water

Article
A Study of Energy Optimisation of Urban Water
Distribution Systems Using Potential Elements
Ioan Sarbu
Department of Building Services Engineering, Polytechnic University of Timisoara, Piata Bisericii 4A,
300233 Timisoara, Romania; [email protected]; Tel.: +40-256-403-991

Academic Editor: Ling Tim Wong

Received: 29 October 2016; Accepted: 5 December 2016; Published: 14 December 2016

Abstract: Energy use in water supply systems represents a significant portion of the global energy
consumption. The electricity consumption due to the water pumping represents the highest
proportion of the energy costs in these systems. This paper presents several comparative studies of
energy efficiency in water distribution systems considering distinct configurations of the networks
and also considers implementation of the variable-speed pumps. The main objective of this study
is the energy optimisation of urban systems using optimal network configurations that reduce
energy consumption and improve energy efficiency. The paper describes in detail four strategies for
improving energy efficiency of water pumping: control systems to vary pump speed drive according
to water demand, pumped storage tanks, intermediary pumping stations integrated in the network,
and elevated storage tanks floating on the system. The improving energy efficiency of water pumping
is briefly reviewed providing a representative real case study. In addition, a different approach for the
hydraulic analysis of the networks and the determination of the optimal location of a pumped storage
tank is provided. Finally, this study compares the results of the application of four water supply
strategies to a real case in Romania. The results indicate high potential operating costs savings.

Keywords: water distribution; variable-speed pump; potential elements; energy savings

1. Introduction
As a vital part of water supply systems, water distribution networks represent one of the largest
infrastructure assets of industrial society. According to Watergy [1], approximately 2% to 3% of the
worldwide electricity consumption is used for pumping in water supply systems, while 80%–90% of
this consumption is absorbed by motor-pump sets [2]. Coelho and Andrade-Campos [3] provides
several strategies to improve the energy efficiency of the water supply systems.
Most water distribution systems require the operation of pumps to deliver the necessary quantity
of water with the adequate pressure to the final consumers. As reported by Bene et al. [4] and Vilanova
and Balestieri [5], the electricity used to pump water is a significant part of the total operation in water
supply systems.
Water distribution systems equipped with pumping stations are characterised by energy
consumption greater than 60% of the energy consumed by the operation of the entire supply system
of large urban centres [6]. As a result, a great increase in the energetic system load occurs especially
during peak water consumption hours.
Pumping systems are found to have a significant potential for energy efficiency improvements [7–10].
In most cases, optimisation of operations has only considered fixed speed pumps and the cost savings
that may be obtained by exploiting a multi-pattern electric tariff [11–15]. Pump and motor upgrades
to more efficient solutions, either being technologically more advanced or because they are more
properly adjusted to the system, often allow significant energy savings [2].

Water 2016, 8, 593; doi:10.3390/w8120593 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2016, 8, 593 2 of 19

Vogelesang [16] quantitatively discussed the energy saving potential of applying variable-speed
pumps and indicated a possible energy reduction of 27% only with a 10% of pump speed decrease.
Variable-speed drives (VSDs) have been shown to be an effective way to reduce the pumping energy,
especially in systems that require a wide range of flow rates [17] in absence of elevated tanks. Energy
optimisation of parallel-connected, rotational speed-controlled pumps has been studied to some
extent [18,19]. Viholainen et al. [20] developed a pumping control strategy for most of the scenarios
considered (two pumps in parallel, two frequency converters, and one programmable logic controller)
using frequency converters that close to high efficiency.
Several studies provide other alternatives to improve energy efficiency in water distribution
systems. A model for decision systems regarding the quantification, location and opening adjustment
of control valves in a distribution network, to minimize pressures and leakage levels in network is
developed in [21]. Carravetta et al. [22] present a real case study (flow rate less than 1440 m3 /h) and
suggest the installation of pumps in the supply pipes that act as micro-hydro turbines to generate
electric power. These turbines may be used to provide pressure control instead of using pressure
control valves.
Diniz et al. [23] present an analysis of energy efficiency in supply systems based on modelling
and optimisation. Other researchers have successfully applied genetic algorithms to control
hydraulic pressure in the water distribution network [24]. However, these models require that the
functions satisfy certain restrictive conditions that cannot be generally guaranteed for any water
distribution system.
The assessment of energy efficiency in water distribution systems is strongly influenced by the
site-dependent nature of the water-energy nexus in pressurised networks [25]. Understanding this
link requires a systematic energy analysis to separately evaluate the influence of pumping stations,
the network and water loss and to highlight inconsistencies in the design and management that are
reflected in both of the resources, namely water and energy.
The hourly variations in water demand during the day are much greater compared to the average
daily demand. For a domestic consumer water requirement is more during morning and evening hours
than the noon demand. The hourly variation in demand has also an influence on the residual pressures
in the system. In the case of water distribution for Romanian consumers, the available pressure is
greater at the periphery consumers, where the lower pressure is necessary, while in central zones, the
pressure is insufficient. Often, the absence of water at consumers can be observed during certain hours
in a 24-h period due to system under dimensioning, increased water consumption by some users,
inadequate operation of pumping stations, or a combination of these factors. These disadvantages are
amplified by the overlapping of peak hours for water, heat, and electricity consumption, especially
between 7:00 and 9:00 in the morning and between 17:00 and 21:00 in the evening, contributing to
increasing operation expenses.
During peak hours, the energy cost is 2–3 times more expensive than during the hours of minimum
consumption. Therefore, it is very interesting to provide a reduction of energy consumption during
peak hours. A technical solution for this reduction can be a decrease in the pumping power (even
stopping pumps if it is possible) during peak hours, along with an extensive delivery outside of these
hours. Consequently, distribution systems must be equipped with pumped storage tanks.
An important goal is the absolute reduction of pumping energy, which is possible by dividing the
system into zones. For this purpose, a special form of parallel zoning procedure or a vertical division
into zones with intermediary pumps mounted on the distribution mains, or a combined solution with
more potential elements, can be used [26].
In this context, this paper presents several comparative studies of energy efficiency in water
distribution systems considering distinct configurations of the networks and also considers utilisation
of the variable-speed pumps. The main aim of the paper is to search for possible optimal network
configurations that reduce electricity consumption and improve energy efficiency using potential
elements (pumped storage tanks, intermediary pumping stations integrated on distribution mains,
Water 2016, 8, 593 3 of 19

elevated storage tanks floating on the system) and control systems to vary pump speed drive according
to water demand. The improving energy efficiency of water pumping is briefly reviewed providing
a representative real case study. In addition, a hydraulic analysis of the optimisation strategies
with potential elements is performed and an analytical model is developed to estimate the optimal
location of a pumped storage tank. Finally, certain optimisation solutions to reduce pumping energy
are analysed in a detailed manner through the use of a case study to ascertain their energy and
economic efficiencies.

2. Improving Energy Efficiency of Water Pumping

2.1. A Brief Review of Previous Works

Some pumping stations comprise parallel-connected pumps with fixed-speed and flow rate
controlled by the number of pumps in operation. In this procedure, it is very difficult to define a
pumps operating schedule with minimal energy cost without compromising the full delivery of daily
demand and ensuring a suitable reservoir level for the next work cycle. According to Feldman [27],
the main improvements in energy efficiency can be obtained with: (1) pumping stations and system
design improvement; (2) VSDs installations; (3) efficient operation of pumps; and (4) minimisation of
water losses through pressure control.
The power absorbed by a pump in a water supply system P, in W, and the electricity consumption
W, in Wh, can be calculated using following equations:

γQH p
P= (1)
η

W = PTp (2)

where γ is the water specific weight, in N/m3 ; Q is the pump discharge, in m3 /s; Hp is the pump head
for the operating point, in m; η is the global efficiency of the pumping station; and Tp is the operation
period, in h.
The specific energy consumption w, in %, for an optimal operation period Tp of the pumps can be
estimated as: R Tp
0 Pdt
w=
24
· 100 (3)
QH
∑ ηi i γTp
i
i =1

where Qi , Hi , and ηi are the pump characteristics in classical operation at the ith hour of a day; and
R Tp
0 P dt is the energy consumption during interval Tp at discharges different from Qi .
Most existing pumping stations requiring flow control make use of bypass lines, throttling valves,
or pump speed adjustments.
Most water distribution systems are fed through some type of centrifugal pumps characterized by
a head–flow (H-Q) curve. A centrifugal pump has a motor that spins a piece within the pump called
an impeller. If the pump used is a fixed-speed pump, the operating point is forced to move along the
pump curve corresponding to the constant nominal speed. There are two methods to adjust the water
flow rate in a pipe network with a fixed-speed pump:

1. Bypassing part of the water flow rate.

2. Introducing a supplementary pressure loss using a control valve [28] that can lead to higher
energy efficiency of the water supply system when the nominal pump head is lower than the
optimal value. Additionally, valves can be a source of emissions and suffer from corrosion,
erosion, plugging, cavitation, and leakage.

