Symposium on Seventeenth-Century Music Theory: France

Albert Cohen

Journal of Music Theory, Vol. 16, No. 1/2. (Spring - Winter, 1972), pp. 16-35.

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SYMPOSIUM ON

SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY

In dealing with seventeenth-century theory in F r a n c e , one i s

confronted with a n extended l i t e r a t u r e of s o m e 300 known doc-
uments, by a wide v a r i e t y of contributors, numbering among
them engineers, physicists, lawyers, philosophers, m a t h e m a -
ticians, physicians, church figures, littCraires, and s t a t e s m e n ,
a s well a s by the p e r h a p s m o r e expected m a i t r e s de chapelle,
c o m p o s e r s and p e r f o r m e r s , private m u s i c t e a c h e r s , i n s t r u -
ment m a k e r s , musical a m a t e u r s , and sundry academicians.

The nature of t h e s o u r c e s i s equally varied, c l e a r l y suggest-

ing the widespread i n t e r e s t i n t h e o r y a t the time. They i n -
clude, i n both m a n u s c r i p t and print: independent t r a c t s , a c a -
d e m i c journals, manuals intended f o r the performing musician
(both beginner and advanced), plain-chant handbooks, dictio-
n a r i e s and encyclopedias, introductions and addenda to collec-
MUSIC THEORY:

FRANCE

ALBERT COHEN

tions of m u s i c , h i s t o r i e s , l e t t e r s , and t e x t s dealing with such

d i v e r s e s u b j e c t s a s m a t h e m a t i c s , a s t r o n o m y , language, dance,
a r c h i t e c t u r e , and politics.

Notable m u s i c i a n s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s l i t e r a t u r e , , such a s
J e a n Titelouze (1583-1633), the o r g a n i s t - c o m p o s e r , who p r o -
vides, e a r l y in the c e n t u r y (1623), a detailed study of the i n -
t e r v a l of the fourth a s a t h e o r e t i c a l phenomenon ( p r e f a c e t o
Hyrnnes de 1'Cglise); G u i l l a u m e - G a b r i e l N i v e r s (16 32 -17 14),
o r g a n i s t , c o m p o s e r , and leading t h e o r i s t , whose w r i t i n g s i n -
clude i m p o r t a n t contributions t o the developing t h e o r i e s of
modality, counterpoint, harmony, and thorough b a s s ; and M a r c -
Antoine C h a r p e n t i e r (1634 -1 704), whose p r i m e r on the "Rules
of Composition," w r i t t e n f o r the Duke of O r l e a n s and dated c .
1692, r e f l e c t s a c u r i o u s m i x t u r e of both p r o g r e s s i v e and con-
s e r v a t i v e thinking s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of F r e n c h m a n u a l s a t t h e
t i m e . And of n o n - m u s i c i a n s , one c a n cite t h e philosopher RenC
D e s c a r t e s (1596-1650), whose Musicae compendium (c. 1618)
proved t o b e e n o r m o u s l y influential throughout t h e seventeenth
c e n t u r y ; t h e g r a m m a r i a n and J a n s e n i s t Claude Lancelot (1615 -
1695), who includes a m o n g h i s m a n y w o r k s t r a c t s contributing
t o the t h e o r i e s of plain chant and modality; t h e l e x i c o g r a p h e r
and m a n of l e t t e r s Antoine F u r e t i e r e (1619-1688), whose Dic-
t i o n n a i r e universe1 (1690) i s t h e f i r s t encyclopedic d i c t i o n a r y
of the t i m e t o include c o m p r e h e n s i v e c o v e r a g e of m u s i c a l
t e r m s and t h e o r e t i c a l concepts; the a r c h i t e c t and physician
Claude P e r r a u l t (16 13 -1688), whose investigations into m u s i c
include e s s a y s on the n a t u r e of sound and on ancient G r e e k
m u s i c ; and the m a t h e m a t i c i a n and physician J o s e p h S a u v e u r
(1613-1716), who l a i d the foundation f o r the m o d e r n s c i e n c e of
musical acoustics.

How i s one t o u n d e r s t a n d the n a t u r e and scope of the pervading

i n t e r e s t i n t h e o r y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s the development of m u s i -
c a l thought in seventeenth-century F r a n c e ? Certainly, the i n -
t e r e s t i s in p a r t a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a g e n e r a l c o n c e r n with e n -
cyclopedic knowledge affecting a l l d i s c i p l i n e s during t h e p e r i -
od, a concern p e r h a p s b e s t exemplified b y t h e w o r k and attitude
of t h e F r e n c h Academy. But i t a l s o s u g g e s t s that the t i m e w a s
e s p e c i a l l y conducive t o t h e n a t u r a l penchant of the F r e n c h f o r
disputation and l i t e r a r y e x p r e s s i o n , f o r f o r m a l i s m and c l a s -
sification, f o r collection and exchange of i d e a s - a time char-
a c t e r i z e d b y both e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n and r a t i o . T h i s w a s the Age
of Reason.

