Space Engineering: Thermal Design Handbook - Part 11: Electrical Heating
Space Engineering: Thermal Design Handbook - Part 11: Electrical Heating
5 December 2011
Space engineering
Thermal design handbook - Part 11:
Electrical Heating
ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 11A
5 December 2011
Foreword
This Handbook is one document of the series of ECSS Documents intended to be used as supporting
material for ECSS Standards in space projects and applications. ECSS is a cooperative effort of the
European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry associations for the purpose
of developing and maintaining common standards.
The material in this Handbook is a collection of data gathered from many projects and technical
journals which provides the reader with description and recommendation on subjects to be
considered when performing the work of Thermal design.
The material for the subjects has been collated from research spanning many years, therefore a subject
may have been revisited or updated by science and industry.
The material is provided as good background on the subjects of thermal design, the reader is
recommended to research whether a subject has been updated further, since the publication of the
material contained herein.
This handbook has been prepared by TEC‐MT/QR division, reviewed by the ECSS Executive
Secretariat and approved by the ECSS Technical Authority.
Disclaimer
ECSS does not provide any warranty whatsoever, whether expressed, implied, or statutory, including,
but not limited to, any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose or any warranty
that the contents of the item are error‐free. In no respect shall ECSS incur any liability for any
damages, including, but not limited to, direct, indirect, special, or consequential damages arising out
of, resulting from, or in any way connected to the use of this document, whether or not based upon
warranty, business agreement, tort, or otherwise; whether or not injury was sustained by persons or
property or otherwise; and whether or not loss was sustained from, or arose out of, the results of, the
item, or any services that may be provided by ECSS.
Published by: ESA Requirements and Standards Division
ESTEC, P.O. Box 299,
2200 AG Noordwijk
The Netherlands
Copyright: 2011 © by the European Space Agency for the members of ECSS
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Table of contents
1 Scope.......................................................................................................................6
2 References ..............................................................................................................7
4 Electrical heating..................................................................................................10
4.1 General..................................................................................................................... 10
4.1.1 Conductive element.................................................................................... 10
4.1.2 Electrical terminations ................................................................................ 10
4.1.3 Electrical insulation..................................................................................... 11
4.1.4 Outgassing ................................................................................................. 12
4.2 Space applications ................................................................................................... 13
4.2.1 Viking spacecraft ........................................................................................ 13
4.2.2 Fltsatcom spacecraft .................................................................................. 13
4.2.3 OTS ............................................................................................................ 13
4.2.4 SPOT.......................................................................................................... 14
4.2.5 Miscellaneous utilization............................................................................. 14
4.3 Power requirement estimation.................................................................................. 14
4.3.1 Simplification assumptions ......................................................................... 15
4.3.2 Conduction losses ...................................................................................... 15
4.3.3 Radiation losses ......................................................................................... 15
4.3.4 Process heat requirements......................................................................... 15
4.3.5 Operating heat requirements...................................................................... 15
4.3.6 Warm-up heat requirements....................................................................... 16
4.4 Regulation of electrical heaters ................................................................................ 16
4.4.1 Temperature sensor ................................................................................... 17
4.4.2 Temperature controller ............................................................................... 17
4.5 Existing systems....................................................................................................... 18
4.5.1 Minco Products Inc. .................................................................................... 18
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4.5.2 Isopad Limited ............................................................................................ 27
5 Electrical cooling..................................................................................................34
5.1 General..................................................................................................................... 34
5.1.1 Description.................................................................................................. 34
5.1.2 Advantages of use...................................................................................... 34
5.1.3 Physical phenomena .................................................................................. 34
5.1.4 Multi-stage thermoelectric devices ............................................................. 35
5.1.5 Heat dissipation .......................................................................................... 36
5.1.6 Performance characteristics ....................................................................... 37
5.2 Theory ...................................................................................................................... 38
5.2.1 Seebeck effect............................................................................................ 38
5.2.2 Peltier effect................................................................................................ 39
5.2.3 Thomson effect........................................................................................... 39
5.2.4 Joule effect ................................................................................................. 39
5.2.5 Fourier effect .............................................................................................. 39
5.3 Space applications ................................................................................................... 39
5.3.1 Electro-optics applications.......................................................................... 40
5.3.2 Fluid refrigeration........................................................................................ 40
5.3.3 Cooling of electronic equipment ................................................................. 41
5.4 Existing systems....................................................................................................... 41
5.4.2 Marlow Industries, Inc................................................................................. 41
5.4.3 Melcor......................................................................................................... 44
Bibliography.............................................................................................................48
Figures
Figure 4-1: Temperature range of thermofoil heaters depending on insulation. From
MINCO (1989a) [6]. a) Kapton/FEP, b) Kapton/FEP Al backing, c) Nomex,
d) Silicone Rubber, e) Mica, f) Kapton/WA, g) Polyimide Glass, h)
Polyester, i) Scrim................................................................................................ 12
Figure 4-2: Outgassing in a vacuum environment. Weight loss versus time.
