BOTAONE: Long Exam 4 Carpel and Stamen Evolution

Reproduction in Flowering
Plants (Angiosperms)

Asexual Vs Sexual Reproduction

● Asexual reproduction results in Stamen vs Carpel
new individuals genetically Stamen Carpel
identical to the parent. The parent
and all progeny are equally updated The male fertilizing The female
organ of a flower, productive organ of a
to the habitat
typically consisting flower, consisting of
● Sexual reproduction results in of a an ovary, a stigma,
progeny that differ from each other pollen-containing and usually a style
genetically, There is a range of anther and a and occurring singly
filament or as one fo fa rgoup
fitness, and some progeny may
have a combination of maternal The male The femeake
and paternal genes that causes reproductive reprductove
structure structure
them to be even better adapted
than the parents Refers to the Refers to a single set
collection of anthers of the oivary style,
Sexual and filaments and stigma
● Sexual reproduction in Aka androecium Aka gynoeciym
angiosperms involves flowers,
which produce the necessary cells Occurs surrounding Occurs at athe center
and structures the female of the floeer
reproductive
structure
Flower Parts
Produces pollen Produces ovules
grains

Releases pollen The stigma capture

grains to the pollen grains
environment during
pollination

Pollen grains Ovules possess eggs

germinate, inside the embryo
Floral Whorls producing male sac
gametes
● Accessory parts
○ Sepals (calyx)
○ Petals (corolla)
● Essential parts
○ Stamen (androecium)
○ Carpel or pistil (gynoecium) Gynoecium
 ● All female parts of a flower
Carpel
Pistil ● Conduplicate megasporophyll
● Structure consisting of ovary, ● Can be unit of pistil, if pistil
style(s), and stigma(s) compound (composed of >1 carpel)

Comparison of Gynoecium Terminology Using Carpel and Pistil

Gynoecium Carpel Pistil Examples

composition terminology terminology

Single carpel Monocarpous A pistil Avocado

(unicarpellate) (simple)
gynoecium (Perse asp.)

Most legumes
(Fabaceae)

Multiple distinct Apocarpous Pistils Strawberry

(“unfused”) carpels (choricarpous) (simple) (Fragaria sp.)
gynoecium
Buttercup
(Ranunculus sp.)

Multiple connate Syncarpous A pistil Tulip (Tulipa sp.)

(“fused”) carpels gynoecium (compound)
Most flowers

Gynoecium

Gynoecial Fusion
 i. Both stamen and
pistil present
(hermaphroditic)
b. Imperfect
i. Either stamen or
pistil is absent
3. Flora symmetry
a. Radial symmetry
Androecium
(actinomorphic)
i. Can be divided into 2
equal halves along
any plant
b. Bilateral symmetry
(zygomorphic)
i. Divided into 2 equal
Stamen Arrangement and Cycle halves only by medial
cut through central
axis
ii. Orchidaceous,
papilionaceous,
caesalpinaceuous,
bilabiate (2-lipped)
Fusion of Floral Parts
● Connation
○ Fusion of floral parts from
the same whorl

Floral Variations
1. Floral whorls
a. Complete
i. Sepal, petal, stamen,
pistil
b. Incomplete
i. Lacking one or more
of the worls
2. Essential parts
a. Perfect
4. Nature of corolla i. Terminal
a. Polypetalous (free petals) ● Develops from
b. Gamopetalous (fused the apical
petals) meristem of
c. Apetalous (no petals) primary shoot
5. Position of ovary or of an
a. Superior extended
b. Inferior lateral
6. Attachment of floral parts branch, with
a. Perigynous vegetative
b. Epigynous leaves
c. Hypogynous ii. Axillary
● Develops from
axillary bud of
a vegetative
leaf, does not
develop into
an extended
7. Insertion of parts
branch
system