An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e of t h i s activity in F r a n c e i s i t s c e n t r a l -
i z a t i o n in t h e city of P a r i s - l a g r o s s e t d t e de F r a n c e , then a s
now - a f e a t u r e that m a d e exchange and influence n a t u r a l , and
that l e d by the end of the c e n t u r y t o the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of what
c a n r e a s o n a b l y be r e f e r r e d t o a s a school of m u s i c t h e o r y i n
F r a n c e , s i n c e by then, m o s t contributions t o F r e n c h t h e o r y c a n
be t r a c e d t o a m a i n c u r r e n t of evolving i d e a s and concepts
c u r r e n t in P a r i s . T h i s i s t r u e f o r products of o t h e r F r e n c h
c e n t e r s a s well. F o r example, the l i t e r a t u r e s of t h e o r y f r o m
Lyon, which r e t a i n e d a t l e a s t s o m e vestige of i t s e a r l i e r f a m e
a s a publication c e n t e r , and f r o m Bordeaux, which developed
i t s own Academy b y t h e e a r l y eighteenth century, a r e m i n o r ;
even t h e i r m o r e authoritative productions c l e a r l y take t h e i r
cue f r o m P a r i s . One can c i t e f r o m t h e f o r m e r city, t h e t h e o -
r e t i c a l w r i t i n g s of Philippe F o r n a s , Borjon d e Scellery, and
PherotCe de L a Croix, and f r o m the l a t t e r , the works of P i e r r e
T r i c h e t and S a r r a u de Boynet. Certainly, the printing monopoly
held by the B a l l a r d family i n P a r i s played a conspicuous r o l e
i n t h i s development. But if we place this i n t e r e s t against the
background of the socio-economic and political predominance
that c h a r a c t e r i z e s F r a n c e ' s position on the Continent at the
time - a position that i n many ways w a s considered (in the
w o r d s of Martha Ornstein)*l "the t o r c h - b e a r e r of civilization,"
a t l e a s t in the view of the eighteenth century - then i t i s c l e a r
how in m u s i c theory, a s i n o t h e r disciplines, activity i n P a r i s
a t t r a c t e d special attention throughout Europe.

P r e v i o u s study of a portion of F r e n c h theory dating f r o m the

e a r l i e r p a r t of the seventeenth century*2 h a s shown that until
about 1660, the m a i n t h r u s t of that theory was humanistic and
encyclopedic i n nature, based on R e n a i s s a n c e i d e a l s . T h e d o m -
inant figure i s certainly M a r i n Mersenne, whose extended
works, although they basically r e f l e c t i n t e r e s t of e a r l i e r t i m e s ,
contain the s e e d s of thought f o r a new age. Mersenne i s a t r a n -
sitional figure, but one who s e e m s t o have had important i n -
fluence in the establishment of scientific p r o c e d u r e and p r a c -
tical experience a s b a s e s f o r t h e o r y -
not only in music, but
a l s o i n o t h e r fields of humanistic endeavor.

A t h e o r y based on practice, wherein a u r a l proof b e c o m e s a

dominant factor, i s essentially a product of the l a t t e r p a r t of
the century in F r a n c e . Fanned by a n increasingly growing body
of musical a m a t e u r s , p r a c t i c a l m u s i c i a n s began to dominate
t h e production of theory, and the r e s u l t s have important impact
on the century t o follow.

It i s of i n t e r e s t t o note that, with t h e exception of Mersenne

and possibly SCbastien de B r o s s a r d , t h e r e a r e no giants among
the m o r e influential F r e n c h t h e o r i s t s of the t i m e , a t l e a s t b e -
f o r e Rameau. Derived f r o m the wellsprings of t h e investiga-
tions of M e r s e n n e and h i s generation, F r e n c h theory of the
period i s fundamentally a product of the workof m a n y contrib-
utors, leading into the important summations of the eighteenth
century. Indeed, it i s somewhat curious how occasional t r e a -
t i s e s of apparent s m a l l consequence r a i s e i s s u e s o r suggest
novel concepts that t u r n up and become important a s developed
in works of l a t e r w r i t e r s . The little-known writings of RenB
Ouvrard, f o r example, which began t o a p p e a r shortly a f t e r
mid-century, project i d e a s that find an important place i n the
work of h i s students, Loulid and L'Affilard, a s well a s of o t h e r
t h e o r i s t s active a t the end of the century.