Temperature 473 K, pressure 4 x 104 Pa, preconditioning 50 % RH. From
MINCO (1973) [5]. : Cross-linked polyalkane; : Silicone
rubber, MIL-W-16878/7; : MIL-W-81044/1; : Kapton, Type HF. ..... 13
Figure 4-3: On/Off control. Temperature versus Time. From MINCO (1989a) [6].................. 17
Figure 4-4: Simple proportional control. Temperature versus Time. From MINCO
(1989a) [6]. .......................................................................................................... 18
Figure 4-5: Pattem of MINCO Standard. Thermofoil heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6]. ...... 21
Figure 4-6: Pattem of MINCO Mica. Thermofoil heaters. Dimensions in mm. From
MINCO (1989a) [6] .............................................................................................. 21
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Figure 4-7: Pattem of MINCO. Heater Kit HK913. From MINCO (1989a) [6] ......................... 21
Figure 4-8: Clamping attachment of a MINCO Mica. Thermofoil heater. From MINCO
(1989a) [6]. .......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 4-9: Standard ISOPAD products. (a) ISOTAPE, (b) ISOTRACE and (c)
UNITRACE. From ISOPAD (1990) [2]. ................................................................ 32
Figure 5-1: Schematic of a thermoelectric cooling element. From Scott (1974) [10]. ............ 35
Figure 5-2: Schematic of a typical thermoelectric module assembly. Elements
electrically in series and thermally in parallel. From Scott (1974) [10]................. 35
Figure 5-3: Maximum temperature difference versus number of stages in a module.
From MARLOW (1988) [3]................................................................................... 36
Figure 5-4: Temperature distribution through a thermoelectric cooling unit. From Scott
(1974) [10]. .......................................................................................................... 37
Figure 5-5: Temperature difference across a typical thermoelectric cooling unit versus
heat pumped. From Scott (1974) [10].................................................................. 38
Figure 5-6: Spacecraft thermal control using thermoelectric devices (TEDs). From
Chapter & Johnsen (1973) [1].............................................................................. 40
Figure 5-7: MELCOR Thermoelectric Heat Pump Module configurations. From
MELCOR (1987) [4] ............................................................................................. 46
Tables
Table 4-1: Characteristics of MINCO Thermofoil Heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6] ............ 19
Table 4-2: MINCO Standard Thermofoil Heaters. Kapton, silicone rubber and Nomex
insulations. From MINCO (1989a) [6] .................................................................. 20
Table 4-3: MINCO Standard Thermofoil Heaters. Mica Insulation. From MINCO
(1989a) [6] ........................................................................................................... 20
Table 4-4: Area and Electrical Resistance of the Heaters Contained in Minco Heater Kit
HK913. From MINCO (1989a) [6] ........................................................................ 22
Table 4-5: Characteristics of Adhesives Recommended by MINCO. From MINCO
(1989c) [8]............................................................................................................ 24
Table 4-6: Specifications of MINCO Thermofoil Heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6].............. 26
Table 4-7: Characteristics of MINCO Lead wires Mounted in Kapton, Nomex and
Silicone Rubber Heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6] ............................................ 27
Table 4-8: Characteristics of MINCO Lead wires mounted in Mica Heaters. From
MINCO (1989a) [6] .............................................................................................. 27
Table 4-9: Specifications of ISOPAD electrical heaters. From ISOPAD (1990)..................... 29
Table 5-1: Performance characteristics and dimensions of MARLOW Standard
Thermoelectric Coolers. From MARLOW (1988) [3]............................................ 43
Table 5-2: MELCOR Thermoelectric Heat Pump Module Specifications. FC Series.
From MELCOR (1987) [4].................................................................................... 45
Table 5-3: MELCOR Thermoelectric Heat Pump Module Specifications. CP Series.
From MELCOR (1987) [4].................................................................................... 46
Table 5-4: MELCOR Wire Standards. From MELCOR (1987) [4].......................................... 47
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1
Scope
In this Part 11, the use of electrical heaters and electrical coolers in spacecraft systems are described.
Electrical thermal control is an efficient and reliable method for attaining and maintaining
temperatures. Solid state systems provide for flexibility in control of thermal regulation, they are
resistant to shock and vibration and can operate in extreme physical conditions such as high and zero
gravity levels. They are also easy to integrate into spacecraft subsystems.
