Engineering Hydrology

Introduction
Hydrology
Hydrology means the science of water. It is the science that deals with the occurrence,
circulation and distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere. As a branch
of earth science, it is concerned with the water in streams and lakes, rainfall and
snowfall, snow and ice on the land and water occurring below the earth’s surface in
the pores of the soil and rocks.

In general sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter-disciplinary nature

drawing support from allied sciences, such as meteorology, geology, statistics,
chemistry, physics and fluid mechanics.
- Applied science
Classify into
- Scientific hydrology (the study which is concerned chiefly with academic aspects)
- and Engineering or applied hydrology (a study concerned with engineering
applications)
Engineering Hydrology

(1) Estimation of water resources

(2) The study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their
interaction and

(3) The study of problems such as floods and droughts, and strategies to combat them
Hydrologic Cycle (water cycle)

The path way of water in nature, as

it moves in tis different phases
through the atmosphere, down
over and through the land, to the
ocean and back up to the
atmosphere.

The hydrologic cycle is the most

important carrier of water, energy,
and matter, logically and globally. It
acts like an enormous global pump
that is driven mainly by two forces;
solar energy and gravitation pull.
Hydrologic Cycle (water cycle)

The path way of water in nature, as

it moves in tis different phases
through the atmosphere, down
over and through the land, to the
ocean and back up to the
atmosphere.

The hydrologic cycle is the most

important carrier of water, energy,
and matter, logically and globally. It
acts like an enormous global pump
that is driven mainly by two forces;
solar energy and gravitation pull.
Hydrologic Cycle main components
classified broadly into;

Transportation (flow) components

and storage components

The figure shows the quantities of

water going through various
individual paths of the hydrological
cycle in a given system can be
described by the continuity
principle known as water budget
equation or hydrologic equation.
Hydrologic Cycle main components
classified broadly into;

Transportation (flow) components

and storage components

The figure shows the quantities of

water going through various
individual paths of the hydrological
cycle in a given system can be
described by the continuity
principle known as water budget
equation or hydrologic equation.
Water Budget Equation

Catchment Area (drainage area or drainage basin - the

area of land draining into a stream or a water course at
a given location.
- In USA, it is known as watershed.
It is separated from its neighboring areas by a ridge
called divide (in USA) and watershed (in UK).
Mass inflow – mass outflow = change in mass storage

P = Precipitation, R = Surface runoff, G = net

groundwater flow out of the Catchment E =
Evaporation, T = Transpiration, ∆S = Change in storage
L = Losses = water not available to runoff
Example 1

A lake had a water surface elevation of 103,200 m above datum at the beginning of a
certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m3/s from
surface runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from the lake had an average
value of 6.5 m3/s. Further, in the month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and
the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water
budget equation for the lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at
the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be taken as 500 ha. Assume
that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
Example 1

A lake had a water surface elevation of 103,200 m above datum at the beginning of a
certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m3/s from
surface runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from the lake had an average
value of 6.5 m3/s. Further, in the month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and
the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water
budget equation for the lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at
the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be taken as 500 ha. Assume
that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
Example 1

A lake had a water surface elevation of 103,200 m above datum at the beginning of a
certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m3/s from
surface runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from the lake had an average
value of 6.5 m3/s. Further, in the month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and
the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water
budget equation for the lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at
the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be taken as 500 ha. Assume
that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
Example 1

A lake had a water surface elevation of 103,200 m above datum at the beginning of a
certain month. In that month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m3/s from
surface runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from the lake had an average
value of 6.5 m3/s. Further, in the month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and
the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10 cm. Write the water
budget equation for the lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at
the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be taken as 500 ha. Assume
that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage.
Example 2

A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90 minutes due to a

storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry
before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average
discharge of 1.5 m3/s. The stream was again dry after the runoff event. (a) What is the
amount of water which was not available to runoff due to combined effect of
infiltration, evaporation and transpiration? What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?
Example 2

