Applied Physics

Practical
Department of Metallurgy & Materials Engineering
MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY
JAMSHORO, SINDH, PAKISTAN

Name:___________________________Roll No:_______________________
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr/Miss.____________________________________________ having

Roll No.________________________has carried out the necessary practical works as his course

of studies by theAPPLIED PHYSICS for the semester___________year____________as

shown in the practical schedule of this journal.

Incharge: _____________________________

Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engg.

Dated:_______________

Head of the department:__________________

Contents
Practical No. 01 ................................................................................................................................ 3

To understand the use of the Vernier Calipers. ............................................................................... 3

Practical No. 02 ................................................................................................................................ 7

To study the relationship between current and voltage. .................................................................. 7

Practical No. 03 ................................................................................................................................ 8

Plot the magnetic field due to a bar magnetic with. ........................................................................ 8

I) It's North Pole towards geographic North. II) It's North Pole towards geographic South. ................ 8

Practical No. 04 .............................................................................................................................. 11

To draw a graph between temperature and time when ice is converted into water and then to steam
by slow heating method. ............................................................................................................. 11
Practical No. 05 .............................................................................................................................. 14
Determine the focal length of Concave Mirror by using one pin method ........................................ 14
Practical No. 06 .............................................................................................................................. 16
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by two pin method. ............................................... 16
Practical No. 07 .............................................................................................................................. 17
To determine the current induced by Electromagnetic procedure. ................................................. 17
Practical No. 08 .............................................................................................................................. 18
To find magnetic field due to current carrying wire. ...................................................................... 18
 Practical No. 01

Object:

To understand the use of the Vernier Calipers.

Theory:

A caliper is a device used to measure the distance between two opposing sides of an object. It
can be as simple as a compass with inward or outward-facing points. First the tips of the caliper
are adjusted to fit across the points to be measured and the caliper is then removed and the
distance between the tips is measured using a ruler.
The modern Vernier caliper was invented by Joseph R. Brown in 1851. It was the first practical
tool for exact measurements that could be sold at an affordable price to ordinary machinists. The
Venire Caliper consists of a main scale fitted with a jaw at one end. Another jaw, containing the
vernier scale, moves over the main scale. When the two jaws are in contact, the zero of the main
scale and the zero of the Vernier scale should coincide. If both the zeros do not coincide, there
will be a positive or negative zero error.
Parts of a Vernier Caliper

1. Main Scale: The main scale consists of a steel metallic strip graduated in centimeters at one
edge and in inches at the other edge. It carries the inner and outer measuring jaws. When the two
`jaws are in contact, the zero of the main scale and the zero of the Vernier scale should coincide.
If both the zeros do not coincide, there will be a positive or negative zero error.

2. Vernier Scale

A vernier scale slides on the strip. It can be fixed in any position by the retainer. On the Vernier scale,
0.9 cm is divided into ten equal parts.
3. Outer Measuring Jaws

The outer measuring jaws help to take the outer dimension of an object
4. Inner Measuring Jaws

The inner measuring jaws help to take the inner dimension of an object.
5. Retainer

The retainer helps to retain the object within the jaws of the Vernier calipers.
6. Depth Measuring Prong

The depth measuring prong helps to measure the depth of an object.

Least Count

The least count or the smallest reading which you can get with the instrument can be calculated
as;

Least Count= one main scale (MS) division- one vernier scale division

First calculate the least count and only then place the object between the two
jaws. Record the position of zero of the Vernier scale on the main scale.

Calculating the Reading

When a body is between the jaws of the Vernier Caliper;

If the zero of the vernier scale lies ahead of the nth division of the main scale, then the
main scale reading (MSR) is;

MSR= N

If nth division of Vernier scale coincides with any division of the main scale, then the Vernier
scale reading (VSR) is; VSR= n x L.C

Total Reading:

TR= MSR+ VSR= N+ (n x L.C)

Materials Required

 Vernier callipers. 
  A spherical body ( it can be a pendulum bob) 
 A cylinder. 
  A small rectangular metallic block of known mass 
 A beaker or a calorimeter. 

The Procedure

1. We'll first determine the vernier constant (VC), which is the least count (L.C) of the
vernier caliper and record it stepwise as in the equation, L.C = 1 MSD - 1 VSD.
2. Now, bring the movable jaw in close contact with the fixed jaw and find the zero error.
Do this three times and record the values. If there is no zero error, then record 'zero
error nil'.
3. Open the jaws of the Vernier Caliper and place the sphere or cylinder between the two
jaws and adjust the movable jaw, such that it gently grips the body without any undue
pressure on it. That done, tightens the screw attached to the Vernier scale.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale on the main scale. Record the
main scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is
called main scale reading (MSR).
5. Note the number (n) of the Vernier scale division which coincides with the division of the
main scale.
6. You'll have to repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the body by 90o for measuring the
diameter in a perpendicular direction.
7. Repeat steps 4 to 7 for three different positions and record the observations.
8. Now find total reading using the equation, TR = MSR+VSR = N+(n x L.C) and apply
the zero correction.
9. Take the mean of the different values of the diameter and show that in the result with
the proper unit.