8. Placentation types
b. Inflorescence Development
a. Marginal
i. Determinate
b. Axile
● Terminal
c. Basal
flower
d. Free central
develops first
e. Parietal
○ Dichas
ium is
termin
ated
by the
oldest
flower
a. and
9. Inflorescence flanke
● A collection or aggregation d by
of flowers two
● Boundaries defined by lateral
vegetative leaves below young
a. Inflorescence Position er
 flower
s
○ Clemati
s or
vrigin’
s
bower ● Spadix
ii. Indeterminate
● Basal flower
develops first
1. Solitar
y
2. Racem
es
3. Cyme ● Hypanthodium
4. Umbel
5. Panicl
es
6. Spikes
7. Catkin
s (or ● Cyathium
ament
s)
8. Corym
bs
9. Heads
10. Compo
● Spikelet (grass)
site

● Head/capitulum

Specialized Inflorescences Flowers are for sexual

● Catkin/ament reproduction
 ● Sexual reproduction is Method Explanation
important for evolution
● Sexual reproduction a. Dichogamy a. Anthers and
i. Protandry stigmas at
produces variable
ii. Protogyny different times
offspring, creating diversity, to minimize
and variation among self-pollination
population s(shuffling of i. Androec
ium
genes)
ii. Ripens
● Variation is needed for first
natural selection to occur iii. Gynoeci
● Sexual reproduction is umum
ripens
advantageous to an first
organism only if it happens
with someone other than b. Unisexual flowers Only male or female
flowers on a plant,
itself
monoecious (one plant)
● Most plants (97%) have both or dioecious (2 plants)
sexes on body
(hermaphroditic) c. Incompatibility Produce chemical in
stigma to prevent
germination of their
Selfing own pollens
- Around 10-15% of flowering plant
sare predominantly selfers d. Heterostyly Thrum-eyed: anthers
up and stigmas low
- requires self-comaptibility down
- Often accompanied by strucually Pin-eyed: stigmas high
enforced mechanism up and anthers low
down
(cleistogamous flowers)
- Some species are obligate sliders
(e.g., some grasses, some orchids), Heterostyly
other produce self-fertilzing flowers ● The relative lengths or heights of
seasonally stigmas and anthers vary among
different flowers
Methods of Preventing Inbreeding ● Found in entomophilous species
● Different floral forms on different
individuals
● Each form differs
from others in
relative position of
stigma and anthers
● Pollen transfer only
successful with
visits between forms
Pollination
Methods to Prevent Self-Pollination
(Outcrossing Mechanisms)
Pollination ● Animals evolved specialized body
● In seed plants, the transfer of parts and behaviors that aid plant
pollen grains from the anther to the pollination
stigma ● Occurs when two different
● After pollination, fertilization, or organisms (flowering plants and
fusion of gametes occurs their animal pollinators) form such
● Flowering plants rely on living an interdependent relationship that
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) they affect the course of each
pollinating agents other’s evolution
● Approxiamlety 80% is biotic ● While plants were coevolving
● Among the abiotic factors, 98% rely specialized features (petals, scent,
on wind and 2% on water nectar) to attract pollinators,
animal polliantors coeveolved
specialized body aprts and
behaviors that enabled them to aid
pollination and obtain nectar and
pollen grains as a reward
● Coevolution is rpesonsible for long,
curved beaks of honeycreepers,
Fertilization which insert their beaks into
● Fusion of male and female gametes tubular flowers to obtain nectar
● After fertilization, flowering plants ● Long, tubular corollas of flowers
produce seeds inside fruits that honeycreepers visit also
developed through coevolution
● Distinct visual cues: flowering
plants have evolved bright colors,
stripes, patterns, and colors
specific to the pollinator. For
example, flowering plants seeking
to attract insect pollinators are
typically blue are ultraviolet,
whereas red and orange are
designed to attract birds
Coevolution ● Scent: flowering plants use scents
● Interactions between two different as a means of instructing insects
species as selective forces act on as to their location. Since scents
each other, resulting in adapations become stronger closer to the
that increase their interdependency plant, the insect is able to hone-in
● Plants evolve elaborate methods to and land on that plant to extract
attract aniaml pollinators its nectar
● Animals evolved specialized body ● Some flowers use chemical and
parts and behaviors that aid plant tactile means to mimic female
pollinators insect species to attract the male
 species. For example, orchids Naias and Ceratophyllum
secrete a chemical that is the same while it takes place on the
as the pheromones of bee and wasp water surface
species. When the male insect (epihydrogamous) in the
lands on the flower and attempts to common water weeds
copulate, the pollen is transferred Vallisneria, Hydrilla, and
to him Elodea of Hydrocharitaceae