Speed can be controlled in a number of ways, either the most popular type of VSD being the
variable frequency drive (VFD) or variable-speed controller.
Water 2016, 8, 593 4 of 19
Water 2016, 8, 12  4 of 19 

Using  VSDs 
Using VSDs to  to replace 
replacefixed‐speed 
fixed-speedpumps  pumpshas  the the
has possibility 
possibilityto  save  electrical 
to save energy. 
electrical The 
energy.
decreasing energy consumption can be reduced the cost related to pump operation. Variable‐speed 
The decreasing energy consumption can be reduced the cost related to pump operation. Variable-speed
pumps can prevent over‐pressurising of the water distribution system that has no storage floating 
pumps can prevent over-pressurising of the water distribution system that has no storage floating on
on the system (that is, no tank where the hydraulic grade line (HGL) in the tank is the same as the 
the system (that is, no tank where the hydraulic grade line (HGL) in the tank is the same as the HGL in
HGL in the system) [6]. 
the system) [6].
Variable‐speed pumps are coupled with a motor that is controlled by a VFD. The most common 
Variable-speed pumps are coupled with a motor that is controlled by a VFD. The most common
form ofof 
form VFDVFD  is  the 
is the voltage‐source, 
voltage-source, pulse‐width 
pulse-width modulated 
modulated (PWM)(PWM) 
frequency frequency 
converter.converter.  The 
The principal
principal duty of the VFD is to alter the main supply to vary the speed of the motor while delivering 
duty of the VFD is to alter the main supply to vary the speed of the motor while delivering the required
the required torque at higher efficiency. As a result, as the pump speed changes, the pump curve is 
torque at higher efficiency. As a result, as the pump speed changes, the pump curve is adjusted for
adjusted for different operating conditions. The flow control (Figure 1) is achieved by changing the 
different operating conditions. The flow control (Figure 1) is achieved by changing the pump curve
pump curve H (at different pump speeds n
H (at different pump speeds n1 and n2 ) on the 1 and n 2) on the fixed system curve H
fixed system curve Hr . Pipe workr. Pipe work curve H
curve Hr start fromr 
start from  point  (0,  H
point (0, Hg ), where Hg is the geodesic head. The operating point F2 corresponds tocorresponds 
g),  where H g  is  the  geodesic  head.  The  operating  point  F 2   to  the 
the reduced pump
reduced pump head H
head HF2 . F2. 

 
Figure 1. Flow rate adjustment using pump speed control. 
Figure 1. Flow rate adjustment using pump speed control.

The  approximation  introduced  into  the  power‐speed  relation  implies  that  the  efficiency  will 
The approximation introduced into the power-speed relation implies that the efficiency will
remain constant for speeds n1 and n2, i.e., that the efficiency curve will only be shifted to the left in 
remain constant for speeds n1 and n2 , i.e., that the efficiency curve will only be shifted to the left in
the case of speed reduction. The efficiency variation depending of the pump speed is provided by 
the case of speed reduction. The efficiency variation depending of the pump speed is provided by
following analytical relationship [29]:   
following analytical relationship [29]:
0.1
 n 0.1
η  1  (1  η )n 1    (4)
η2 = 21 − (1 − η1 )1  n1  (4)
n22 
where n
where n11 and n
and n22 are two different speeds and η
are two different speeds and η11,, η η22 are the corresponding efficiencies. 
are the corresponding efficiencies.
Therefore, as indicated in [30], for the particularly case ofcase 
Therefore,  as  indicated  in  [30],  for  the  particularly  of  the 
the large large the
pumps pumps 
changesthe inchanges  in 
efficiency
efficiency can be neglected if the changes in speed rate do not exceed 1/3 from the nominal pump 
can be neglected if the changes in speed rate do not exceed 1/3 from the nominal pump speed. Figure 2
speed. 
shows the Figure  2  shows 
variation curvesthe  variation 
of pump headcurves 
(H), flowof rate
pump 
(Q),head 
power(H), 
(P), flow  rate  (Q), (η)
and efficiency power  (P),  and 
for centrifugal
efficiency (η) for centrifugal pumps depending on pump speed n. It can be observed that a reduction 
pumps depending on pump speed n. It can be observed that a reduction of 20% of the pump speed
of 20% of the pump speed will lead to the decreasing of power demand of 50% at constant pump 
will lead to the decreasing of power demand of 50% at constant pump efficiency. Thus, the possibility
efficiency. Thus, the possibility exists to reduce the pumping energy consumption by using VSDs. 
exists to reduce the pumping energy consumption by using VSDs.
Variable‐speed pumps are useful in applications requiring operational flexibility, such as when 
Variable-speed pumps are useful in applications requiring operational flexibility, such as when
flow  rates  change  rapidly, 
flow rates change rapidly, but but the
the required
required pressure
pressure remains
remains constant
constant [6].
[6]. These
These pumps
pumps can can take
take 
advantage of the different required operating conditions in water distribution systems. In particular, 
advantage of the different required operating conditions in water distribution systems. In particular,
the reduction in energy consumption exploits the possibility of reducing the head or flow rate in the 
the reduction in energy consumption exploits the possibility of reducing the head or flow rate in the
system. Figure 1 shows the case in which the required flow rate is smaller than the actual operating 
system. Figure 1 shows the case in which the required flow rate is smaller than the actual operating
point. This situation can be the case of a water transmission system, where the pumps are used to 
point. This situation can be the case of a water transmission system, where the pumps are used to
move water from a lower to an upper tank. Because the pumping at a particular time of the year may 
move water from a lower to an upper tank. Because the pumping at a particular time of the year
be  sized 
may for  a 
be sized forpeak‐day 
a peak-daydemand, 
demand, the the
pump 
pump will 
will deliver 
delivera aflow 
flowrate 
rateassociated 
associated with 
with thethe operating
operating 
point, despite the fact that the required demand is decreased. However, this operating strategy can 
Water 2016, 8, 593 5 of 19

Water 2016, 8, 12  5 of 19 
point, despite the fact that the required demand is decreased. However, this operating strategy can be
be  economically 
economically convenient 
convenient if theif system
the  system  has  a  sufficient 
has a sufficient storagestorage 
volumevolume  so  that can
so that pumps pumps  can  be 
be switched
switched on only during the off‐peak‐tariff period. 
on only during the off-peak-tariff period.

 
Figure 2. Variation of the centrifugal pump curves. 
Figure 2. Variation of the centrifugal pump curves.

Parallel‐connected  centrifugal  pumps  are  often  implemented  in  the  pumping  systems  with  a 
Parallel-connected centrifugal pumps are often implemented in the pumping systems with a
widely varying flow rate demand [31,32]. The output of the parallel‐connected centrifugal pumps in 
widely varying flow rate demand [31,32]. The output of the parallel-connected centrifugal pumps in a
a  system  can  be  adjusted  with  an  on–off,  throttle,  or  rotational  speed  control  methods.  In  the 
system can be adjusted with an on–off, throttle, or rotational speed control methods. In the simplest
simplest  case,  parallel‐connected  pumps  are  operated  with  an  on–off  control  method,  where 
case, parallel-connected pumps are operated with an on–off control method, where additional parallel
additional parallel pumps are started and stopped according to the desired flow rate. In the systems 
pumps are started and stopped according to the desired flow rate. In the systems where more accurate
where  more  accurate  flow  regulation  is  required,  the  adjustment  can  be  performed  by  applying 
flow regulation is required, the adjustment can be performed by applying throttling or rotational speed
throttling or rotational speed control for a single pump, while the other pumps are controlled with 
control for a single pump, while the other pumps are controlled with the on–off method.
the on–off method. 
VSDs have a motor that can change the pump speed in response to the system conditions.
VSDs have a motor that can change the pump speed in response to the system conditions. The 
The majority of electric motors used in pump applications are of induction type. The most common
majority of electric motors used in pump applications are of induction type. The most common type 
type of VFD controls the flow of electricity to the pump motor and therefore controls the rate at which
of VFD controls the flow of electricity to the pump motor and therefore controls the rate at which the 
the pump rotates. Note that, in variable drive systems, additional losses are generated in the motor by
pump rotates. Note that, in variable drive systems, additional losses are generated in the motor by 
the VFD. Another problem could be in the lower reliability of the pumps, both for the lower quality of
the VFD. Another problem could be in the lower reliability of the pumps, both for the lower quality of 
the electric pulse and for operational conditions diverging from the best efficiency point (BEP) line.
the electric pulse and for operational conditions diverging from the best efficiency point (BEP) line. 
The general expression of variable-speed pump system efficiency is given by Marchi et al. [29]:
The general expression of variable‐speed pump system efficiency is given by Marchi et al. [29]: 
η ηmηηmVFD
η= ηVFDηηp p   (5)
(5)