A small catchment of area 150 ha received a rainfall of 10.5 cm in 90 minutes due to a

storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry
before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average
discharge of 1.5 m3/s. The stream was again dry after the runoff event. (a) What is the
amount of water which was not available to runoff due to combined effect of
infiltration, evaporation and transpiration? What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?
World Water Balance
---Estimated World Water Quantities
World Water Balance
---Global distribution of water in different hydrological parts
World Water Balance
---Global Annual Water Balance
World Water Balance
---Average turnover time for water in different hydrological parts
World Water Balance
---Average turnover time for water in different hydrological parts
World Water Balance
---Domestic water consumption
World Water Balance
---Domestic water consumption
World Water Balance
---Water Balance of Oceans mm/year
Role of Hydrological Engineer
-Estimate how much water or quantity of a specific pollutant is at hand at a specific
location and time.
-The most important task for the hydrological engineer is not to calculate some
numbers for the above area but to interpret these numbers for the contractor.
-Typical questions from a contractor regarding hydrological problems are: (i) amount
of pollutants, (ii) duration of flooding, (iii) frequency of flood, etc.
-Primarily, all hydrological calculations should be seen as a method to find a
reasonable order of magnitude and/or internal and not a single number to falsely
represent an absolute correct answer because this does not exist.
-Engineers often have to solve problems that are not well-defined by the contractor.
Thus, more often than not, the engineer has to help himself or herself to formulate
the correct questions.
-All engineering calculations and especially those involving hydrology, include
uncertainties and errors. For this reason, all solutions to a problem should be given
with an uncertainty interval
Sources of Data

Data normally required in the studies:

- Weather records – temperature, humidity and wind velocity
- Precipitation data
- Stream flow records
- Evaporation and evapotranspiration data
- Infiltration characteristics of the study area
- Soils of the area
- Land use and land cover
- Groundwater characteristics
- Physical and geological characteristics of the area
- Water quality data
 Meteorological Data

1. Humidity
Maximum value of water vapor that can exit in any one space is a function of
temperature, and is practically independent of the coexistence of other gases. When
maximum amount of water vapor (for a given temperature) is contained in a given
space, the space is said to be saturated. The pressure exerted by a vapor in a saturated
space is called “saturation vapor pressure. “

2. Relative humidity
Relative humidity is the percentage of actual vapor pressure to saturation vapor
pressure. It is the ratio of amount of moisture in a given space to the amount a space
could contain if saturated.
 Meteorological Data

3. Dew point
Dew point denotes the temperature at which space becomes saturated when air is
cooled under constant pressure and with constant water vapor pressure. Also dew
point is the temperature having a saturation vapor pressure, es equal to the existing
vapor pressure, e.

Example
An air mass is at a temperature of 20 C with relative humidity of 75%. Using the
𝑒
following equation ℎ = 100 𝑋 𝑒 find: saturation vapor pressure, actual vapor
𝑠
pressure, the deficit in saturation and dew point. (B.Sc., DU, 2011)
 Meteorological Data

Example
An air mass is at a temperature of 20 C with relative humidity of 75%. Using the
𝑒
following equation ℎ = 100 𝑋 find: saturation vapor pressure, actual vapor
𝑒𝑠
pressure, the deficit in saturation and dew point. (B.Sc., DU, 2011)
 Meteorological Data

Example
An air mass is at a temperature of 20 C with relative humidity of 75%. Using the
𝑒
following equation ℎ = 100 𝑋 find: saturation vapor pressure, actual vapor
𝑒𝑠
pressure, the deficit in saturation and dew point. (B.Sc., DU, 2011)
 Meteorological Data

4. Water Budget
Hydrological cycle is a very complex series of processes. Nonetheless, under certain
well defined conditions, the response of a watershed to rainfall, infiltration, and
evaporation can be calculated if simple assumptions can be made.

Example
For a given month, a 121 ha lake has 0.43 m^3/s of inflow, 0.37 m^3 /s of outflow, and
the total storage increase of 1.97 ha-m. A USGS gauge next to the lake recorded a total
of 3.3 cm precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration loss is
insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in cm over the lake for the
month.
 Meteorological Data

Example
For a given month, a 121 ha lake has 0.43 m^3/s of inflow, 0.37 m^3 /s of outflow, and
the total storage increase of 1.97 ha-m. A USGS gauge next to the lake recorded a total
of 3.3 cm precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration loss is
insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in cm over the lake for the
month.
 Meteorological Data