Agents of Pollination Animal Pollinators

1. Wind (anemophily) ● Bees
● Gymnosperms and some ○ The most important group
flowering plants (grasses, of flower pollinators
trees) use wind pollination ○ They live on the nectar and
● Flowers are small, grouped feed larvae, also eat the
together pollen
● Not a very efficient method ○ Bees are guided by the sight
(too chancy and wasteful) and smell
● Hazel staminate flowers ○ See yellow and blue colors,
(stamens only) releasing also ultraviolet light (not
clouds of pollen red)
2. Animals (zoophily) ○ Flowers have ‘honey guides’
● Insects and bee landing platforms
○ Bees, wasps, ● Butterflies and moths
butterflies, moths ○ Also guided by sight and
● Birds smell
○ Hummingbirds, ○ Butterflies can see red and
honeycreepers orange flowers
● Mammals ○ Flowers are usually shaped
○ Bats, mice, monkeys as a long tube because of
● Even some reptiles and insect’s proboscis - to get
amphibians nectar
3. Water (hydrophilly) ○ Moth-pollinated flowers are
● Certain plants, as those fo usually white or pale, with
the families Naiadaceae, sweet, strong odor - for
Certophyllaceae, night pollination
Potamogetonacaeae, ● Flies and beetles
Hydrocharitaceae, etc., are ○ Flies like flowers that smell
completely aquatic so tha like dung or rotten meat
their pollination is adapted ○ Lay their eggs there, but
to such conditions larvae die due to their lack
● Pollination takes place of food
completely under water
(hypohydrogamous) in
 ○ Beetles pollinate flowers ○ Pollen
that are dull in color but ■ Is high in protein,
have a very strong odor some bees and
● Birds beetles eat it
○ Birds have a good sense of ● Flowers can
color, they like yellow or red produce two
flowers kinds of
○ But birds do not have a good pollen: a
sense of smell, so normal and a
bird-pollinated flowers sterile, but
usually have little odor tasty, kind, for
○ Flowers provide fluid nectar the insect
in greater quantities than
insects Getting the pollinator’s attention
○ Hummingbird-pollinated ● Plants advertise their pollen and
flowers usually java long, nectar rewards with
tubular corolla 1. Colors
○ Pollen is large and sticky ■ Bees see blue, yellow,
● Mammals: bats and mice UV; while birds see
○ Mouse-pollinated flowers red
are usually inconspicuous, ● Bats don’t see
they open at night well, so
○ Bats pollinate at night, so flowers are
flowers are white, and often white
have dusky white petals are 2. Nectar/honey guides
scented ■ A visual guide for
pollinator to locate
Why do animals pollinate plants? the reward (pansy
● They get a reward i.e. food! In flower)
exchange for moving their pollen to 3. Aromas
another flower ■ For insects
○ Nectar ■ Can also be carrion
■ A sugary solution or dung smell
produced in special
flower glands called Plant Mimicry
nectaries ● Some plants take advantage of the
■ Nectar concentration sex drive of certain insects
matches energy ● Certain orchids look like female
requirements of the wasps and even smell like them
pollinator: bird and ● Male try to to mate with them, and
bee pollinate flower in the process they pollinate the
have different sugar plant
concentrations
 ● The orchid gets pollinated, but the ● The multicellular diploid stage is
male wasp only gets frustrated called the sporophyte
● Meiosis in the sporophyte produces
The male and female productive parts haploid cells called spores
● Unlike a gamete, a haploid spore
doesn’t fuse with another cell but
divides mitotically, generating a
multicellular haploid stage called
the gametophyte
● Cells of the gametophyte give rise
to gametes by mitosis
● Fusion of two haploid gametes at
fertilization results in a diploid
zygote, which develops into the
next sporophyte generation
Alternation of Generation ● Therefore, in this type of life cycle,
the sporophyte generation
● The alteration of a sexual phase produces a gametophyte as as its
and an asexual phase in the life offspring, and the gametophyte
cycle of an organism. The two generation produces the next
phases, or generations, are often sporophyte generation
morphologically (external features),
and sometimes chromosomally
(genetic make-up), distinct
● Fertilization, the fusion of gametes
results in a diploid zygote, which
divides by mitosis and forms a new
sporophyte
● In angiosperms, the sporophyte is
the dominant generation: it is
larger, more conspicuous, and
longer lived than the gametophyte
● The gametophyte develops inside
the ovary and the male develop
inside the pollen grain
● The key traits of the angiosperm life
cycle can be remembered as the
“three Fs” flowers, double
fertilization, and fruits
● This type includes both diploid and
haploid stages that are Life Cycle of Angiosperms
multicellular
 ● Each anther has 2 thecae (thecae 1
and thecae 2)
● There are 4 microsporangia/pollen
sacs
● Each pollen sac has diploid
microsporocytes/pollen mother
cells which undergo meiosis that
forms 4 haploid microspores that
will undergo mitosis that will forms
2 cells, the generative cell, tube cell,
and spore wall which comprise the
pollen grain
● During maturation of the male
gametophyte, the generative cell
Gametophyte Development
passes into the tube cell: the tube
cell now has a completely
freestanding cell inside it