where η
where ηmm is the motor efficiency; η
is the motor efficiency; ηVFD VFD is the efficiency of the VSD; and η
is the efficiency of the VSD; and ηpp is the pump efficiency. 
is the pump efficiency.
The flow variation in pumping systems may occur as a result of several situations, such as the 
The flow variation in pumping systems may occur as a result of several situations, such as the
need to turn pumps on only when required (partial load operation), the use of a bypass to return a 
need to turn pumps on only when required (partial load operation), the use of a bypass to return a
portion of the pumped discharge to the suction tank, the use of a suction tank with a variable level, 
portion of the pumped discharge to the suction tank, the use of a suction tank with a variable level, the
the  insertion 
insertion of  head 
of head losseslosses 
in thein system
the  system  through 
through the  throttling 
the throttling of  control 
of control valves,valves, 
changes changes  in  the 
in the pump
pump speed by hydraulic or electrical coupling between the pump and motor, or the use of pumps 
speed by hydraulic or electrical coupling between the pump and motor, or the use of pumps operating
operating in parallel [33]. 
in parallel [33].
According to Gibson [34], VSDs are an energy‐efficient alternative for controlling pump flow 
According to Gibson [34], VSDs are an energy-efficient alternative for controlling pump flow rates.
rates.  Author 
Author reported reported 
that the that  the  effectiveness 
effectiveness of VSDs on of flow
VSDs  on  flow 
control control 
depends ondepends  on  the between
the interaction interaction 
the
between the characteristic curve (H‐Q) and the system curve. This includes the use of the magnitude 
characteristic curve (H-Q) and the system curve. This includes the use of the magnitude of required
of required speed variation to obtain the maximum and minimum required flow rates in addition to 
speed variation to obtain the maximum and minimum required flow rates in addition to the unstable
the  unstable regions in 
regions in the pump curve, the which
pump are curve,  which are usually 
usually located 
located in the range belowin  the 
33%range 
of thebelow 33%  of  the 
nominal flow.
nominal flow. 
To correlate the pumped discharge with the water demand and to ensure the required pressure
usingTo correlate the pumped discharge with the water demand and to ensure the required pressure 
minimum energy, an automatic control device of pump speed designed and described in [29]
using minimum energy, an automatic control device of pump speed designed and described in [29] 
or a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system deployed in industry can be utilised.
or a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system deployed in industry can be utilised. 
If several pumps are to operate in parallel connection, the rotational speed can be modified for a single
If  several  pumps  are  to  operate  in  parallel  connection,  the  rotational  speed  can  be  modified  for  a 
single  pump  (while  the  other  pumps  operate  at  nominal  speed  and  nominal  discharge),  and  the 
frequency converter automatically connects to the other pumps. Thus, the pumping station must be 
Water 2016, 8, 593 6 of 19

pump (while the other pumps operate at nominal speed and nominal discharge), and the frequency
converter automatically connects to the other pumps. Thus, the pumping station must be equipped
with np = nc + nv number of pumps, where nc is the number of classical (fixed-speed) pumps (pf ) and
nv is the number of variable-speed pumps (pv ).

2.2. Case Study

A case study is presented to demonstrate the efficiencies of the previously analysed control
methods (valve and speed control). The case study consists of a pumping station operating with 6
pumps of 12 NDS–1450 types in the water distribution system of a large urban centre in Romania,
which must ensure the daily water supply of 172,800 m3 .
The obtained numerical results that are based on the characteristic curves plotted in Figure 3 for
different parallel-connected pump designs are presented in Table 1. This table compares the specific
energy consumption w and the energy savings ∆W obtained during a 360-day operation period (Tp )
by applying throttling or rotational speed control and the classical control (start–stop). The system
head curve Hr1 corresponds to the start–stop control. If the pumps are partially shut by valve control
the system curve becomes Hr2 .

Table 1. The specific energy consumption and energy savings obtained with control methods.

Number of Pumped Pump Absorbed Consumed Specific Energy

Adjustment
Period (h) Operating Flow Q Head Hp Power P Energy W Consumption
Method
Pumps (m3 /s) (m) (kW) (kWh/Day) w (%)
0:00–4:00 3 pf 1.47 38.6 696.3
4:00–10:00 6 pf 2.48 49.8 1730.8
1. Classical 10:00–14:00 4 pf 1.91 42.5 995.4
31,705.6 100
(start–stop) 14:00–17:00 5 pf 2.18 45.7 1303.1
17:00–22:00 6 pf 2.48 49.8 1730.8
22:00–24:00 4 pf 1.91 42.5 995.4
0:00–5:00 3 pf 1.47 38.6 696.3
5:00–6:00 6 pf 2.25 53.0 1424.0
6:00–7:00 6 pf 2.48 49.8 1730.8
7:00–8:00 6 pf 2.25 53.0 1424.0
8:00–10:00 5 pf 2.08 47.5 1138.2
2. Throttle 10:00–12:00 4 pf 1.91 42.5 995.4
27,970.5 88
valve control 12:00–13:00 5 pf 1.81 56.0 1181.6
13:00–15:00 4 pf 1.91 42.5 995.4
15:00–16:00 6 pf 2.08 47.5 1138.2
16:00–20:00 6 pf 2.25 53.0 1424.0
20:00–23:00 6 pf 2.46 50.0 1544.1
23:00–24:00 4 pf 1.81 43.0 1122.6
0:00–5:00 2pf + 1pv 1.42 37.6 655.2
5:00–6:00 5pf + 1pv 2.25 45.5 1222.5
6:00–7:00 6 pf 2.48 49.8 1730.8
7:00–8:00 5pf + 1pv 2.25 45.5 1222.5
8:00–10:00 5 pf 2.08 43.0 1030.3
3. Rotational 10:00–12:00 4 pf 1.91 42.5 995.4
25,375.5 80
speed control 12:00–1:00 3pf + 1pv 1.81 40.0 708.9
13:00–15:00 4 pf 1.91 42.5 995.4
15:00–16:00 5pf 2.08 43.0 1030.3
16:00–20:00 5pf + 1pv 2.25 45.5 1222.5
20:00–23:00 5pf + 1pv 2.46 49.6 1534.5
23:00–24:00 3pf + 1pv 1.81 40.0 708.9
(MWh/year) 1345.0
Energy saving, ∆W 2-1
(%) 11.6
(MWh/year) 2280.0
Energy saving, ∆W 3-1
(%) 20
(MWh/year) 935.0
Energy saving, ∆W 3-2
(%) 8.4
Water 2016, 8, 593
Water 2016, 8, 12  77 of 19 
of 19

 
Figure 3. Characteristic curves H-Q, η-Q and the operating points for different parallel-connected pumps.
Figure 3. Characteristic curves H‐Q, η‐Q and the operating points for different parallel‐connected pumps. 