The Thermal design handbook is published in 16 Parts
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 1 Thermal design handbook – Part 1: View factors
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 2 Thermal design handbook – Part 2: Holes, Grooves and Cavities
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 3 Thermal design handbook – Part 3: Spacecraft Surface Temperature
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 4 Thermal design handbook – Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5 Thermal design handbook – Part 5: Structural Materials: Metallic and
Composite
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 6 Thermal design handbook – Part 6: Thermal Control Surfaces
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 7 Thermal design handbook – Part 7: Insulations
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 8 Thermal design handbook – Part 8: Heat Pipes
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 9 Thermal design handbook – Part 9: Radiators
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 10 Thermal design handbook – Part 10: Phase – Change Capacitors
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 11 Thermal design handbook – Part 11: Electrical Heating
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 12 Thermal design handbook – Part 12: Louvers
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 13 Thermal design handbook – Part 13: Fluid Loops
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14 Thermal design handbook – Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 15 Thermal design handbook – Part 15: Existing Satellites
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 16 Thermal design handbook – Part 16: Thermal Protection System
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2
References
ECSS‐S‐ST‐00‐01 ECSS System ‐ Glossary of terms
ECSS‐E‐HB‐30‐09 Part 15 Thermal design handbook – Part 15: Existing Satellites
All other references made to publications in this Part are listed, alphabetically, in the Bibliography.
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3
Terms, definitions and symbols
3.2 Symbols
A cross sectional area, [m2]
I electric current, [A]
L length of conductive path, [m]
Q heat transfer rate, [W]
QF fourier effect heat flow, [W]
QJ joule heat flow, [W]
QP peltier effect heat flow, [W]
Qcd conduction loss, [W]
Qo operating heat, [W]
Qp process heat transfer rate, [W]
Qr radiation loss, [W]
Qsl steady state loss, [W]
Qw warm‐up power, [W]
R electrical resistance, []
Ta ambient temperature, [K]
Tf final temperature, [K]
Ti initial temperature, [K]
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Ts heat sink temperature, [K]
V voltage, [V]
W power, [W]
a neat seebeck coefficient for two dissimilar materials,
[W.K1.A1]
cp specific heat, [J.kg1.K1]
h latent heat of fusion or vaporization, [J.kg1]
k thermal conductivity, [W.m1.K1]
m mass of material in each process load, [kg]
qT thomson effect heat flow per unit of conductor length,
[W.m1]
t cycle time for each load, [s]
tw desired warm‐up time, [s]
T difference of temperature between two junctions
formed by dissimilar materials, [K]
VS seebeck effect open circuit potential difference, [V]
emissivity of heat sink material
Stefan‐Boltzmann constant = 5,6697 x 108 W.m2.K4
Thomson coefficient, [W.K1.A1]
Subscripts
c cool
h hot
max maximum
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4
Electrical heating
4.1 General
Reliable long‐term performance of most spacecraft components takes place at a specified temperature
range. The attainment of some temperature range requires, in many instances, the generation of heat
within the spacecraft. This involves simply turning up an electrical, chemical or nuclear heater.
When a local uniform heat source or a profiled heating area is needed, electrical heaters can provide it
efficiently due to their versatility. Some applications are reported later in this clause.
Electrical heaters are based on Ohmʹs and Jouleʹs laws.
Ohmʹs law states that the steady electric current, I, flowing through an electrical conductor is
proportional to the constant voltage, V, and to the reciprocal of the electrical resistance of the
conductor, R:
I = V/R
According to Jouleʹs law, the heat released per unit time, Q, by an electrical current, I, is equal to the
square of the electrical current, multiplied by the electrical resistance, R:
Q = I2R
Three parts can be distinguished in an electrical heater:
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Pins and connectors
Plated through‐holes
Integral flex‐circuits
Flat foil leads
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used in vacuum after burn in. They can withstand temperatures up to 866 K, and high
watt densities, up to 1705 x 10 W.m1.
Kapton/WA is a clear amber polyimide film with acrylic adhesive. It is chemical and
radiation resistant, with low outgassing, low cost and high resistance densities. The only
problem is its narrow temperature range that limits applications over 423 K.
Polyimide glass (Fiberglass reinforced polyimide) heaters have reduced flexibility but
they have a temperature range up to 513 K and a potential for high watt densities.
Optical grade polyester heaters have an 82 % light transmission and could be mounted in
windows, lenses or between LCD and backlight, in cockpit displays and handheld
terminals, in order to prevent condensation and permit cold weather operation.
Polyester is a low cost solution for economic fabrication of large heaters.
Scrim is an open weave fiberglass cloth for lamination inside composite structures.