Development of the Embryo Sac, the

female gametophyte
● As a carpel develops, one or more
ovules form deep within its ovary,
its swollen base
● A female gametophyte, also known
Development of Pollen Grains, the male
as embryo sac, develops inside
gametophyte
each ovule. The process of embryo
● Cells within anther undergo sac formation occurs in a tissue
meiosis called the megasporangium within
● Produce 4 spores each ovule
● Each spore undergoes mitosis ● Two integuments (layers of
● Results in pollen grain containing 2 protective saprophytic tissue that
cells will develop into the seed coat)
● The stamen is composed of an surround each megasporangium,
anther which is the saclike except at a gap called the
structure on top of the filament micropyle.
● Female gametophyte begins when Double Fertilization (in plants)
one cell in the megasporangium of
each ovule, the megasporocyte,
Double Fetilization
enlarges and undergoes meiosis,
● The fusion of gametes
producing 4 haploid cells
● Occurs after the two sperm reach
● Usually only 1 megaspore survives;
the female gametophute
the other three degenerate
○ One sperm fertilizes the egg
● The nucleus of the surviving
forming the zygote
megaspore divides by mitosis three
○ Another sperm combines
time without cytokinesis, resulting
with the two polar nuclei
in one large cell with eight haploid
forming a triploid (3n)
nuclei
nucleus forming endosperm
● The multinucleate mass is then
● Ensures that endosperms develops
divided by membranes to form the
only in ovules where egg has been
embryo sac
fertilized
● Near the micropyle of the embryo
● During pollination, pollen lands on
sac, two synergid cells flank the egg
stigma
and help attract and guide the
● 2 sperms travel down pollen tube
pollen tube to the embryo sac
● 1 sperm fertilizes egg and becomes
● At the opposite end of the embryo
the zygote
sac are three antipodal cells of
● Another sperm fertilizes the polar
unknown function
nuclei and forms the endosperm,
● The other two nuclei, called polar
the tissue that will nourish the
nuclei, are not partitioned into
embryo
separate cells but share the
cytoplasm of the large central cell
of the embryo sac
● The mature embryo sac thus
consists of eight nuclei contained
with seven cells. The ovule, which
will become a seed if fertilized, now
consists of the embryo sac,
enclosed by the megasporangium
(which eventually whites) and two
surrounding integuments
Growth of the pollen tube and double
fertilization
Ovule develops into seed Fruits and Seeds