The results
The results show 
show thethe potential
potential gain
gain in energy  efficiency using
in energy efficiency using rotational speed  control in
rotational speed control in the
the 
pumping system. 
pumping system.
ItIt should
should bebe  noted 
noted that 
that thethe  optimised 
optimised operation 
operation of pumping
of the the  pumping  station 
station using using  the  rotational 
the rotational speed
speed control leads to a specific energy consumption of 80% compared with 88% when valve control 
control leads to a specific energy consumption of 80% compared with 88% when valve control is used.
is comparison
In used.  In  comparison  with  the 
with the classical classical 
pumping pumping 
station station 
operation, theoperation,  the  rotational 
rotational speed speed  energy
control ensures control 
ensures  energy  savings  of  2280  MWh/year  (20%),  and  the  valve  control  provides 
savings of 2280 MWh/year (20%), and the valve control provides savings of 1345 MWh/year (11.6%). savings  of  1345 
MWh/year (11.6%). 
In summary, the pump speed control ensures a supplementary energy savings of approximately
In  summary, 
9% compared the  pump 
to the throttle valve speed 
control. control  ensures  a  supplementary  energy  savings  of 
approximately 9% compared to the throttle valve control. 
3. Energy Optimisation Methodology
3. Energy Optimisation Methodology 
3.1. Pumped Storage Tanks
3.1. Pumped Storage Tanks 
A pumped storage tank requires a buried tank coupled with a pump (repumping station) to
deliverA  water
pumped  from the tank
storage  torequires 
tank  the distribution
a  buried system and a control
tank  coupled  with  a valve
pump  to(repumping 
gradually fillstation) 
the tankto 
without seriously affecting the pressure in the surrounding system. These buried tanks
deliver water from the tank to the distribution system and a control valve to gradually fill the tank  are known as
“zone tanks”, and the repumping stations are known as “internal pumping stations”. With pumped
without seriously affecting the pressure in the surrounding system. These buried tanks are known as 
storage, the distribution storage has a head lower than the hydraulic grade line (HGL) required by the
“zone tanks”, and the repumping stations are known as “internal pumping stations”. With pumped 
system, so the water must be pumped out of the zone tank to be used.
storage, the distribution storage has a head lower than the hydraulic grade line (HGL) required by 
The pumped storage pump pressurises water from the storage facility for delivery to customers
the system, so the water must be pumped out of the zone tank to be used. 
within the pressure zone. This procedure consists of the optimal spacing of a few buried storage
The pumped storage pump pressurises water from the storage facility for delivery to customers 
tanks on some
within  the  of the distribution
pressure  mains of the
zone.  This  procedure  distribution
consists  of  the system.
optimal These tanks
spacing  of are supplied
a  few  buried  with the
storage 
required discharge for downstream consumers through some low pressure transmission mains, even
tanks on some of the distribution mains of the distribution system. These tanks are supplied with the 
by means of gravity, for 
required  discharge  if possible. From consumers 
downstream  these storage tanks, the
through  required
some  discharge
low  pressure  is repumped
transmission  into
mains, 
the distribution network at the relatively low pressure of the transmission mains in
even by means of gravity, if possible. From these storage tanks, the required discharge is repumped  the junction point.
This process does not incur a considerable energy loss, which would occur if the tanks are filled from
into the distribution network at the relatively low pressure of the transmission mains in the junction 
the distribution network.
point.  This  process  does  not  incur  a  considerable  energy  loss,  which  would  occur  if  the  tanks  are 
Using this procedure, a subdivision of pumped discharge Qp and pump heads Hpe,j of external
filled from the distribution network. 
pumping stations is achieved as follows.
Using this procedure, a subdivision of pumped discharge Q p and pump heads Hpe,j of external 
From the total discharge Q delivered
pumping stations is achieved as follows. 
p by NP external pumping stations, a part Qpn is transported
through the distribution mains of
From the total discharge Q pressurised network, and another part Qpa is transported
p delivered by NP external pumping stations, a part Q through
pn is transported 
transmission mains at NT buried storage tanks, according to the following equation:
through the distribution mains of pressurised network, and another part Qpa is transported through 
transmission mains at NT buried storage tanks, according to the following equation: 
NP NP NT
∑Q
NPp,j = ∑NP
Q pn,j + ∑
NTQ pa,k (6)
j =1
 j 1
j 1

Q p,j j=1 Q pn,j k=1 Q pa,k  
k 1
(6)
Water 2016, 8, 593 8 of 19

Pump heads Hpe,j of the external pumping stations are decreased at the values hpe,j . The total
pump station power P is computed using Equation (7) if the transmission mains are operated by
gravity or using Equation (8) if the transmission mains operate by pumping:

γ NP NT
P= ( ∑ Q pn,j h pe,j + ∑ Q pa,k H pi,k ) (7)
η j =1 k =1

γ NP NT NT
P= ( ∑ Q pn,j h pe,j + ∑ Q pa,k H pa,k + ∑ Q pa,k H pi,k ) (8)
η j =1 k =1 k =1

where γ is the water specific weight; η is the aggregated and averaged efficiency of the pumping
stations; Qpa,k is the discharge of the pumped storage pump (internal pumping station) k; Hpi,k is the
pump head corresponding to the pressure zone served by the internal station k; and Hpa,k is the pump
head at the external station for water delivery through transmission mains at storage tank k.
Pump heads hpe,j are much lower than pump heads Hpe,j because the head losses are changing
in proportion with the square of the ratio Qpn,j /Qp,j < 1. Thus, the power of the external pumping
stations decreases by reducing the discharge as well as by reducing the pressure, and total power is
decreased by:
γ NP
∆P = ( ∑ Q p,j H pe,j − P) (9)
η j =1

and the electrical energy saving is ∆W.

If the location of a pumped storage (zone storage tank coupled with a pumping station SPi )
on a distribution main (Figure 4) is moved towards the upstream extreme of distribution main (i.e.,
towards larger and larger discharges), the power Pi of the internal station SPi increases and the power
Pe of the external station SPe decreases greatly because the head losses in upstream segments of
distribution main are reduced according to the Darcy–Weisbach formula [6].
As a result, the optimal location of the zone storage tank is given by the minimum value of the
power of the external and internal pump stations (Figure 4d). For evaluation of the power, an analytical
model was developed, which assumes as known the length L of the distribution main (Figure 4a), the
discharge distribution along it (Figure 4b), and the diameters DM and Dm of the supply section A and
terminal section O, respectively.
In section A, the distribution main is unloaded with discharge Q(x0 ) by means of a transmission
main located between section A and X0 . A pumped storage (buried tank and SPi ) is located in section
X0 . The head loss H(x) that occurs until a computing section X (Figure 4c) is evaluated with the
following equation:
Zx
H (x) = R0 ( x ) Qβ x dx (10)
0

where x is the abscissa of the computing section, reported at an upstream extremity of the distribution
main; Q(x) is the pipe discharge in section X; R0 (x) is the specific (per unit length) hydraulic
resistance [6,35] of the distribution main in section X; and β is an exponent with values in the range of
1.85 to 2.0, that depends on the Reynolds number and the relative pipe roughness [36].
The variations of the discharge Q(x) and the hydraulic resistance R0 (x) are estimated as:

Q( x ) = q0 + axα (11)

R0 ( x ) = r0 − bx2 (12)

where the real constants q0 , r0 , and b are computed from the boundary conditions: x = 0, Q(0) = q0 ,
R0 (0) = 8λ/(π 2 gDm
5 ), and x = L, R ( L ) = 8λ/ ( π 2 gD5 ) in which λ is the pipe friction factor, R (x)
0 M 0
Water 2016, 8, 593 9 of 19
Water 2016, 8, 12  9 of 19 

is the
the  hydraulic resistanceper 
hydraulic  resistance  perlength 
lengthunit 
unitof 
ofthe 
thepipe, 
pipe,and 
andthe 
theparameters  andα α
parametersa  aand  are
are  determined
determined 
statistically [37] based on the discharge distribution along the distribution main. 
statistically [37] based on the discharge distribution along the distribution main.
TheThe optimal solution for the location of a pumped storage tank coupled with SP
optimal solution for the location of a pumped storage tank coupled with SP i is determined 
i is determined
byby the value of x , for which the total power P expressed by Equation (Appendix A, A6) becomes 
the value of x0 , 0for which the total power P expressed by Equation (Appendix A, A6) becomes
minimum (Figure 4d): 
minimum (Figure 4d):  
γ α α 1 3 α 3 βα 1 α βα 1 βα 3 α βα 3
min
minP = Pγ  (c  c x αc2 xc03 x0αc+31x+0 c4x03c+
η ( c0 + c10 x0 +1 c20 x0 + 4 xc05 
x0αc+53x0+ c6x0βα
c6 x+01 + 
c7 c  cc88 xx0βα
x07αx+0βα+1 + 0
+3 c x α+βα)+3
+ 9c9 x0 0 )(13)
(13)
η
where c0 . 0. … c
where c . c9 9are the coefficients of the objective function depending on the parameters a, b, α, β,0, r0 ,
 are the coefficients of the objective function depending on the parameters a, b, α, β, r
q0 ,qand L as shown in [38].
0, and L as shown in [38]. 

 
Figure 
Figure 4. 4. Optimal
Optimal location
location of
of aa pumped
pumped  storage
storage  tank. 
tank. (a) 
(a)Schematic 
Schematicof ofthe 
thedistribution 
distributionmain; 
main; 
(b) Discharge distribution; (c) Head loss variation; (d) Power variation of the external and internal 
(b) Discharge distribution; (c) Head loss variation; (d) Power variation of the external and internal
pump stations. 
pump stations.

The  minimum  of  the  objective  Equation  (13)  is  evaluated  using  an  interpolation  numerical 
The minimum of the objective Equation (13) is evaluated using an interpolation numerical method,
method, based on a searching algorithm with an accelerated step coupled with square interpolation 
based on a searching
(modified  algorithm with an accelerated
Broyden‐Fletcher‐Goldfarb‐Shann  step
general  coupled[39], 
method)  with square
which  interpolation
were  (modified
implemented  in  a 
Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shann general method) [39], which were implemented in a computer
computer program. The flow chart of this algorithm is illustrated in Figure 5, where: X(1) is the start 
program. The flow chart of this algorithm is illustrated in Figure 5, where: X(1) is the start point;
point; S is the step; R is the reduction coefficient of step; ε is the critical value of convergence; and X 0 

S isis the interpolation result. 
the step; R is the reduction coefficient of step; ε is the critical value of convergence; and X0 is the
interpolation result.
Water 2016, 8, 593 10 of 19
Water 2016, 8, 12  10 of 19 

 
Figure 5. Flow chart of searching algorithm with an accelerated step. 
Figure 5. Flow chart of searching algorithm with an accelerated step.