Also of i n t e r e s t i s the fact that useful contributions t o t h i s

theory continue t o be found in unlikely places throughout the
century. F o r example, the Dictionnaire mathbmatique of
Jacques Ozanam (dated 1691) ends with a f a i r l y sizable dictio-
n a r y of t h e n - c u r r e n t m u s i c a l t e r m s (perhaps the f i r s t of con -
sequence i n F r a n c e before that of B r o s s a r d ) , the definitions
being arranged, however, by subject m a t t e r r a t h e r than alpha-
betically; and in the C o u r s d l A r c h i t e c t u r e of 1683 by F r a n ~ o i s
Blondel, an a r c h i t e c t t o the c o u r t of Louis XIV, t h e r e i s an e x -
tended e s s a y on proportion in m u s i c a s i t r e l a t e s to that in a r -
chitecture, which, being a c o m m e n t a r y on the e a r l i e r w o r k of
Ouvrard, p r o v e s to be influential i n l a t e r production.

In t h e generations between Mersenne and B r o s s a r d , therefore,

although t h e r e a r e any number of t h e o r i s t s who make contri-
butions t o one a s p e c t of theory o r another, t h e r e a r e few who
could be judged a s being prominently significant, generally
speaking. P e r h a p s the one visible exception i s Nivers, whose
s e v e r a l t r e a t i s e s w e r e enormously influential i n F r a n c e , and
provided a n important point of r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e o r i s t s who fol-
lowed.

What a r e t h e m a j o r concerns evident i n this theory, o r a t l e a s t

those which have yet t o r e c e i v e the study they d e s e r v e ?

Certainly, a concern that r e a p p e a r s throughout a l a r g e portion

of t h i s l i t e r a t u r e i s one leading towards a n understanding of
t h e v e r y nature of sound a s a physical phenomenon, i t s p r o p e r -
t i e s and t e m p e r a m e n t . Laws of vibrating bodies and of t h e
velocity of sound, a s well a s the physical s t r u c t u r e of m u s i c a l
i n s t r u m e n t s and of the human e a r , a r e investigated i n depth,
p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e o r i s t s active in a c a d e m i c c i r c l e s . P o s s i b l y
of m o r e immediate i n t e r e s t t o m u s i c i a n s a r e the e x p e r i m e n t s
with v a r i e d tuning s y s t e m s and t h e i r application t o m u s i c a l
i n s t r u m e n t s , r e p o r t e d by such t h e o r i s t s a s Salomon d e Caux,
J e a n Denis, Milliet d e Chales, Etienne Loulib, and J o s e p h
Sauveur. But i t i s the work of M e r s e n n e and h i s a s s o c i a t e s
that a p p e a r s t o b e m o s t c e n t r a l t o t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . In i t (in the
w o r d s of M u r r a y Barbour)*3 one can find "the m o s t complete
and important discussion of tuning and t e m p e r a m e n t " of t h e
t i m e , that r u n s "the whole gamut of tuning theory." Before t h e
eighteenth century, t h e r e i s h a r d l y a theorist who does not
r e l a t e t o M e r s e n n e ' s w o r k when discussing tuning.
Of special note i s the fact that Mersenne bases his discussions
of intervals, modality, and of consonance and dissonance i n
music in large part on acoustical phenomena -an approach
that continues to have influence and relevance throughout the
century in France. Indeed, acoustical proofs a r e used increas-
ingly to support theories founded on aural perception, leading
to the work of Rameau.

A second principal concern - definition of the e v e r changing

and declining systems of modality, and those of evolving tonal-
ity- becomes of growing importance to theorists a s the cen-
tury progresses.

E a r l y in the century, modal theory comprises essentially of

justifying the existing system of eight church modes for plain
chant, and of relating i t to the extension of that system into one
of twelve modes ( a s propagated by Glareanus and Zarlino in
the sixteenth century)for part music. Although the division in-
to two distinct systems of modes - one for plain chant and a
second for part music - continues t o be maintained well into
the eighteenth century by some theorists, their natures change
during the seventeenth century, and distinctions between the
two begin to disappear.

Varied modal organizations a r e advocated by theorists and

used a s organizing elements by musicians until the general
adoption of the major-minor system at the turn into the eigh-
teenth century. Of interest among these i s one advocated by
Charles Guillet in 1610, essentially adopted by Antoine P a r r a n
in 1639, and actually used a s a scheme for organizing a portion
of Denis Gaultier's RhCtorique des d i e m .