Temperature range for some insulations, compared to Kapton/FEP, are represented in Figure 4‐1.
Figure 4‐1: Temperature range of thermofoil heaters depending on insulation.
From MINCO (1989a) [6]. a) Kapton/FEP, b) Kapton/FEP Al backing, c) Nomex, d)
Silicone Rubber, e) Mica, f) Kapton/WA, g) Polyimide Glass, h) Polyester, i) Scrim.
4.1.4 Outgassing
Outgassing in a vacuum environment, in terms of weight loss versus time is an important property in
space applications, see Figure 4‐2. Essentially the outgassing products are water, carbon monoxide
and carbon dioxide. Loss weight in Kapton/FEP is very low, about 1 %, and it occurs during the first
few hours of test.
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Figure 4‐2: Outgassing in a vacuum environment. Weight loss versus time.
Temperature 473 K, pressure 4 x 104 Pa, preconditioning 50 % RH. From MINCO
(1973) [5]. : Cross‐linked polyalkane; : Silicone rubber, MIL‐W‐16878/7;
: MIL‐W‐81044/1; : Kapton, Type HF.
4.2.3 OTS
Electrical heaters are used as battery heaters, in the Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier as compensation
heaters, and in the hydrazine tank, lines and valves, in order to prevent hydrazine from freezing.
See ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 15, clause 5.
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4.2.4 SPOT
Electrical heaters are used in the thermal control of the satellite platform, propulsion system, batteries
compartment, high‐resolution visible range instruments, and payload telemetry system.
See ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 15, clause 8.
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Figure 4‐3: On/Off control. Temperature versus Time. From MINCO (1989a) [6].
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Figure 4‐4: Simple proportional control. Temperature versus Time. From MINCO
(1989a) [6].
4.5.1.1 Manufacturer
MINCO PRODUCTS, INC.
7300 Commerce Lane
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55432‐3177
U.S.A.
TEL: 612 571‐3121
FAX: 612 571‐0927
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4.5.1.2 Commercial name
Thermofoil Heaters.
Table 4‐1: Characteristics of MINCO Thermofoil Heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6]
Kapton/FEP Silicone Rubber Nomex/Epoxy Mica
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Table 4‐2: MINCO Standard Thermofoil Heaters. Kapton, silicone rubber and
Nomex insulations. From MINCO (1989a) [6]
Type a N b Available resistance Effective area
[] x 104 [m2]
min max min max
1 1004 3,3 2341 2,26 948/1120 d
2 117 4,3 630 5,10 379
3 122 4,2 713/1317 c 7,48 664
4 0 ‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐ ‐‐
5 27 3,6 199/262 c 10,0 17,9/55,5 c
6 192 3,4 1016/1648 d 2,45 735/1006 d
7 72 3,7 168/440 c 9,35 114/1000 d
8 229 4,7 2890 5,61 609/903 d
9 30 7,9 243/280 c 7,87/3,61 c 19
10 53 3,8 200/530 c 7,68/0,97 c 24
11 84 4,2 670 4,19/3,81 c 482
a Types correspond to those sketched in Figure 4‐5.
b Number of heaters quoted in MINCO (1989a) [6].
c Only available with Kapton and Nomex insulations.
d Only available with silicone rubber insulation.
Table 4‐3: MINCO Standard Thermofoil Heaters. Mica Insulation. From MINCO
(1989a) [6]
Type a N b Available resistance Effective area
[] x 104 [m2]
min max min max
1 14 4,5 106,0 20,6 422,6
2 2 2,0 3,9 7,7 7,7
3 6 11,1 83,4 34,8 377,4
a Types corresponds to those sketched in Figure 4‐6.
b Number of heaters quoted in MINCO (1989a) [6].
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Figure 4‐5: Pattem of MINCO Standard. Thermofoil heaters. From MINCO (1989a)
[6].
Figure 4‐6: Pattem of MINCO Mica. Thermofoil heaters. Dimensions in mm. From
MINCO (1989a) [6]
Figure 4‐7: Pattem of MINCO. Heater Kit HK913. From MINCO (1989a) [6]
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Table 4‐4: Area and Electrical Resistance of the Heaters Contained in Minco Heater
Kit HK913. From MINCO (1989a) [6]
HEATER a AREA RESISTANCE HEATER a AREA RESISTANCE
x104 [m2] [] x104 [m2] []
Heater type Maximum resistance x 104
[.m2]
Kapton/FEP 69,75
Nomex 69,75
Kapton/WA 232,50
Silicone rubber 31,00
Mica 1,78
Thermal‐Clear (wire) 186,00
4.5.1.6 Attachment
Mounting methods suggested by MINCO are:
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Clamping: Mica heaters are clamped to heat sinks with rigid backing plates because
unsupported ones can separate during warm‐up. See Figure 4‐8. Other heaters, except silicone
rubber, may also be clamped for higher watt density ratings.