3.2. Intermediary Pumping Stations Integrated on the Distribution Mains 
3.2. Intermediary Pumping Stations Integrated on the Distribution Mains
Direct integration of pumps on the network main pipes is a rational possibility for preservation 
Direct integration of pumps on the network main pipes is a rational possibility for preservation of
of the energy used in the water distribution process. 
the energyOn usedthe in the water mains 
distribution  distribution
where  process.
a  repumping  station  is  mounted  with  parallel‐connected 
pumps,  water  is  taken  over 
On the distribution mains where a repumpingpstation
at  a  lower  pressure  1  and  repressed 
is mountedat  a with
higher  pressure  p2, and  the 
parallel-connected pumps,
pump head is H pi = (p2–p1)/γ. 
water is taken over at a lower pressure p1 and repressed at a higher pressure p2 , and the pump head is
Use of serial‐connected intermediary pump stations on some distribution mains amplifies the 
Hpi = (p2 –p 1 )/γ.
discharge through these pipes. These pump stations also generate a low pressure zone upstream in 
Use of serial-connected intermediary pump stations on some distribution mains amplifies the
the suction node but ensures an important increase in pressure downstream in the pressure node. In 
discharge through these pipes. These pump stations also generate a low pressure zone upstream in
this mode, favourable local increases in the piezometric head (HGL) in the system are generated. The 
the suction node but ensures an important increase in pressure downstream in the pressure node.
In this mode, favourable local increases in the piezometric head (HGL) in the system are generated.
The repumping station is located almost at the suction node, and connection of the service lines at
Water 2016, 8, 593 11 of 19

the upstream pipes is not made from the suction node but rather immediately downstream from
the pump.
Considering that in a distribution system served by NP external pump stations (SPe ) intermediary
pump stations are directly serial-connected on a number of NA distribution mains, the total power in
the system is:
γ NP NA
P = ( ∑ Q p,j h pe,j + ∑ Q pa,k H pi,k ) (14)
η j =1 k =1

where Qp,j and hpe,j are the discharge and pump head, respectively, for external pump station j, and
Qpak and Hpi,k are the discharge and pump head, respectively, for intermediary pump station k.
Because the pump heads of the external pump stations are decreased (hpe,j << Hpe,j ) and the
discharges of the intermediary pump stations became equal to the local discharges of the distribution
mains on which they are integrated, a power reduction ∆P occurs according to Equation (9). As a result,
electrical energy consumption in the system is reduced with ∆W.
The optimal solution for the location of the intermediary pump stations and the choice of their
number, as well as the pumps from each of them, is determined by minimising the total installed power.

3.3. Elevated Tanks

A storage tank is considered to be “floating on the system” if the HGL in the tank is generally
the same as the HGL in the system. Pumping into a system with an elevated storage tank (water
tower) that floats on the system usually represents very efficient operation. Elevated tanks from water
distribution networks present important level fluctuations via their compensatory function.
These tanks can be classified by shape as cylindrical, spherical, torroidal, taper, rectangular, and
special [40]. The shape was optimised to make the technical and economic indicators as favourable as
possible. For the optimal profile, due to the static and strength considerations, water surface elevation
in a tank reaches higher values of 6–10 m, which increases the elevation of the HGL in the system and
increases the pumping energy consumption.
The relatively higher cost of elevated tanks is justified by reducing the energy consumption
during peak hours. At the peaks of the pumping schedule, when the electrical energy tariff is most
expensive, it is recommended to deliver smaller discharges through the external pump stations and for
the compensatory differences to be completed from the elevated tanks, which should be filled outside
of these peak hours.
If the pumps are stopped during peak hours (approximately 4 h/day) and the urban centre is
supplied from the volume accumulated in the elevated tanks during minimum consumption hours
(when electricity tariff is small), an important reduction of the cost for electrical energy is achieved.
The consumed electrical energy W is evaluated as:

9.81
W= Q p H pe Tp (15)
η

where Qp is the pumped discharge in the system; Hpe is the maximum pump head (for a network
supplied by one-sided pumping from the exterior); Tp is the pumping time; and η is the efficiency of
the pump station.
The pump head is established as a function of the elevated tank location related to the pump
station, the required pressure and the head losses in the transport pipes.
The cost economy obtained by the transfer of energy consumption from peak hours to base hours
can be evaluated using the following equation:

9.81
C= Q p H pe Tp (e1 − e2 ) (16)
η

where e1 , and e2 are the estimated electric energy tariffs during peak hours and base hours, respectively.
Water 2016, 8, 593
Water 2016, 8, 12  12 of 19
12 of 19 

Because  of  higher  level  oscillations,  the  advantages  of  peak  energy  savings  could  be  lost  by 
Because of higher
increasing  global  level
energy  oscillations, As 
consumption.  the a 
advantages ofnecessary 
result,  it  is  peak energy savings
to  study  could
the  be lost
elevated  by
tank 
increasing global energy consumption. As a result, it is necessary to study the elevated tank behaviour
behaviour  in  different  constructive  solutions  and  to  study  the  way  in  which  their  potential 
incharacteristics influence the energy balance of the distribution. 
different constructive solutions and to study the way in which their potential characteristics influence
the energy balance of the distribution.
3.4. Economic Indicators 
3.4. Economic Indicators
Incorporating  potential  elements  into  the  water  distribution  system  requires  an  additional 
Incorporating potential elements into the water distribution system requires an additional
investment, and its efficiency can be evaluated by the simply pay back time (SPBT), calculated as follows: 
investment, and its efficiency can be evaluated by the simply pay back time (SPBT), calculated
I
as follows: SPBT  ∆I  RTn   (17)
SPBT = Ce  C<i RTn (17)
Ce − Ci
where 
where ∆Iis
I  the
is the additional investment for the optimised system; C
additional investment for the optimised system; Ce ise is the annual operation cost for 
the annual operation cost for the
the reference system with the network supplied by one‐sided pumping from the exterior; C
reference system with the network supplied by one-sided pumping from the exterior; Ci is the i is the  annual
annual  operation 
operation cost for thecost  for  the 
system withsystem  with 
internal internal 
potential potential 
elements; elements; 
and and 
RTn is the RTn  is 
normal the  normal 
recovery time
ofrecovery time of 10–12 years 
10–12 years.
Equation (17) can be reformulated in the following form [38]: 
Equation (17) can be reformulated in the following form [38]:
I
SPBT  ∆I  RTn   (18)
SPBT = C  r< I RTn (18)
∆Cw − r∆I
w

where ∆C
where Cwis  is the difference between the energy cost C
the difference between the energy cost Cwewe for the reference system and the energy 
for the reference system and the energy
w
cost Cwiwi for the optimised system and r is the repair, maintenance and periodic testing rate for the 
cost C for the optimised system and r is the repair, maintenance and periodic testing rate for the
distribution system. 
distribution system.

4.4. Case Studies 
Case Studies

4.1. Potential Characteristics Influence of the Elevated Tanks on Distribution Energy Balance
4.1. Potential Characteristics Influence of the Elevated Tanks on Distribution Energy Balance 
Table 2 provides the hourly variations in water demand and pumped water during the day by
Table 2 provides the hourly variations in water demand and pumped water during the day by 
relative amounts (the per cents αd dand
relative amounts (the per cents α  and α and cumulative per cents Σαd and Σα
αpp,, and cumulative per cents Σα and Σαpp). Starting from this 
). Starting from this
table,
table, the compensatory
the  compensatory  function willwill 
function  be analysed
be  analysed for two types
for  two oftypes 
elevated tanks: taper
of  elevated  tanktaper 
tanks:  optimised,
tank 
with generatrix angle of inclination 45◦ from the horizontal
optimised, with generatrix angle of inclination 45  line, diameters of 36 m and 16 m, and
from the horizontal line, diameters of 36 m and 
16 m, and maximum height of 10 m, and a rectangular (flat) tank with a height of 2 m. These water 
maximum height of 10 m, and a rectangular (flat) tank with a height of 2 m. These water towers are
towers inare 
located thelocated  in  the system
distribution distribution  system 
of a large urban of  a  large from
centre urban  centre  from 
Romania Romania 
and have and  have 
an average an 
hourly
load equal to the maximum-day discharge Qd max = 3.59 m3 /sdmax
average hourly load equal to the maximum‐day discharge Q =  = 3.59 m
301,536 m 3 /day.
3/s = 301,536 m 3/day. 

The hour-compensatory
The hour‐compensatory volume volume of of an
an elevated
elevated tanktank isis given
given byby αvα·vQ
∙Qd dmax
max/100 
/100 and 
and total 
total
compensatory capacity is defined as α
compensatory capacity is defined as αvmax vmax∙Q· Q
dmax /100. The water height h was computed every hour 
d max /100. The water height h was computed every
for  both 
hour types 
for both of  tanks, 
types as  shown 
of tanks, as shownin  in
Figure 
Figure 6. 6.
On Onthis 
thisbasis, 
basis,the 
thecomparative 
comparativevalues 
valuesof  ofelectricity 
electricity
consumption for both types of elevated tanks are reported in Table 3. 
consumption for both types of elevated tanks are reported in Table 3.