Of perhaps more significance, however, i s the ordering of the

eight modes cited by Nivers, subscribed t o by Jean Rousseau
and Brossard, and used a s an organizing principle in known
collections of music dating from about 1700, both in France
(e.g., Jacques Boyvin)*4 and in Germany (e.g., Georg Muffat).*5
Use of this ordering reappears during the eighteenth century,
even a s late a s in the Preludien on the eight church tones of
Michael Haydn.*6

Certainly an intermediary between the older modal systems

and that of major -minor, Nivers ' ordering finds i t s roots early
in the century i n works of "praticiens" rather than of "thbo-
riciens." Already in 1610, P i e r r e Maillart (Les Tons de
llEglise), after noting the traditional eight church modes and
the twelve of Glareanus and Zarlino, indicates that i n practice
there a r e but eight Psalm tones in actual use, derived but dif-
fering from the theoretical systems, which must accommodate
themselves to the range and other practical needs of singers.
Briefly, the modes a r e paired with finals on D, E, F, and C,
and changes in finals (and dominants) a r e allowed according to
usage. F o r example, Maillart points out that the 5th mode,
Lydian on F, i s normally sung a s Ionian on C.

Jean Denis (1650), adopting this scheme and describing i t f o r

the organist, clearly notes how "normal" usage, adapting itself
to needs of the choir ("pour la commodit6 du choeur"), a l t e r s
the tons to other finals, dominants, and mediants, a s well a s
to the application of signatures. Denis' "normal" usage de-
scribes Nivers' eight modes, except for mode 7, which accord-
ing t o Denis, i s capable of many endings.

Regarding the transformation of the modal system into major-

minor i n France, which has only begun to receive the detailed
inquiry it demands, it would be useful in the space available a t
least to point out one o r two important stages in i t s develop-
ment.

The concept of key center is evident i n the terminology ton,

which, although most often equated with mode, also takes on
special meaning. Already in the Traictd de musique of Le Roy
and Ballard (1583), the distinction is made between the two
terms, a s it is in Maillart's L e s Tons de l'bglise. By about
mid-century, the t e r m ton describes an octave species of
scale, beginning on a given final and having a fixed dominant.
In each ton, the final i s reinforced by the dominant and medi-
ant, both of which a r e t o accompany the final in "cadences
naturelles. "

Early in the century, s t r e s s is placed on the interval of the

third a s determining relative strengths of cadences, the major
third being placed in opposition to the minor third, a s the two
principal cadential qualities. Salomon de Caux, in 1615 (Insti -
tution harmonique), for example, speaks of the gay quality of
the major third a s opposed to the sad quality of the minor
third, a relationship that i s referred to often throughout the
century (and later, for that matter) - the major being consid-
ered a more "perfect" conclusion than the minor.
Although theorists from Mersenne on (e.g., Jean Millet [La
belle mbthode, 16661) flirt with the reduction of the modal s y s -
-
tems to the two mode major-minor it is only late in the cen-
tury that w r i t e r s can state positively that there a r e only two
modes in music, each described by the quality of i t s 3rd; this
development can be traced in the works of such theorists a s
Loulib, L'Affilard, Jean Rousseau, Montbclair, Freillon-
Poncein, Charles Masson, and Alexandre F r h r e ; but Michel de
St.-Lambert (1702) seems t o be the first in France (if not i n
England) t o give the scale on A a s a model for the minor, the
others accepting one on D ( a s does Rameau), often relating it
to the first mode of the older modal system.

T o this entire movement, of course, i s tied the development of

a theory of functional harmony (including such a concept a s in-
version, which finds early, though limited, expression in the
"representation" theory of Mersenne), a theory that i s not i n -
tegrally part of seventeenth-century thought in France.

A third principal concern of seventeenth-century French theo-

r i s t s i s the need for redefinition of consonance and dissonance
in music of the time, often resulting from application of new
knowledge gained of acoustical principles, and governed i n
large part by the concept of "supposition" i n music - recently
reviewed in the Journal of the American Musicological Soci -
ety.*7

Fourthly, there i s expressed in this literature, interest in the

changing nature of rhythmical organization of music, and the
classification of its metrical structures. This i s extended into
investigations of means for the beating of time and keeping
tempo, both mechanical and non-mechanical; i.e., by means of
machines (such as Loulib's Chronometre) and of conducting
with modern hand motions ( a s described, for example, by
MontCclair and St. -Lambert).