Figure 4‐8: Clamping attachment of a MINCO Mica. Thermofoil heater. From
MINCO (1989a) [6].
Heater assemblies with bolted, welded and crimped backing plates are provided by MINCO.
Vulcanization: It is used to bond silicone rubber heaters to mating parts without
adhesive. Therefore heat transfer is facilitated, yielding better performance and
reliability.
Films: This category includes #10 and #12 pressure‐sensitive adhesives (PSAs), factory
applied by MINCO. They present uniform thickness and lack of bubbles. PSAs are easy
to apply, nevertheless they have limited temperature ranges. #14 PSA is an adhesive film
approved for space/vacuum environments, however it requires a relatively high level of
heat and pressure to cure. Ablefilm 550K has a good combination of performance and
ease of application, but it carries a high price.
Liquid Adhesives: RTVs and epoxies work better than PSAs for curved surfaces and
higher watt ratings; however they can include air bubbles unless given special handling.
Bubbles under the heater cause localized overheating and possible heater burnout.
Special techniques such as drawing a vacuum on the adhesive after mixing, or
perforating heaters between strands, are recommended for critical aerospace
applications. Aluminium backing helps spread heat away from remaining bubbles, and it
is therefore recommended if heaters operate near the upper limit of their watt density
ratings.
Shrink Bands and Stretch Tape: Shrink bands and stretch tape secure heaters to cylinders.
The adhesive layer between heater and heat sink is eliminated and therefore higher watt
densities are allowed. Shrink bands are pre‐stretched plastic strips with PSA adhesive on
the ends. The band is wrapped around the heater and cylinder and its end is shrunk on
place.
A data summary is included below in Table 4‐5.
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Table 4‐5: Characteristics of Adhesives Recommended by MINCO. From MINCO (1989c) [8]
Insulation
Temperature Thermal Cond. Material a
Name Type Kapton Silicone Nomex Comments
Range [K] [W.m1.K1] Approvals
Rubber
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Insulation
Temperature Thermal Cond. Material a
Name Type Kapton Silicone Nomex Comments
Range [K] [W.m1.K1] Approvals
Rubber
(salt spray) capability
MIL‐A‐8623
a UL: Underwriters Laboratories.
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Table 4‐6: Specifications of MINCO Thermofoil Heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6]
Heater type and Mounting Method Temperature Maximum Watt Density
Range x 103 [W.m2]
[K]
Mica 2,54 x 104 m 123‐873 186,0
5,08 x 104 m 123‐873 139,5
Silicone Vulcanized 211‐508 108,5
Rubber #20 Stretch Tape 211‐473 108,5
#6 RTV Cement 225‐508 65,1
#12 PSA 211‐453 72,8
Kapton #20 Stretch Tape 225‐473 93,0
#3 Shrink Band 211‐423 93,0
#14 Film 73‐423 93,0
#15 Epoxy 203‐398 93,0
#10 PSA Al backing 218‐423 77,5
#10 PSA 213‐373 46,5
Nomex #20 Stretch Tape 228‐423 52,7
#14 Film 193‐423 51,1
#15 Epoxy 208‐398 52,7
#10 PSA 203‐373 40,3
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Table 4‐7: Characteristics of MINCO Lead wires Mounted in Kapton, Nomex and
Silicone Rubber Heaters. From MINCO (1989a) [6]
AWG 30 AWG 26 AWG 24 AWG 20
Current Capacity [A] 3,0 5,0 7,5 13,5
Maximum Heater Kapton/FEP 1,27 1,52 1,65 2,16
Thickness over leads
Silicone Ruber with 1,78 2,03 2,29 3,05
x 103 [m]
PSA
Table 4‐8: Characteristics of MINCO Lead wires mounted in Mica Heaters. From
MINCO (1989a) [6]
AWG 22 AWG 20 AWG 18
Current Capacity [A] 8,0 9,0 11,0
Maximum Heater Thickness over 2,5 x 104 m Mica 3,81 5,08 5,08
leads
5,1 x 104 m Mica 4,32 5,59 5,59
x 10 [m]
4.5.2.1 Manufacturer
ISOPAD LIMITED
Isopad House, Shenley Rd.
Borehamwood, Hertfordshire WD/ 1TE.
England
TEL: 01‐953 6242
FAX: 01‐207 5530
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4.5.2.4 General specifications
Trace heaters are primarily to be used in earth facilities, because of supply voltage (110 V or 240 V),
insulation, dimensions and weight. They are thought to be used in industrial pipelines and hazardous
areas.