Fruit
● Fruit is a mature, ripened ovary that
contains the seeds
● Fruit types
○ Based on origin
1. Simple
2. Aggregate
3. Multiple
○ Based on nature of pericarp
Fate of floral parts after fertilization (= ovary wall)
1. Fleshy
Floral part Fate after
fertilization 2. Dry
a. Dehiscent
a. Sepals. Petals, and All white and drop b. Indehiscent
stamens off

b. Ovary i. Fruit
i. Ovary wall ii. Fruit wall
1. Simple fruits
ii. Ovule iii. Seed
iii. Integuments iv. Seed coat ● is derived from a single
iv. Fertilized egg (testa) ovary (consisting of one or
v. Fertilized v. Embryo several fused carpels) of one
polar bodies vi. Endosperm
flower (ex. Banana)
● Can either be fleshy or dry
when mature
● Include:
a. Berry
b. Hesperidium
c. Pepo
d. Pome
e. Drupe
 3. Pepo
1. Berry ● the pericarp is thick, and the
● a pulpy fruit throughout rind is hard (mesocarp).
from one or more carpels ● Modified berry in which the
that develops few to many fruit wall is a leathery rind
seeds. ● Pumpkin, squash,
● Has soft tissues (exocarp cucumber, and watermelon
mesocarp, and endocarp) fruits which belongs to the
throughout and contains Cucurbitaceae family are
few to many seeds pepos
● A tomato is a berry, as are ● The inner soft tissues may
grapes, blueberries, not be differentiated into
cranberries, and bananas two distinct layers
● Many so-called berries do
not fir the botanical
definition
● Strawberries, raspberries,
and mulberries, for example,
4. Drupe
are not berries
● one-seeded fruit with the
pericarp distinctly divided
into thin skin-like exocarp,
thick fleshy mesocarp and
hard, stony endocarp.
● Fibrous fruit that contains a
2. Hesperidium (pl., hesperidia)
hard stone surrounding a
● a fruit from several carpels
single seed (inner wall of the
with inner pulp juice sacs or
fruit)
vesicles enclosed in leathery
● Examples of drupes include
rind (exocarp).
peaches, cherries, avocados,
● Has a leathery fruit wall with
olives, and almonds
numerous oil glands
● The almond shell is actually
surrounding the succulent
the stone, which remains
cavities where the seeds
when the rest of the fruit
occur
has been removed
● Citrus fruits (lemons, limes,
● Similar to a berry except for
oranges, and grapefruits)
the endocarp is hard and
belong to the Rutaceae
sclerenchymatous
family are hesperidia
 ○ Each tiny “seed” on a
strawberry is a fruit –
an achene - that
contains a single
seed
○ Apples and pears are
5. Pome accessory fruits
● fleshy part of the fruit called pomes; the
develops from the outer part form each
receptacle of the flower. It is pome is an enlarged
usually characterized by a floral tube,
papery/leathery pericarp consisting of
(endocarp). receptacle tissue,
● Most part of the fleshy part along with the
of pome develops from the portions of the calyx,
enlarged base of the that surround the
perianth (corolla and calyx) ovary
that has fused with the
ovary wall
● Accessory fruit
○ A fruit composed
primarily of
nonovarian tissues
(such as the
receptacle or floral
tube)
○ Apple (Malus
sylvestris) consists
of the core, ovary,
and a little
adjustment tissue
○ Differ from other Simple dry fruits
fruits in that other ● Dehiscent
plant tissues in ○ Pericarp splits open ay
addition to ovary maturity and releases the
tissue make up the seeds
fruit (other floral 1. Follicle
parts contribute) 2. Legumes or pods
○ For example, the 3. Capsule
edible portion of a 4. Loment
strawberry is the red, 5. Silique
fleshy receptacle ● Indehiscent
○ Pericarp remains intact
when the fruit is shed from
the plant
1. Achene

2. Cypsela
3. Caryopsis or grain
2. Aggregate Fruit
● originates from one flower
with many ovaries (ex.
Sugarapple (“atis”)
● Formed from a single flower
that contains several
separate (free) carpels
● After fertilization, each ovary
from each individual carpel
4. Nut enlarges
● As they enlarge, the ovaries
may fuse to form a single
fruit
● STrawberries, raspberries,
blackberries, and magnolia
fruits are examples
5. Samara