Note:

 To measure the internal diameter of a calorimeter or beaker, place the beaker upside
 down over the internal jaws of the vernier calipers then repeat the steps 4 to 8. 
 To find the ‘Depth’ of the beaker, move the metallic strip till it touches the bottom of the
beaker then repeat steps 4 to 8. 

Observations

Diameter to SI NO Main Scale Vernier VSR x L.C Total : Mean cm

be measured reading scale cm MSR +
MSR reading VSR (VSR x LC)
Dia of
cylinder

Length of
Cylinder
The Result

The volume of the Cylinder is ........... m3.

 Practical No. 02
OBJECT:

To study the relationship between current and voltage.

APPARATUS: Ampere(1 amp) , DC Voltmeter (5 volt), DC Eureka wire (34 SWG), 10-cm
long Power supply, low voltage, DC Leads, 4 mm, 6 Crocodile clips, 2 Rheostat (10 ohms, at
least 1A)

THEORY:
Electric current is a flow of charge, just as a river current is a flow of water. By definition, an
electric current I is the amount of charge q flowing per second, hence I = q/t . Current is measured in
Colombs per second (also called Amperes, see below). However, we noted last day that the charge on
the electron is only a tiny fraction of a Coulomb – hence a current of 1 Coulomb per second
corresponds to an awful lot of electrons running around. Since charge will only flow if there is a
voltage difference between the terminals of a circuit (last day), you might expect that there is a
simple relation between voltage and current. In fact, the German scientist Georg Ohm was the
first to discover that there is a linear relationship between the two in many materials. Ohm’s
law states that the current I passing through a material connected to an energy source V is given
by the equation I = V/R. Here, R is the constant of proportionality and is called electrical
resistance and you can see why from the equation: a material with a very large value of R will
pass almost no current (electrical insulator), while another material with very small R will yield
a large current for the same voltage (good electrical conductor).

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION:
Many materials have a linear relation between voltage and current – the slope of the graph is the
material’s resistance which is the straight line. Means current I is directly proportional to voltage
V , when the current increases the voltage increases and when the current decreases voltage
decreases .

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the circuit shown. The length of Eureka wire acts as the resistance in the circuit.

2. By adjusting the power supply, you can vary the p.d. across the Eureka wire. The ammeter
will show corresponding values of the current through the wire. Keep the current small so that
the temperature of the wire does not increase. (Adjust the rheostat at the beginning and then
keep it constant.) Record a series of values of p.d. and current.
3. Calculate the ratio p.d./current for each pair of values. Comment on the result.
4. Draw a graph to represent the same data. From the graph, deduce a value for the ratio p.d./current.
 Practical No. 03

OBJECT:

Plot the magnetic field due to a bar magnetic with.

I) It's North Pole towards geographic North. II) It's North Pole towards geographic South.

Apparatus: Bar magnet, white sheet, needle compass, pencil.

Theory:

Plotting of non uniform magnetic field of a strong bar magnet (dipole)

and neutral points:
We shall now plot the lines of non-uniform magnetic field of a bar magnet placed in
magnetic meridian (i.e., in geographic north-south directions) in the following two positions:
When magnet is placed with its north pole pointing towards north.
When magnet is placed with its south pole pointing towards north.

When magnet is placed with its north pole pointing towards north:
Procedure:

Fix a sheet of white paper on the drawing board with the help of brass pins. Mark north–south
directions on the paper by beeping the compass needle on it. Then place a bar magnet on the
paper with its north pole pointing towards north. Mark its outline with a fine pencil. Now place a
small compass needle close to the iV-pole of the magnet and mark two pencil dots exactly at the
two ends of the needle. Then move the compass needle in such a way that one end of the needle
coincides with the second pencil dot. Mark the position of the other end of the needle with a dot.
Repeat the process of moving the compass needle till the other end of the bar magnet is reached.
Join the different dots to get a continuous smooth curve. Thus, one magnetic field line is traced.

Repeat the process from the same pole of the magnet but from a different point and trace out
another magnetic field line. In this manner, draw several magnetic field lines starting from the
different points near the same pole of the magnet. Label each line with an arrow from the north
pole towards the south pole of the magnet to indicate its direction.
The magnetic field lines obtained are shown in above figure which are due to the combined
effect of the magnetic field of the magnet and the earth's magnetic field.