 
Figure 6. Water level fluctuation in elevated tanks. 
Figure 6. Water level fluctuation in elevated tanks.
Water 2016, 8, 593 13 of 19

Table 2. Estimation of elevated tanks capacity for hour demand compensation.

Demand Pumping Compensation Compensatory

Percentage, (%) Percentage, (%) Percentage, (%) Volume, (%)
Period (h)
αd Σαd αp Σαp αc = αp − αd Σαc αv
0:00–1:00 3.30 3.30 4.50 4.50 1.20 1.20 2.80
1:00–2:00 3.25 6.55 4.50 9.00 1.25 2.45 4.05
2:00–3:00 3.25 9.80 4.50 13.50 1.25 3.70 5.30
3:00–4:00 3.25 13.05 4.50 18.00 1.25 4.95 6.55
4:00–5:00 3.40 16.45 4.50 22.50 1.10 6.05 7.65
5:00–6:00 3.95 20.40 4.50 27.00 0.55 6.60 (max) 8.20 (max)
6:00–7:00 4.80 25.20 4.50 31.50 −0.30 6.30 7.90
7:00–8:00 5.25 30.40 2.50 34.00 −2.70 3.60 5.20
8:00–9:00 4.55 34.95 3.00 37.00 −1.55 2.05 3.65
9:00–10:00 4.55 39.50 4.50 40.50 −0.05 2.00 3.60
10:00–11:00 4.60 44.10 5.50 47.00 0.90 2.90 4.50
11:00–12:00 4.50 48.60 5.20 52.50 1.00 3.90 5.50
12:00–13:00 4.75 53.35 5.25 57.75 0.50 4.40 6.00
13:00–14:00 4.50 57.85 5.25 63.00 0.75 5.15 6.75
14:00–15:00 4.30 62.15 5.00 68.00 0.70 5.85 7.45
15:00–16:00 4.25 66.40 4.50 72.50 0.25 6.10 7.70
16:00–17:00 4.20 70.60 4.25 76.75 0.05 6.15 7.75
17:00–18:00 4.10 74.70 2.50 79.25 −1.60 4.55 6.15
18:00–19:00 4.20 78.90 2.50 81.75 −1.70 2.85 4.45
19:00–20:00 4.30 83.10 2.85 84.60 −1.45 1.40 3.00
20:00–21:00 5.00 88.20 3.00 87.75 −2.00 −0.45 1.15
21:00–22:00 4.80 93.00 3.65 91.40 −1.15 −1.60 (min) 0.00
22:00–23:00 3.60 96.60 4.25 95.50 0.65 −1.10 0.50
23:00–24:00 3.40 100.00 4.50 100.00 1.10 0.00 1.60

Table 3. Computation of energy consumption for water distribution using elevated tanks.

Pumping Taper Tank Rectangular Tank

Period (h)
αp (%) Qp (m3 /s) Hp (m) P (kW) W (kWh/Day) Hp (m) P (kW) W (kWh/Day)
0:00–1:00 4.50 4.25 53.6 2980 43.7 2710
1:00–2:00 4.50 4.25 54.4 3025 48.8 2715
2:00–3:00 4.50 4.25 53.6 2980 48.7 2710
3:00–4:00 4.50 4.25 56.8 3160 49.0 2725
4:00–5:00 4.50 4.25 57.2 3180 49.5 2750
5:00–6:00 4.50 4.25 57.7 3205 49.8 2770
6:00–7:00 4.50 4.25 56.8 3155 49.8 2770
7:00–8:00 2.50 2.36 56.4 1740 49.3 1520
8:00–9:00 3.00 2.83 56.3 2085 48.9 1810
9:00–10:00 4.50 4.25 54.0 3000 48.8 2710
10:00–11:00 5.50 5.20 54.5 3705 49.0 3330
11:00–12:00 5.20 4.91 55.7 3580 49.2 3160
67,375.0 59,980.0
12:00–13:00 5.25 4.96 56.2 3645 49.3 3200
13:00–14:00 5.25 4.96 56.7 3680 49.4 3205
14:00–15:00 5.00 4.73 56.8 3515 49.5 3060
15:00–16:00 4.50 4.25 56.9 3160 49.9 2775
16:00–17:00 4.25 4.02 56.8 2985 49.7 2615
17:00–18:00 2.50 2.36 56.5 1745 49.6 1530
18:00–19:00 2.50 2.36 55.3 1705 49.3 1520
19:00–20:00 2.85 2.03 54.2 1440 48.9 1300
20:00–21:00 3.00 2.83 53.8 1990 48.4 1790
21:00–22:00 3.50 3.30 49.4 2130 48.1 2075
22:00–23:00 4.25 4.02 50.4 2650 48.1 2530
23:00–24:00 4.50 4.25 52.8 2935 46.8 2700
(MWh/year) 2662
Energy saving, ∆W
(%) 11
Water 2016, 8, 12  14 of 19 

Water 2016, 8, 593 14 of 19

4.2. Energy–Economic Efficiency of Optimisation Solutions 
Water 2016, 8, 12  14 of 19 

A large urban industrial centre from Romania with the water distribution network illustrated in 
4.2. Energy–Economic Efficiency of Optimisation Solutions 
4.2. Energy–Economic
Figure  7  is  considered.  Efficiency of Optimisation
In  this  section,  a  Solutions
comparative  energy–economic  analysis  of  the  four 
A large urban industrial centre from Romania with the water distribution network illustrated in 
optimisation  solutions  with  internal  potential  elements  proposed  for  water  distribution  is 
A large urban industrial centre from Romania with the water distribution network illustrated in
Figure  7  is  considered.  In  this  section,  a  comparative  energy–economic  analysis  of  the  four 
performed: 
Figure 7 is considered. In this section, a comparative energy–economic analysis of the four optimisation
optimisation  solutions  with  internal  potential  elements  proposed  for  water  distribution  is 
(1) First solution represents the classic reference case with an exterior pump station SP
solutions with internal potential elements proposed for water distribution is performed: e at the 
performed: 
water plant (direct pumping), which delivers a maximum‐hour discharge Q
First solution represents the classic reference case with an exterior pump station SP
(1)(1) First solution represents the classic reference case with an exterior pump station SP hmax  = 4.30 m 3/s and an 
e at the
e at the 
average pump head H
water plant (direct pe = 60 m. Taking into account the schedule of the hourly pumped discharge 
pumping), which delivers a maximum-hour discharge Q = 4.30 m 3 /s and an
max = 4.30 m3/s and an 
water plant (direct pumping), which delivers a maximum‐hour discharge Qhhmax
(Figure 8), the daily energy consumption W is determined. 
average pump head Hpe pe= = 60 m. Taking into account the schedule of the hourly pumped discharge 
60 m. Taking into account the schedule of the hourly pumped discharge
average pump head H
(2) 8),
(Figure Second  solution 
the daily assumes 
energy partition 
consumption Wof 
(Figure 8), the daily energy consumption W is determined.  the  town  into  seven  distinct  pressure  zones,  with  a 
is determined.
pumped  storage 
Second
(2)(2)  Second  tank 
solution located 
assumes
solution  in 
assumes  each 
partition zone 
of the
partition  centre. 
of town The seven
into
the  town  external 
into  pump 
distinct
seven  station 
pressure
distinct  SPe  supplies 
zones,
pressure  with a with 
zones,  buried 
pumped a 
tanks R
storage
pumped k (k = 1 ... 7) of pumped storage through a low pressure looped transmission network (Figure 
tankstorage 
located in each
tank  zone
located  centre.
in  each  The
zone  external
centre.  The pump station
external  pump SP e supplies
station  tanks Rk
buried buried 
SPe  supplies 
9). 
(k = In  this 
1 ...
tanks R k7)way,  outside storage
of pumped of  the  through
peak  energy 
a lowconsumption 
pressure looped hours,  the  maximum‐day 
transmission
 (k = 1 ... 7) of pumped storage through a low pressure looped transmission network (Figure  discharge 
network (Figure 9).  
Q  
9).  = 
In 3.94 
this  m 3/s  and  the  average  pump  head  hpe =  15  m  are  continuously  assured.  The  pumped 
way,  outside  of  the  peak  energy  consumption 
In this way, outside of the peak energy consumption hours, the maximum-day discharge
dmax hours,  the  maximum‐day  discharge   
storage 
Qd max pump 
Qdmax=  =  3.94 
3.94 3stations 
mm/s/s and
3 generate 
and the
the average via 
average pump the  buried 
pump head
head  hpetanks 
pe = = 15  the 
15 m  hourly 
m are  discharge 
are continuously  Q, 
continuouslyassured.  according 
assured.The  Thepumped to 
pumped the 
pumping schedule from Figure 10, and the required pressure for the pressure zones. 
storage 
storage pump pump  stations 
stations generate 
generate via buried
via the the  buried 
tankstanks  the  hourly 
the hourly discharge 
discharge Q,  according 
Q, according to  the 
to the pumping
The average pump heads corresponding to the pressure zones k have the following values, in 
pumping schedule from Figure 10, and the required pressure for the pressure zones. 
schedule from Figure 10, and the required pressure for the pressure zones.
The The average pump heads corresponding to the pressure zones k have the following values, in 
m: 30.2, 40.8, 33.7, 43.6, 31.1, 37.5, and 29.6. The total daily energy consumption W for this solution is 
average pump heads corresponding to the pressure zones k have the following values,
m: 30.2, 40.8, 33.7, 43.6, 31.1, 37.5, and 29.6. The total daily energy consumption W for this solution is 
evaluated. 
in m: 30.2, 40.8, 33.7, 43.6, 31.1, 37.5, and 29.6. The total daily energy consumption W for this solution
evaluated. 
is evaluated.