6. Schizocarp
7. Utricle 3. Multiple fruits
● several flowers of an
inflorescence crowded
 together on one stem (ex. ○ One bad fruit spoons the
Pineapple) whole bunch
● Forms from the carpels of ○ Climacteric vs
many flowers that grow non-climactic fruits
close to one another on a ■ Climacteric fruits
common floral stalk produce high levels
● The carpel from each flower of ethylene during
fuses with nearby carpels as ripening; can ripen
it develops and enlarges after harvest
after fertilization ■ non-climacteric
● Pineapples, figs, and fruits only ripen
mulberries are examples while still in the
● The individual flowers are mother plant
fused together in a fleshy
axis and the fruitlets Fruits enable successful seed dispersal
coalesce into a single ● Diaspore
○ Dispersal unit (seeds and/or
fruits)
● Atelochory
○ Absence of specialized
dispersal unit
● Dispersal is important because
○ It spreads the progeny in
order to colonize new
environments
○ Reduces competition for
resources with parents
○ Rreduces the chances of
Fruit ripening predators destroying all of
● Changes that occur as fruit ripens the plant’s yearly seed
○ Fruit softens as a result of production
enzymes digesting
components of the cell walls Four types of seed dispersal
○ Color changes from green to 1. Self dispersal (autochory)
red, yellow, orange 2. Wind dispersal (anemochory)
(chromoplasts replace 3. Water dispersal (hydrochory)
chloroplasts) 4. Animal dispersal
○ Taste and smell becomes a. Myrmecochory
sweeter as organic acids or ● Ants dispersal
starch molecules are b. Exozoic
converted to sugars ● Diaspored attached
● Ethylene, a plant hormone, triggers to animals
ripening c. Endozoic
 ● Diaspore eaten, ● Fruit may have air spaces and corky
passes through guts floats

Self dispersal Seed Structure

● Plants disperse their seeds by ● The embryo and its food supply are
forceful ejection - explosive fruits enclosed by a hard, protective seed
● The peanut plant sows (buries) its coat
own seeds ● The seed coat originates from the
○ Geocarpic integuments that surround the
■ Carpel grows inside common gametophyte
the earth (soil) ● In a common garden bean, a
eudicot, the embryo consists of the
Fruits can be carried by wind, water, or hypocotyl, radicle, and thick
animals to new locations, enhancing seed cotyledons (seed leaves)
dispersal ● Hypocotyl
● Wings enable maple fruits to be ○ The embryonic axis below
easily carried by the wind cotyledon attachment point
● Plumes catch wind currents: and above radicle
dandelion ● Epicotyl
● Seeds within berries and other ○ o The embryonic axis
edible fruits are often dispersed in above point of cotyledon
animal feces attachment
● The barbs of cockleburs facilitate ● Radicle
seed dispersal by allowing the ○ The embryonic root
fruits to “hitchhike” on animals ● Common garden bean, a eudicot
with thick cotyledons. The fleshy
Flying Seeds and Fruits cotyledons store food absorbed
● The remarkable winged seed of the from the endosperm before the
tropical Asian climbing gourd seed germinates
Alsomitra macrocarpa. The entire
seed has a wingspan of 5 inches (13
cm) and is capable of gliding
through the air of the rainforest in
wide circles. This seed reportedly
inspired the design of early aircraft
and gliders The seeds of other eudicots, such as castor
● The winged fruits of the quipo tree beans have similar structures, but thin
(Cavanillesia platanifolia) cotyledons
● Castor bean, a eudicot with thin
Water Dispersal cotyledons. The narrow,
● Fruits and/or seeds use flotation membranous cotyledons (shown in
devices to travel by water (in rivers, edge and flat views) absorb food
oceans, etc) from the endosperm when the seed
germinates
 How are seedless fruits formed?
1. Pollination failure
2. Chromosomal imbalance,
e.g. banana, seedless
watermelon
Monocot Seed 3. Application of auxin
● The embryo of a monocot has a a. In some plants, e.g.
single cotyledon, a coleoptile, and tomato and
coleorhiza cucumber,
● Maize, a monocot. Like all application of auxin
monocots, maize has only one to flowers before
cotyledon. Maize and other grasses pollen matures can
have a large cotyledon called a promote
scutellum. The rudimentary shoot parthenocarpy
is sheathed in a structure called
the coleoptile, and the coleorhiza
covers the young root

Hypogeal or cryptocotylar germination in

Monocots
● Cotyledons remain inside the soil

Epigeal or phanerocotylar germination in

Eudicots
● Germination of a plant takes place
above the ground