Example
For a given month, a 121 ha lake has 0.43 m^3/s of inflow, 0.37 m^3 /s of outflow, and
the total storage increase of 1.97 ha-m. A USGS gauge next to the lake recorded a total
of 3.3 cm precipitation for the lake for the month. Assuming that infiltration loss is
insignificant for the lake, determine the evaporation loss, in cm over the lake for the
month.
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a particular time, the storage in a river reach is 60 x 103 m^3 . At that time, the
inflow into the reach is 10 m^3/s and the outflow is 16 m^3/s. after two hours, the
inflow and the outflow are 18 m^3/s and 20 m^3 /s respectively. Determine the
change in storage during two hours period and the storage volume after two hours.
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a particular time, the storage in a river reach is 60 x 103 m^3 . At that time, the
inflow into the reach is 10 m^3/s and the outflow is 16 m^3/s. after two hours, the
inflow and the outflow are 18 m^3/s and 20 m^3 /s respectively. Determine the
change in storage during two hours period and the storage volume after two hours.
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a particular time, the storage in a river reach is 60 x 103 m^3 . At that time, the
inflow into the reach is 10 m^3/s and the outflow is 16 m^3/s. after two hours, the
inflow and the outflow are 18 m^3/s and 20 m^3 /s respectively. Determine the
change in storage during two hours period and the storage volume after two hours.
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a particular time, the storage in a river reach is 60 x 103 m^3 . At that time, the
inflow into the reach is 10 m^3/s and the outflow is 16 m^3/s. after two hours, the
inflow and the outflow are 18 m^3/s and 20 m^3 /s respectively. Determine the
change in storage during two hours period and the storage volume after two hours.
 Meteorological Data

Wind
Wind denotes air flowing nearly horizontally. Winds are mainly the result of horizontal
differences in pressure. In absence of other factors tending to influence wind, it should
be expected that its direction would be from areas of high pressure towards areas of
low pressure and that its speed would vary with the pressure gradient.

Example
At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights
of 10m and 15m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed
at 2m is required, so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2m level. For
one set of data the speeds at 10 and 15 m were 7.68 and 8.11 m/s respectively (B.Sc.,
DU, 2013).
i. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
ii. What speed would you predict for the 2 m level?
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights
of 10m and 15m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed
at 2m is required, so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2m level. For
one set of data the speeds at 10 and 15 m were 7.68 and 8.11 m/s respectively (B.Sc.,
DU, 2013).
i. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
ii. What speed would you predict for the 2 m level?
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights
of 10m and 15m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed
at 2m is required, so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2m level. For
one set of data the speeds at 10 and 15 m were 7.68 and 8.11 m/s respectively (B.Sc.,
DU, 2013).
i. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
ii. What speed would you predict for the 2 m level?
 Meteorological Data

Example
At a given site, a long-term wind speed record is available for measurements at heights
of 10m and 15m above the ground. For certain calculations of evaporation the speed
at 2m is required, so it is desired to extend the long-term record to the 2m level. For
one set of data the speeds at 10 and 15 m were 7.68 and 8.11 m/s respectively (B.Sc.,
DU, 2013).
i. What is the value of the exponent relating the two speeds and elevations?
ii. What speed would you predict for the 2 m level?
 Exercises

Pressure
A hill is of height of 4000 meters and of rising dry air temperature of 14.8 degrees
Celsius. Condensation occurs at a height of 2000 meters. Calculate the pressure and
saturation drop. Find air temperature when it reaches the top of the mountain and its
temperature when it reaches top of hill and its temperature when it returns to the
bottom.
 Exercises

Vapor pressure
An air mass is at a temperature of 18o C with relative humidity of 80 %. Using the
previous equation find: (B.Sc., DU, 2012)
i. Saturation vapor pressure.
ii. Actual vapor pressure in mm Hg, m bar, and Pa
iii. The deficit in saturation
iv. Dew point.
 Exercises

Wind
Anemometers at 2.5 m and 40 m on a tower record wind speeds of 2 and 5 m/s
respectively. Compute wind speeds at 5 and 30 m. (B.Sc., DU, 2012)
 Exercises

Water Budget
At a water elevation of 6391 ft, Kenyir Lake has a volume of 2, 939, 000 ac-ft, and a
surface area, A of 48, 100 ac. Annual inputs to the lake include 8.0 in. of direct
precipitation, runoff from gauged streams of 150, 000 ac-ft per year, and ungauged
runoff and groundwater inflow of 37, 000 ac-ft per year. Evaporation is 45 inch. per
year. Make a water budget showing inputs, in ac-ft per year. (*Note : 1 ac = 43, 560 ft2
, 1 cm = 0.394 in, 1 in = 0.083 ft)