drive our cars,
fly in planes, etc. When we do these things, we release tiny
molecules of pollution into the air, called greenhouse gases.
There are different types of greenhouse gases, but the most
common greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide (Other greenhouse
gases are methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and water vapor).
Over time, these tiny, invisible molecules build up and act as a
blanket over the planet that traps heat. This heat trapping
blanket will cause the Earth to have a fever that changes the
average climate and weather of the planet.
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How is climate change affecting plants?

Imagine you are a flower and you lived your whole life on a
snowy mountain. You would be used to living in a cold climate,
right? Now imagine that the climate of your home has changed
over time to be much, much hotter.

How would you like that? Do you think that might affect your
life as a flower? A hotter climate might mean less water
available because there is less rain or because more water will
evaporate out of the soil before the plants can use it.

Many humans, like us, are lucky enough to be able to cool off
by going in the shade, changing our clothes, drinking lots of
water, or going into an air conditioned room. But do you think a
flower can just pull out its roots and walk somewhere else? No.
Flowers and many other plants will struggle and have to adapt
to dryer conditions to survive.

Climate change can also change the life cycle of a plant all
together. If the Earth’s temperature is warming, flowers will
bloom earlier in the year. A lot of flowers bloom in the spring
time when there is less frost and warmer temperatures, but if

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the temperature is warmer earlier in the year the flowers will
not bloom at the right time.

If the life cycle of flowers is changed, it will throw other species

out of their seasonal routine as well. Insects count on flowers to
bloom at a certain time so they can gather nectar from the
flowers, but if the flowers bloom earlier than usual, the insects
might have to migrate somewhere else to find nectar.

What does this mean for caterpillars?

Caterpillars eat the leaves from these plants. If the plants are
not growing as well due to less water, they will have less food
to eat.

What does that mean for butterflies?

There is less food for butterflies, by the time they arrive to feed
on nectar the flower will have already bloomed. As we can see,
climate change is a big factor that can impact plants and
insects.

We know that it’s important for us to care for our fellow

humans, but it is also important for us to care for our friends,
the plants and animals. Can we brainstorm ideas to help save
plants and animals from climate change?
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 Glossary
Abdomen The third and posterior segment of the insect body.

Accessory pulsatile organs Tiny organs that help pump

haemolymph throughout the body.

Androconial scales Modified scales of male butterflies that

secrete pheromones to stimulate females.

Antennae A pair of sensory organs found on the head, above

the mouth.

Atrium The opening leading to the ductus bursae.

Basal area The region near the base of the wing.

Chitin A nitrogenous polysaccharide constituent of the

exoskeleton of insects.

Chorion The outer layer of the eggshell which is produced by

the secretions of the ovarian follicular cells.

Chrysalis The metamorphic instar of the butterfly.

Compound eye An eye comprised of numerous ommatidia.

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Corneal lens The transparent cuticle of the ommatidia.

Corpora allata A pair of lobes behind the brain that secrete

hormones.

Corpus bursae The main part of the bursa copulatrix.

Costal vein (costa) The wing vein that forms the anterior margin
of the butterfly wing.

Coxa The segment of the insect leg closest to the body.

Cremaster A structure used by the pupa to a silk support pad.

Crochets Hooks on the plantar surface of the larval prolegs.

Crop The area of the foregut behind the esophagus.

Discal Cell The large cell in the central area of the wing.

Dorsal longitudinal muscles The muscles that extend dorsally

and lengthwise between segments.

Dorsal-ventral muscles The muscles thatextend vertically

within segments.

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Ductus bursae The tube that empties into the corpus bursae.

Ecdysis The shedding of the old cuticle during molting.

Ecdysone A hormone of molting.

Eclosion The hatching of the caterpillar from the egg and the
emergence of the adult from the chrysalis.

Fat bodies The storage sacs for fats, that are especially large in
diapausing and migratory butterflies.

Femur The third segment of the leg.

Flagellum The segments of the antenna after the scape.

Frenulum A type of wing coupling where bristles from the top

wing fit into areas of the bottom wing.

Haemolymph The blood of the insect.

Imaginal discs Epidermal cells which are undifferentiated and

embryonic and allow for metamorphosis to take place.

Imago The adult insect.

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Immature Eggs, larvae or pupae, but usually referring to the
larvae.

Indirect muscles The muscles that cause changes in the shape

of the thorax and indi rectly control the wings.

Instar The larva between molts.

Juvenile hormone A hormone produced by the corpora allata

which supports the juvenile characteristics, and inhibits the
development of adult characteristics.

Labia The larva's lower paired lip.

Labrum The upper lip.

Mandibles The larva's front pair of chewing mouth parts.