T o be sure, discussions of the older proportional system con-

tinue to appear, a s do descriptions of outdated notational signs,
such a s ligatures. But increasingly, modern metrical and note
symbols, seemingly derived from Italian practice, begin t o
dominate, especially after c. 1660, and there i s evident a grow -
ing concern f o r refining o r changing l a r g e aspects of the nota-
tional system then in common use. This includes an interest-
ing movement seeking to simplify existing notation, especially
for singers, by abandoning notes and staves in favor of special
numerical and other symbols -recommended, for example, by
Mersenne, Jean Le Maire, Jean -Jacques Souhaitty, and others.
Leading theorists active in notational and rhythmic questions
include La Voye Mignot, Nivers, Robert Ballard, Jean Rous-
seau, LouliC, Montbclair, and St.-Lambert.

Among other concerns evident in French seventeenth-century

theory, a r e those that conspicuously reflect the need to relate
theory to practice, especially during the latter part of the cen-
tury, manifest in such activities a s the following:

a) developing systems for classification of ornaments in music

and schemesby which a performer i s tounderstand their func-
tion and to apply them properly (especially in the literatures
for clavecin and strings);

b) the restructuring of theory manuals to reflect concern f o r

pedagogy a t all levels, rather than the expected format adopted
from academic journals found in earlier generations (evident,
for example, in the t r e a t i s e s of L'Affilard, Berthet, Loulib,
and Montbclair);

c) the growing call for clear definition of terminology in theo-

ry, leading to an important movement in musical lexicography,
of which Brossard i s probably the leading exponent in France;

d) the need to relate new ideas t o existing ones in the evolu-

tionary process of history, encouraging production of e a r l y
examples of histories of music (e.g., those of Ouvrard, Bourde-
lot-Bonnet, and later, the brothers Parfaict).

Of somewhat l e s s significance in this literature a r e the prob-

lems posed by developing distinct theories of counterpoint, of
thorough bass, and of formal organization in music - i n all of
which the French appear to have followed the lead of other na-
tions.

Hardly comprehensive in my survey of seventeenth-century

French theory, and stressing those a r e a s that have received
probably l e s s study than others in this literature, I have tried
at least to provide an overall view of what proves to be intense
interest and activity i n music theory just prior to the monu-
mental work of Rameau.
 REFERENCES

1 M. Ornstein, T h e Role of Scientific Societies in the 17th Century. 3rd ed. (Lon-
don: Archon, 1963), p. 164.

2 A. Cohen, "Survivals of Renaissance Thought in F r e n c h Theory, 1610-1670: A

Bibliographical Study," in Aspects of Medieval and Renaissance Music (New
York: Norton, 1966). pp. 82-95.

3 J. M u r r a y Barbour, Tuning and T e m p e r a m e n t ( E a s t Lansing: Michigan State

College P r e s s , 1953), p. 7.

4 In Boyvin's P r e m i e r l i v r e d'orgue (1689) and Second l i v r e d'orgue (1700).

5 In the f i r s t 8 of G. Muffat's s e t of 12 Toccatas, f r o m h i s Apparatus musico-

organisticus (1690).

6 See L'organiste liturgique, vol. 24 ( P a r i s : Schola Cantorum, n.d.), 36-47.

7 A. Cohen, "La Supposition and the Changing Concept of Dissonance i n Baroque

Theory," JAMS XXIV ( 1971). 63-84.

A CHECKLIST OF SOURCES

T h e checklist of s o u r c e s f o r F r e n c h theory that follows h a s been organized into

two parts; each a r r a n g e d alphabetically by author with anonymous works listed a t
t h e end. The f i r s t p a r t s e r v e s t o supplement a previous bibliographical study by
the p r e s e n t author dealing with a portion of this l i t e r a t u r e f o r the y e a r s 1610-1670
( s e e I, below), and the second i s a listing of pertinent s o u r c e s f o r the y e a r s 1671-
1710.

The s o u r c e l i s t i s a s complete a s practicable, if not exhaustive, and n o attempt h a s

been m a d e t o grade o r to indicate the relative value of individual items. Citationsof
modern r e f e r e n c e s a r e limited to complete editions and f a c s i m i l e off-prints known
t o have been i s s u e d a s books. R e a d e r s a r e r e f e r r e d t o F r a n ~ o i sL e s u r e ' s E c r i t s
i m p r i m e s concernant l a musique (RISM B VI, 1-2; MUnchen-Duisburg: G. Henle,
1971) f o r information on the g r e a t e r p a r t of printed s o u r c e s found i n this checklist.
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