No data in flexibility and dielectric strength are available. Temperature limits and thickness appear in
Table 4‐9.
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Table 4‐9: Specifications of ISOPAD electrical heaters. From ISOPAD (1990)
Type Reference V W/l R/l Tmin Tmax Thickness Width lmax
Name [V] [W/m] [/m] [K] [K] x103 [m] x103[m] x103 [m]
ISOTAPE FTW/SS 240 16 3600 203 493 2,0 6,0 348,0
33 1745
44 1309
48 1200
55 1047
ITW/SS 240 16 3600 203 483 3,0 8,0 108,5
33 1745 443
44 1309 413
55 1047 383
ISOTRACE FSL‐1/13 110 13 931 75
FSL‐1/26 26 465 64
FSL‐2/13 240 13 4431 228 338 5,0 13,0 150
FSL‐2/26 26 2215 128
ISL‐1/10 110 10 1210 233 338 3,5 7,35 100
ISL‐1/20 20 605 7,35 85
ISL‐1/30 30 403 9,5 64
ISL‐2/10 240 10 5760 233 338 3,5 7,35 150
ISL‐2/20 20 2880 7,35 165
ISL‐2/30 30 1920 9,5 130
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UNITRACE IVR‐10 240 10 5760 223 423 6,5 11,0 150
IVR‐20 20 2880 403 100
IVR‐30 30 1920 373 70
FZR‐10 240 10 5760 223 453 5,0 15,0 150
FZR‐15 15 3840 432 104
FZR‐30 30 1920 377 72
FZR‐45 45 1280 341 68
FZR‐10 240 10 5760 223 423 5,0 15,0 150
FZR‐15 15 3840 413 104
FZR‐30 30 1920 393 72
FZR‐45 45 1280 353 68
FZR‐60 60 960 313 60
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Materials employed for the different trace heaters are:
ISOTAPE:
Heating element: Nickel chrome or copper nickel alloys.
Outer covering: Robust 18/8 stainless steel braid type 316.
ISOTRACE:
Heating element: Self‐limiting conductive core material.
Bus wire: Nickel plated copper wire.
Overbraid: SS ‐ Stainless steel sheath
TC ‐ Tinned copper sheath
NC ‐ Nickel plated copper sheath
Oversheath (optional): Fluoropolymer.
UNITRACE:
Heating element: Nickel chrome.
Conductors: Copper.
Conductor/element connection: Metallic bond.
Overbraid (optional):SS, TC, NC.
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Figure 4‐9: Standard ISOPAD products. (a) ISOTAPE, (b) ISOTRACE and (c)
UNITRACE. From ISOPAD (1990) [2].
Explanation
f Optional over sheath Overbraid
4.5.2.6 Attachment
ISOTAPE: Fixing tape FT/2 (glass fiber) or FT/3 (aluminium foil).
ISOTRACE: FT/1 Fixing tape.
UNITRACE: FT/2 or FT/3 self‐adhesive tape.
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4.5.2.7 Watt densities
See Table 4‐9.
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5
Electrical cooling
5.1 General
5.1.1 Description
Thermoelectric coolers (TECs) are solid state devices that work as small heat pumps, obeying the laws
of thermodynamics as do conventional mechanical heat pumps (refrigerators), absorption
refrigerators, and other devices involving the transfer of heat.
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Figure 5‐1: Schematic of a thermoelectric cooling element. From Scott (1974) [10].
Thermoelectric elements are usually connected thermally in parallel and electrically in series to obtain
the required power handling capacity. A drawing of a typical module assembly is shown in Figure
5‐2.
Figure 5‐2: Schematic of a typical thermoelectric module assembly. Elements
electrically in series and thermally in parallel. From Scott (1974) [10].
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Figure 5‐3: Maximum temperature difference versus number of stages in a module.
From MARLOW (1988) [3].
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Figure 5‐4: Temperature distribution through a thermoelectric cooling unit. From
Scott (1974) [10].
Imax: Current which yields the greatest net cooling.
Tmax: Temperature difference across the cooler at Imax with
no applied heat load.
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Qmax: The amount of applied heat load necessary to
suppress the temperature difference across the device
to zero at Imax.
Vmax: Thermoelectric cooler voltage at Imax without heat
load.
The thermoelectric cooler efficiency and the heat pumped increase as the temperature difference
across it decreases, see Figure 5‐5, where the coefficient of performance is defined as the ratio of the
heat pumped from the cold to the hot junction to the power that is supplied to operate the module.
Figure 5‐5: Temperature difference across a typical thermoelectric cooling unit
versus heat pumped. From Scott (1974) [10].