  
Figure 7. Schematic of the analysed distribution network. 
Figure 7. Schematic of the analysed distribution network.
Figure 7. Schematic of the analysed distribution network. 

 
Figure 8. Pumping schedule of SPe for the reference solution. 
 
Figure 8. Pumping schedule of SP
Figure 8. Pumping schedule of SPee for the reference solution. 
for the reference solution.
Water 2016, 8, 593
Water 2016, 8, 12  15 of 19
15 of 19 
Water 2016, 8, 12  15 of 19 

 
 
Figure 9. Schematic of the supply network of pumped storage tanks. 
Figure 9. Schematic of the supply network of pumped storage tanks. 
Figure 9. Schematic of the supply network of pumped storage tanks.

 
 
Figure 10. Pumping schedule for pumped storage tanks.
Figure 10. Pumping schedule for pumped storage tanks. 
Figure 10. Pumping schedule for pumped storage tanks. 

(3) Third solution replaces the buried tanks R
(3) Third solution replaces the buried tanks Rkkk with the elevated tanks C
with the elevated tanks Ckkk (k = 1 ... 7) with smaller 
(k = 1 ... 7) with smaller
(3) Third solution replaces the buried tanks R  with the elevated tanks C  (k = 1 ... 7) with smaller 
levels 
levels of  fluctuation,  which  ensures  a  gravitational  distribution  in  the  respective  zones.  The 
levels ofof  fluctuation,
fluctuation,  which ensures
which  a gravitational
ensures  distribution
a  gravitational  in the respective
distribution  zones. The
in  the  respective  discharge
zones.  The 
discharge Q
Q d max = 3.94 dmax
3  = 3.94 m
m  = 3.94 m
dmax 3/s is pumped from external pump station SPe with an average pump head 
/s is pumped from external pump station SPe with an average pump head hpe = 49 m,
discharge Q 3/s is pumped from external pump station SP e with an average pump head 
hpe = 49 m, according to the pumping schedule presented in Table 2, which sets a reduced pumping 
according to the pumping schedule presented in Table 2, which sets a reduced pumping during peak
hpe = 49 m, according to the pumping schedule presented in Table 2, which sets a reduced pumping 
during peak hours of electricity consumption. 
hours of electricity consumption.
during peak hours of electricity consumption. 
(4)  Fourth solution 
(4) Fourth solutionconsists 
consistsof ofdirect 
directwater 
water pumping 
pumping through 
throughintermediary 
intermediary pump pumpstations SP
stationsi1i1  
(4)  Fourth solution  consists  of  direct  water  pumping  through  intermediary  pump  stations SP
and SP
SP i1 and
i2  (Figure 7), assuming that the service pipes are connected immediately downstream of these 
SPi2 (Figure 7), assuming that the service pipes are connected immediately downstream
and SP i2 (Figure 7), assuming that the service pipes are connected immediately downstream of these 
stations. The intermediary pump stations are integrated on water mains M
of these stations. The intermediary pump stations are integrated on water 1 and M 2. External pump 
mains M1 and M2 .
stations. The intermediary pump stations are integrated on water mains M 1 and M2. External pump 
station  SPe  delivers  discharge  Qhmax  =  4.30  m 3/s,  with  an  average  pumping  head  hpe =  40.5  m,  and 
3
station  SPe  delivers  discharge  Qhmax  =  4.30  m /s,  with  an  average  pumping  head  hpe =  40.5  m,  and 
intermediary  pump  stations  equipped  with  two  sets  of  three  parallel‐connected  pumps  operating 
intermediary  pump  stations  equipped  with  two  sets  of  three  parallel‐connected  pumps  operating 
Water 2016, 8, 593 16 of 19

External pump station SPe delivers discharge Qh max = 4.30 m3 /s, with an average pumping head
hpe = 40.5 m, and intermediary pump stations equipped with two sets of three parallel-connected
pumps operating with discharges of 0.94 m3 /s and 1.78 m3 /s, for average pump heads Hpi,1 = 13.0 m
and Hpi,2 = 11.4 m, respectively.
The supply network design of the buried tanks and the computation of the discharge and
pressure distribution in the network for all of the analysed solutions were performed using computer
programmes OPNELIRA [41] and ANOREC [35].

5. Results and Discussion

Table 3 provides the electricity consumption for water distribution using two types of elevated
tanks. Because of the level of fluctuations and high water height, the case of the taper tank results
in an energy consumption of 67,375 kWh/day compared with only 59,980 kWh/day in the case of a
rectangular tank with a small water height.
In the second case, an energy savings of 2662 kWh/year was obtained, corresponding to a decrease
in energy consumption of 11%.
Numerical results of the energy–economic efficiency for the four analysed solutions in Section 4.2
are reported in Table 4. The following parameters were set: r = 0.02, e1 = 0.23 €/kWh, e2 = 0.11 €/kWh.

Table 4. Energy–economic indicators of analysed solutions.

Solution
No. Indicator
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Additional investment, 10−3 ∆I [€]
– transmissions mains – 1240 1240 –
1 – tanks – 157 625 –
– pump stations – 52 – 63
Total – 1449 1865 63
Average pump head, Hp [m]
2 – external pump station 60 15 49 40.5
– internal pump stations – 35 – 12
Consumed energy, W [MWh/year]
– external pump station 25,300 6600 21,600 19,600
3 – internal pump stations – 13,400 – 3600
Total 25,300 20,000 21,600 23,200
Peak 7300 2700 3400 5400
Operation cost, 10−3 Cw [€/year]
–energy cost difference, 10−3 ∆Cw – 170 135 67
4
–pay-off rate, 10−3 r∆I – 29 38 1
Costs difference, 10−3 (∆Cw − p∆I) – 141 97 66
5 SPBT [years] – 10 19 1
(MWh/year) 5300 3700 2100
6 Energy saving, ∆W
(%) 21 15 8

In general, for urban industrial centres with other technological characteristics, the absolute values
vary over a very large range, but the proportions at the level of comparable parameters are maintained
and the results of comparative computations remain available.
The distribution system with zone pumped storage has an important advantage of reducing
energy consumption by 5300 MWh/year, from which 4600 MWh/year occurs during peak hours,
although the economic efficiency is near the limit (SPBT = 10 years) (Table 4).
Solution 4 of repumping with intermediary stations requires primarily small additional
investments, but it ensures decreased energy consumption only under the assumption that service
lines are supplied from the high pressure zone downstream of the integrated pump stations. If this
Water 2016, 8, 593 17 of 19

condition is not realised due to constructive reasons, the HGL must be raised to 9 m to ensure the
required pressure. As a result, the energy consumption increases, which reduces the energy efficiency
of this solution, which is smaller than that of the solution with pumped storage tanks.
In this analysis, the optimal solution is considered to be Solution 2, with a convenient SPBT
of 10 years and the greatest energy savings of 21% compared with the energy consumption in a
reference unzoned distribution system.