From above figure, it is noted that

(i) The magnetic field lines in the vicinity of a magnet are mainly due to the magnetic field of
the magnet which is stronger than the magnetic field of the earth. As the distance from the
magnet increases, the magnetic field due to the magnet decreases and at distant points it
becomes weaker than the earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field lines at distant points are
therefore parallel lines due to the earth's magnetic field.

(ii) There are two points equi-distant from the centre of the magnet marked as x in above figure
in the east and west directions where the magnetic field of the magnet and the horizontal
component of the earth's magnetic field are equal and are in opposite directions such that they
neutralize each other. These are the neutral points. A compass needle when placed at these points
remains unaffected and rests in any direction.

When magnet is placed with its south pole pointing towards north
In this case the bar magnet is placed on the paper with its south pole pointing towards north and lines of
magnetic field arc traced following the method described above. Below figure shows the magnetic field lines
due to the combined effect of the magnetic field of the magnet and the earth's magnetic field.
The magnetic field lines in the vicinity of the magnet arc mainly due to the magnetic field of the
magnet which is much stronger than the earth's magnetic field. As the distance from the magnet
increases, the magnetic field due to the magnet decreases and at distant points, it becomes
weaker than the earth's magnetic field. The magnetic field at the distant points from the magnet
are mainly due to the earth's magnetic field, and' therefore they are nearly parallel straight lines
from south to north.

(ii) There are two points equidistant from the centre of the magnet (marked as x) in the north
and south directions where the magnetic field of the magnet and the horizontal component of
the earth's magnetic field are equal and are in opposite directions such that they neutralize each
other. At these points, the compass needle remains unaffected and comes to rest pointing in any
direction. These ponts are the neutral points.

In above figure we define that how we plot the magnetic field.

 Practical No. 04
OBJECT:

To draw a graph between temperature and time when ice is converted into water and then to
steam by slow heating method.

Apparatus:
Ice spirit lamp, tripod stand, beaker, thermometer, stirrer, wire gauze, stop watch, graph Paper,
rubber, pencil and ruler.

Procedure:
1. Take a beaker. Put a stirrer and some pieces of ice in the beaker. Place the beaker in
a stand.
2. Suspend a thermometer from the stand in such a way that its bulb is dipped deep into the
pieces of ice in the beaker.
3. Place a spirit lamp under the beaker and the heat the beaker.
4. Start the stop watch and the note the temperature at regular of one minute.
5. Continue noting temperature.

The temperature first rises to 0 C. it remains at 0 C till whole if ice melts into water. The
temperature than starts rising and becomes 100 C. at this stage the water starts boiling, that
is, changing into steam. It remains at 1000 C as long as the water continues boiling.

Graph:
  Select the suitable scale of time and temperature. 
  Take time along x-axis and temperature along y-axis.

  Make appoint for each pair of readings of time and temperature.

 
Join the points marked on the graph.

Precautions:
Use small pieces of ice. Continue stirring during the experiment. *Note time and temperature
at the same instant for each reading. Heat the ice at low temperature.
Information:

Ice is water frozen into a solid state. Depending on the presence of impurities such as particles of
soil or bubbles of air, it can appear transparent or a more or less opaque bluish-white color. In the
Solar System, ice occurs naturally from as close to the Sun as Mercury to as far as the cloud.
Beyond the Solar System, it occurs as interstellar ice. It is abundant on Earth's surface –
particularly in the polar regions and above the snow line and, as a common form of
precipitation and deposition, plays a key role in Earth's water cycle and climate. It falls as
snowflakes and hail or occurs as frost, icicles or ice spikes.

Ice molecules exhibit different phases (packing geometries) that depend on temperature and
pressure. Virtually all the ice on Earth's surface and in its atmosphere is of a hexagonalcrystalline
structure denoted as ice Ih The most common phase transition to ice Ih occurs when liquid water is
cooled below 0°C (273.15K, 32°F) at standard atmospheric pressure. It may also be deposited by
water vapor via sublimation, as happens in the formation of frost.

As a naturally-occurring crystalline inorganic solid with an ordered structure, ice is considered a

mineral. It possesses a regular crystalline structure based on the molecule of water, which
consists of a single oxygenatomcovalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, or H-O-H.
However, many of the physical properties of water and ice are controlled by the formation of
hydrogen bonds between adjacent oxygen and hydrogen atoms; while it is a weak bond, it is
nonetheless critical in controlling the structure of both water and ice.
An unusual property of ice frozen at atmospheric pressure is that the solid is approximately 8.3%
less dense than liquid water. The density of ice is 0.9167 g/cm3 at 0 °C, whereas water has a
density of 0.9998 g/cm³ at the same temperature. Liquid water is densest, essentially 1.00 g/cm³,
at 4 °C and becomes less dense as the water molecules begin to form the hexagonal crystals of
ice as the freezing point is reached. This is due to hydrogen bonding dominating the
intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid. Density
of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature and has a value of 0.9340 g/cm³ at −180 °C
(93 K).