5.2 Theory
The thermoelectric phenomenon is the result of five distinct effects (Seebeck, Peltier, Thomson, Joule
and Fourier) that act concurrently.
The Seebeck, Peltier and Thomson effects are reversible thermodynamic phenomena, whereas the
Joule and Fourier effects are irreversible. See Chapter & Johnson (1973) [1].
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Figure 5‐6: Spacecraft thermal control using thermoelectric devices (TEDs). From
Chapter & Johnsen (1973) [1].
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Inertial Guidance Systems.
Electronic Enclosures.
5.4.2.1 Manufacturer
Marlow Industries, Inc. Marlow Industries UK
10451 Vista Park Road. P.O. Box 41, Tadworth
Dallas, Texas 75238‐1645 Surrey KT20 6JL
U.S.A. England
TEL: 214 340‐4900 TEL: 0737 833079
FAX: 214 341‐5212 FAX: 0737 833140
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5.4.2.3 General description
In addition to the Standard Product line, custom design services to meet special requirements are
available.
Special TECs can be optimized with high performance thermoelectric materials for specific operating
temperatures, increased reliability for space applications, and added strength for High‐G
environments. A special telecom grade screening process is also available which includes burn‐in and
rigorous cleaning to minimize contamination in a hermetic package for extended life.
Standard Thermoelectric Coolers may have special options:
Standard Options
Ceramic Material:
A: Aluminium oxide ceramic
B: Beryllium oxide ceramic (Not available on all models.)
Metallization: This digit indicates whether or not full face metallization is desired for solder mounting.
Metallization is not available on all modules, and it no required for mounting with epoxy or the
clamping method.
0 = No metallization
1 = Base only metallized
2 = Both sides metallized
Special Options
00 = Standard, no options.
01 = Pretinned hot side ceramic with 390 K solder.
02 = Pretinned hot and cold side ceramics with 390 K solder.
03 = Pretinned hot side ceramic with 369 K solder.
04 = Pretinned hot and cold side ceramics with 369 K solder.
05 = Thermistor (P/N 2228‐07) mounted on edge of cold ceramic.
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06 = Thermistor (P/N 2228‐07) calibrated and mounted on edge of cold ceramic.
07 = Lapped to ±0,025 x 103 m (Not available on all models.)
08 = Telecom grade, pre‐screening for extended life.
Table 5‐1: Performance characteristics and dimensions of MARLOW Standard
Thermoelectric Coolers. From MARLOW (1988) [3].
Imax Tmax Qmax Vmax Dimensions a x 103 [m]
[A] [K] [W] [V]
A B C D E
0,6 110 0,43 7,0 13,2 17,2 4,1 8,0 8,8
0,7 90‐122 0,31‐0,47 1,9‐5,8 6,6‐11,0 6,6‐17,2 2,2‐4,0 3,3‐4,0 4,3‐11,2
0,9 67 0,8‐4,0 1,3‐6,5 4,1‐6,0 7,1‐29,6 4,1‐6,0 6,1‐27,9 2,2‐3,2
1,0 67‐114 0,3‐4,8 0,4‐8,5 4,0‐13,2 4,0‐17,2 2,0‐13,2 4,0‐13,2 2,4‐8,8
1,2 67‐117 1,0‐2,4 1,3‐5,4 6,6‐11,0 6,9‐9,9 2,5‐8,8 2,5‐6,6 2,2‐7,9
1,3 109‐110 0,33‐0,62 1,9‐3,4 6,6‐8,8 6,6‐8,8 2,5‐4,1 2,5‐4,4 5,4‐5,9
1,4 89‐91 0,39‐1,9 0,8‐4,4 3,9‐24,4 3,9‐6,6 3,2‐24,6 3,2‐4,8 3,8‐4,2
1,5 67 1,3‐2,0 1,3‐2,0 4,1‐6,0 7,1‐7,2 4,1‐6,0 6,0‐6,1 2,2
1,8 65‐122 0,28‐9,2 0,8‐8,0 4,0‐21,7 4,0‐28,3 4,0‐13,2 4,0‐22,2 2,1‐21,4
1,9 84 3,1 3,9 4,8 22,0 5,3 13,2 4,4
3,6 133 0,58 6,3 21,7 28,3 5,2 5,2 20,5
4,0 120 2,7 6,8 21,7 28,2 6,4 10,8 14,3
4,2 67 38,0 14,4 29,7 33,5 29,7 29,7 3,2
4,5 105‐109 5,6 7,3 21,7 28,3 8,1‐8,6 13,0‐31,8 10,9‐14,5
5,0 91 14,0 8,4 29,6 29,6 19,6 19,6 7,4
5,3 67 2,6‐48,0 0,8‐14,4 9,7‐38,1 9,7‐41,9 9,7‐38,1 9,7‐38,1 3,6
5,5 96 1,1 0,8 9,7 9,7 5,2 5,2 7,5
5,6 99 9,6 8,2 29,6 29,6 13,0 13,0 7,4
9,0 67 20,0 3,5 29,5 29,5 29,5 29,5 5,4
11,6 67 25,0 3,5 29,6 29,6 29,6 29,6 4,9
14,0 67 31,0 3,4 29,7 29,7 29,7 29,7 4,5
a A: Base Ceramic Width; B: Base Ceramic Length; C: Top Ceramic Width; D: Top Ceramic Length; E: Cooler
Thickness.