6. Conclusions
Major findings of this study are concluded as follows:
Using potential elements can be replacing the doubling of distribution mains or increasing the
diameters of the distribution mains, which are expensive solutions. In addition to the energy-efficient
flow control in pumping, the rotational speed control using VSDs for each parallel-connected pump
can open new opportunities for the advanced control of the pumping processes.
This study confirmed the favourable energy–economic efficiency for the procedure of determining
the optimal location of pumped storage supply via low pressure transmission mains and the use of
buried tanks and internal pump stations. This procedure leads to energy savings of 8%–21% and
provides the possibility of chlorine step dosage for water disinfection, enabling a smaller dose of
chlorine at the water plant tanks.
The case of distribution networks with elevated tanks usually does not result in an absolute
reduction of electricity, but, generally, the energy cost is diminished because of the scheduling of the
more intense pumping outside of the peak hours of energy consumption. The absolute decrease in
energy consumption in the case of elevated rectangular tanks of low water height demands these
structures in a water distribution system.
The use of intermediary pump stations integrated on distribution mains has the advantages
of making the pressure more uniform in large networks, avoiding the zones with exaggerated high
pressure. However, some low pressure zones appear at the initial node of the distribution main on
which the repumping station is located. This deficiency can be completely eliminated by connecting
the service lines upstream of a pump.
Because water supply systems are executed sequentially, the proposed solutions for energy
optimisation of the water distribution can be combined while respecting the essential principles in the
structural development of the system.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

Appendix A
Substituting Equations (11) and (12) into Equation (10) and integrating, the resulting equation
until section X0 is obtained:

bqβ r0 aβ βα+1 baβ βα+3

H ( x0 ) = r0 qβ
0 x0 −
0 3
x0 + x0 − x (A1)
3 βα + 1 βα + 3 0

To describe the hydraulic regime upstream of section X0 , the discharge equation can be written
under a simple form:
Q0 ( x ) = Q( x ) − Q( x0 ) = a( xα − x0α ) (A2)

This equation results in the piezometric head (HGL) in the supply node of the distribution main:

r0 aβ βα+1 baβ βα+3 r aβ βα+1 baβ βα+3

H ( L ) = H ( x0 ) + L − L − 0 x0 + x (A3)
βα + 1 βα + 3 βα + 1 βα + 3 0
Water 2016, 8, 593 18 of 19

and the expressions of the pump stations’ power:

γ
Pi = Q ( x0 ) H ( x0 ) (A4)
η
γ
Pe = [ Q( L) − Q( x0 )][ H ( L) − H ( x0 )] (A5)
η
Taking into account Equations (A4) and (A5), the total power P = Pe + Pi can be expressed as:
γ
P= {[ Q( L) − Q( x0 )][ H ( L) − H ( x0 )] + Q( x0 ) H ( x0 )} (A6)
η

References
1. Watergy. 2009. Available online: http://www.watergy.net/-overview/why.php (accessed on 5 June 2015).
2. Moreira, D.F.; Ramos, H.M. Energy cost optimization in a water supply system case study. J. Energy 2013.
[CrossRef]
3. Coelho, B.; Andrade-Campos, A. Efficiency achievement in water supply systems–A review. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 2014, 30, 59–84. [CrossRef]
4. Bene, J.G.; Selek, I.; Hös, C. Neutral search technique for short-term pump schedule optimization. J. Water
Resour. Plan. Manag. 2010, 136, 133–137. [CrossRef]
5. Vilanova, M.R.N.; Balestieri, J.A.P. Energy and hydraulic efficiency in conventional water supply systems.
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 30, 701–7014. [CrossRef]
6. Walski, T.M.; Chase, D.V.; Savic, D.A.; Grayman, W.; Beckwith, S.; Koelle, E. Advanced Water Distribution
Modeling and Management; Haestad Press: Waterbury, CT, USA, 2003.
7. Binder, A. Potentials for energy saving with modern drive technology: A survey. In Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion, Ischia, Italy,
11–13 June 2008.
8. Pemberton, M.; Bachmann, J. Pump systems performance impacts multiple bottom lines. Eng. Min. J. 2010,
211, 56–59.
9. Ferreira, F.J.T.E.; Fong, C.; de Almeida, T. Eco-analysis of variable-speed drives for flow regulation in
pumping system. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2011, 58, 2117–2125. [CrossRef]
10. Zhang, H.; Xia, X.; Zhang, J. Optimal sizing and operation of pumping systems to achieve energy efficiency
and load shifting. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2012, 86, 41–50. [CrossRef]
11. McCormick, G.; Powell, R.S. Optimal pump scheduling in water supply systems with maximum demand
charges. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 2003, 129, 372–379. [CrossRef]
12. Van Zyl, J.E.; Savic, D.A.; Walters, G.A. Operational optimization of water distribution systems using a
hybrid genetic algorithm. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 2004, 130, 160–170. [CrossRef]
13. Salomons, E.; Goryashko, A.; Shamir, U.; Rao, Z.; Alvisi, S. Optimizing the operation of the Haifa: A water
distribution network. J. Hydroinf. 2007, 9, 51–64. [CrossRef]
14. Lopez-Ibáñez, M.; Prasad, T.D.; Paechter, B. Ant colony optimization for optimal control of pumps in water
distribution networks. J. Water Resour. Plan. Manag. 2008, 134, 337–346. [CrossRef]
15. Broad, D.R.; Maier, H.R.; Dandy, G.C. Optimal operation of complex water distribution systems using
metamodels. J. Water Resour. Plan. 2010, 136, 433–443. [CrossRef]
16. Vogelesang, H. Two approaches to capacity control. World Pumps 2009, 511, 26–29. [CrossRef]
17. Pemberton, M. Intelligent variable speed pumping. Plant Eng. 2003, 57, 28–30.
18. Bortoni, E.; Almeida, R.A.; Viana, A.N.C. Optimization of parallel variable-speed-driven centrifugal pumps
operation. Energy Effic. 2008, 1, 167–173. [CrossRef]
19. Yang, Z.; Borsting, H. Energy efficient control of a boosting system with multiple variable-speed pumps
in parallel. In Proceedings of the 49th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Atlanta, GA, USA,
15–17 December 2010.
20. Viholainen, J.; Tamminen, J.; Abhonen, T.; Ahola, J.; Vakkilainen, E.; Soukka, R. Energy-efficient control
strategy for variable speed-driven parallel pumping systems. Energy Effic. 2013, 6, 495–509. [CrossRef]
Water 2016, 8, 593 19 of 19

21. Araujo, L.S.; Ramos, H.; Coelho, S.T. Pressure control for leakage minimisation in water distribution systems
management. Water Resour. Manag. 2006, 20, 133–149. [CrossRef]
22. Carravetta, A.; Del Giudice, G.; Fecarotta, O.; Ramos, H.M. Energy production in water distribution networks:
A PAT design strategy. Water Resour. Manag. 2012, 26, 3947–3959. [CrossRef]
23. Diniz, A.M.F.; Fontes, C.H.; da Costa, C.A.; Costa, G.M.N. Dynamic modeling and simulation of water
supply system with applications for improving energy efficiency. Energy. Effic. 2014, 8, 417–432. [CrossRef]
24. Nazif, S.; Karanouz, M.; Moridi, A. Pressure management model for urban water distribution networks.
Water Resour. Manag. 2010, 24, 437–458. [CrossRef]
25. Lenzi, C.; Bragalli, C.; Bolognesi, A.; Artina, S. From energy balance to energy efficiency indicators including
water losses. Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply 2013, 13, 889–895. [CrossRef]
26. Sarbu, I.; Ostafe, G. Energetically optimization of water distribution systems in large urban centers.
Period. Polytech. Mech. Eng. 2008, 52, 93–102. [CrossRef]
27. Feldman, M. Aspects of energy efficiency in water supply systems. In Proceedings of the 5th IWA Water
Loss Reduction Specialist Conference, Cape Town, South Africa, 26–30 April 2009.
28. Rishel, J.B. Water Pumps and Pumping Systems; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2002.
29. Marchi, A.; Simpson, A.R.; Ertugrul, N. Assessing variable speed pump efficiency in water distribution
systems. Drink. Water Eng. Sci. 2012, 5, 15–21. [CrossRef]
30. Sarbu, I.; Borza, I. Energetic optimization of water pumping in distribution systems. Period. Polytech.
Mech. Eng. 1998, 42, 141–152.
31. Hooper, W. Advantages of parallel pumping. Plant Eng. 1999, 31, 4–6.
32. Volk, M. Pump Characteristics and Applications; Taylor & Francis Group: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005.
33. Kaya, D.; Yagmur, E.A.; Yigit, K.S.; Kilic, F.C.; Eren, A.S.; Celik, C. Energy efficiency in pumps.
Energy Convers. Manag. 2008, 49, 1662–1673. [CrossRef]
34. Gibson, I.H. Variable-speed dives as flow control elements. ISA Trans. 1994, 33, 165–169. [CrossRef]
35. Sarbu, I. Nodal analysis of urban water distribution networks. Water Resour. Manag. 2014, 28, 3143–3159.
[CrossRef]
36. Sarbu, I. Analysis of looped water supply networks. La Houille Blanche 2001, 3–4, 138–142.
37. Démidovitch, B.; Maron, I. Elements de Calcul Numerique; Mir: Moscou, Russia, 1979.
38. Sarbu, I. Energy Optimization of Water Distribution Systems; Romanian Academy Publishing House: Bucharest,
Romania, 1997.
39. Polak, E. Computational Methods in Optimization; Academic Press: New York, NY, USA, 1971.
40. Walski, T.M. Hydraulic design of water distribution storage tanks. In Water Distribution System Handbook;
McGraw Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2000.
41. Sarbu, I.; Kalmar, F. Optimization of looped water supply networks. Period. Polytech. Mech. Eng. 2002,
46, 75–90.

© 2016 by the author; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).