Melting point:

The melting point (or, rarely, liquefaction point) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes
state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid
phases exist in equilibrium. The melting point of a substance depends (usually slightly) on
pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure. When considered as the temperature of
the reverse change from liquid to solid, it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization
point. Because of the ability of some substances to super cool, the freezing point is not
considered as a characteristic property of a substance. When the "characteristic freezing point" of
a substance is determined, in fact the actual methodology is almost always "the principle of
observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice", that is, the melting point.
 Practical No. 05
OBJECT:
Determine the focal length of Concave Mirror by using one pin method

Focal Length of a Concave Mirror:-

The focal point of the length or mirror is the point where parallel rays of light meet, or converge.

Apparatus:
  Concave mirror 
 Pins 
 Candle 
 Sheet 
 Glue 
 Lens Holder 
 Scale 

Theory:
P=distance between viewer and mirror
q=distance between mirror and image
one pin method
one pin method is used to determine the focal length of the concave mirror.

Method:

  Take the sheet and attach it to stand. 

 Hold the concave mirror in the right side of the sheet and pins to hold the candle, having
 distance of 18cm is (distance between viewer and mirror). 
 Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that it forms a clear image of the candle
 on the screen. 
 Observe the image in mirror and measure the distance between mirror and image. 

Fill in the blanks….

1) The point where parallel rays meet each other is called ………..
2) The image distance is used to be denoted with …………..
3) One pin method is used to determine the focal length of .………. Mirror.
4) P is the distance between viewer and …………
5) Concave mirror is used to ……………. the light
 Practical No. 06
Objective:
To determine the focal length of a convex lens by two pin method.

Apparatus:
Meter rule, pins, convex lens.

What is focal length?

The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or
diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimate rays
are brought to a focus. A system with a shorter focal length has greater optical power than one
with a long focal length; that is, it bends the rays more strongly, bringing them to a focus in a
shorter distance.

Theory:
In this experiment, we have chosen method by two pin method to find out the focal length of a
Spherical lens by lens formula.
It is known that there is a formula called Lens formula (1/f =1/p + 1/q)
which states the relationship between
object distance( p), image distance (q) and the focal length of a convex

PROCEDURE:
Place the convex lens in the middle of two pins. There are two pins one pin act as an object
while the other one act as an image. Adjust the object pin to some distance from lense. Now
adjust the image pin in such a way that the image formed in a lens in such a way that needle of
object pin should coincide image pin. Note the image distance pin and object pin distance now
repeat same procedure for 2 more times to obtain mean value.

OBSERVATION:
S.no Object distance (p) Image distance(q) 1/f=1/p +1/q Average of focal
length
1
2
3
 Practical No. 07
Object:

To determine the current induced by Electromagnetic procedure.

Apparatus: Permanent bar Magnet, Copper wire and galvanometer.

Electromagnetic induction is the complementary phenomenon to electromagnetism. Instead

of producing a magnetic field from electricity, we produce electricity from a magnetic field.
There is one important difference, though: whereas electromagnetism produces a steady
magnetic field from a steady electric current, electromagnetic induction
requires motion between the magnet and the coil to produce a voltage.
Procedure:

1. Wind a coil of 10 to 20 turns with long leads (say 50 cm). The coils should be such that
a permanent bar magnet can pass freely through.
2. Connect the long leads to the galvanometer.

3. Move the magnet in the space in and around the coil, keeping an eye on the
galvanometer. Connected to multimeter the coil, and set it to the most sensitive
DC voltage range available.

4. Move the magnet slowly to and from one end of the electromagnet, noting the polarity
and magnitude of the induced voltage. Experiment with moving the magnet, and
discover for yourself what factor(s) determine the amount of voltage induced. Try the
other end of the coil and compare results. Try the other end of the permanent magnet
and compare
5. If using an analog multimeter, be sure to use long jumper wires and locate the meter
far away from the coil, as the magnetic field from the permanent magnet may affect the
meter’s operation and produce false readings. Digital meters are unaffected by
magnetic fields.
 Practical No. 08
Object:

To find magnetic field due to current carrying wire.

Principles:
A current in a long, straight wire produces a magnetic field with circular lines as may be
verified by sprinkling. Iron filings on a board normal to the wire.

Apparatus:
Battery, Magnetic wire, card board, iron filing, compass needle, copper rod, switch.

Procedure:

 Set copper rod vertically on board. 

 Sprinkle iron powder on the board. 
 Connect copper rode on the battery 
  Place compass needles circle around the rod. 
 Turn switch on. 
 When current flow through conductor magnetic field is induced. 
 The iron filing set around the conductor. 
 The compass needles show the direct of magnetic field in circle. 

Result:
Magnetic field is set when current is passed through conductor