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5.4.2.5 Attachment
Mounting methods include:
CLAMPING: It has been described in clause 4.5.1.6 for thermoelectric heaters.
SOLDERING: Using 390 K solder or 369 K solder. Full face metallizationis needed for
solder mounting.
EPOXY: Hardening epoxy is used for permanent thermal interfaces.
COMPRESSION: Non‐hardening thermal grease is used for compression thermal
interfaces.
5.4.3 Melcor
5.4.3.1 Manufacturer
Materials Electronic Product Corp.
994 Spruce St.
Trenton, NJ 08648
U.S.A.
TEL: 609 393‐4178
FAX: 609 393‐9461
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Type TL: Hybrid, hot face tinned, cold face lapped.
Special heat pump assemblies designed to particular specifications can be supplied, with features such
as integral heat exchangers or multi‐stage cascaded thermoelectric modules with ceramic construction
with solder interfacing between stages.
Table 5‐2: MELCOR Thermoelectric Heat Pump Module Specifications. FC Series.
From MELCOR (1987) [4]
Imax Tmax Qmax Vmax N a Dimensions b x 103 [m]
[A] [K] [W] [V]
A B C D
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Table 5‐3: MELCOR Thermoelectric Heat Pump Module Specifications. CP Series.
From MELCOR (1987) [4]
Imax Tmax Qmax Vmax N a Dimensions b x 103 [m]
[A]
[K] [W] [V]
A B C D
Figure 5‐7: MELCOR Thermoelectric Heat Pump Module configurations. From
MELCOR (1987) [4]
5.4.3.5 Attachment
No data available.
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5.4.3.6 Leads and/or wires
Wire standards appear in Table 5‐4.
Table 5‐4: MELCOR Wire Standards. From MELCOR (1987) [4]
Module Type Wire Gauge (AWG) Length x 103 [m] Insulation
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Bibliography
[1] Chapter, J.J., Johnsen, G.W., ʺThermoelectric Device Application to Spacecraft Thermal
Controlʺ, AIAA Paper No. 73‐722, AIAA 8th Thermophysics Conference, Palm Spring,
California / July 16‐18, 1973.
[2] ISOPAD, ʺThe Industrial Electroheat Technologistsʺ, Isopad Limited, Hertfordshire, 1990.
[3] MARLOW, ʺThermoelectric Productsʺ, Marlow Industries, Inc., Dallas, 1988.
[4] MELCOR, ʺSolid State Cooling with Thermoelectricsʺ, Materials Electronic Product
Corp., Trenton EEM 1987.
[5] MINCO, ʺThermofoil Heatersʺ, Bulletin TF‐4, Minneapolis, 1973.
[6] MINCO, ʺEstimating Power Requirements of Thermofoil Heatersʺ, Application Aid No.
21, Minneapolis, 1989.
[7] MINCO, ʺRecommended Adhesives for Thermofoil Heater Installationiʺ, Application Aid
No. 22, Minneapolis, 1989.
[8] MINCO, ʺThermofoil Heatersʺ, Bulletin HS‐201, Minneapolis, 1989.
[9] Reeves, E.I., ʺFLTSATCOM ‐ Case Study in Spacecraft Designʺ, AIAA Professional Study
Series. AIAA Educational Programs, New York, Aug. 1979.
[10] Scott, A.W., ʺCooling of Electronic Equipmentʺ, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1974,
Chap. 8, pp. 215‐227.
[11] Taylor, C.H., ʺPrecise Touches of Warmth in Cold Spaceʺ, Aerospace America, Vol. 22,
No. 10, Oct. 1984, pp. 28 & 31.
[12] Tracey, T.R., Morey, T.F., Gorman, D.N., ʺThermal Design of the Viking Lander Capsuleʺ,
AIAA Paper No. 74‐78, AIAA 12th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Washington, D.C., Jan. 30
‐ Feb. 1, 1974.
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