A i r c r a f t M a i n t e n a c e L i c e n c e T r a i n i n g

MODULE 2

PHYSICS

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New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms

INTRODUCTION
of other sciences, while opening new avenues of research in
Physics (from Greek φυσική - "knowledge of nature") is the
areas such as mathematics and philosophy.
natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion
through space and time, along with related concepts such as
Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in
energy and force.
new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs.

More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in

For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism
order to understand how the universe behaves.
or nuclear physics led directly to the development of new
products which have dramatically transformed modern-day
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the
society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances, and
oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.
nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the
development of industrialization; and advances in mechanics
Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural
inspired the development of calculus.
philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of
mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in
the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique
research programs in their own right.

Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research,

such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries
of physics are not rigidly defined.

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In this module you will be studying the following areas:

SECTION AREA OF PHYSICS EXAMINED

2.1 Matter

2.2 Mechanics

2.2.1 Static

2.2.2 Kinetics

2.2.3 Dynamics

2.2.4 Fluid Dynamics

2.3 Thermodynamics

2.4 Optics

2.5 Wave Motion and Sound

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.1

Matter

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Halogens ................................................................... 16
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Melting point and boiling point .................................. 16
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3
State at room temperature ....................................... 16
Section 2.1 – Matter ............................................................. 5
Colour .................................................................... 16

Reactions of halogens .............................................. 16

The nature of matter ......................................................... 5
Uses of halogens ..................................................... 17
Constituents Of An Atom .................................................... 7
Noble gases............................................................... 18
Atomic structure ............................................................. 9
Boiling point ........................................................... 18
Isotopes .......................................................................10
Density .................................................................. 18
Isotopes of chlorine..................................................... 10
Transition metals ....................................................... 20
Isotopes of hydrogen .................................................. 10
Common properties ................................................. 20
Relative atomic mass ..................................................... 11

Relative formula mass ................................................. 11

Electron Shells .............................................................. 21
The modern periodic table .............................................. 12
The Valency Shell ......................................................... 23
Alkali metals ..............................................................14
Electron Orbitals ........................................................... 25
Melting point ........................................................... 14
Electron Energy Levels .................................................. 27
Boiling point ............................................................ 14

Density ...................................................................14

Hardness ................................................................14

Reactions of alkali metals .......................................... 15

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Elements and compounds .................................................. 29 Thermosoftening polymers ....................................... 44

Symbols and formulae ................................................... 30 Thermosetting polymers........................................... 44

Formulae ...................................................................30

Brackets .................................................................31 Ionic Bonds .................................................................. 45

Displayed formulas ........................................................ 32 Melting points and boiling points .................................. 45

Constructing formulae .................................................... 33 Conduction of electricity .............................................. 45

Equations ..................................................................33 Ionic bonding in sodium chloride .................................. 46

Chemical equations .................................................. 34

Balancing equations ................................................. 34 Metallic Bonds .............................................................. 48

Alloys ....................................................................... 51

Atomic Bonds...................................................................37 Layers ................................................................... 51

Covalent Bonds ............................................................. 40

Simple molecules ........................................................ 40 Bonding Summary ........................................................ 52

Properties of simple molecular substances................... 40

Macromolecules .......................................................... 42

Diamond .................................................................42

Graphite .................................................................42

Silica ......................................................................42

Polymers ...................................................................43

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An element is a substance that cannot be separated into

SECTION 2.1 – MATTER
different substances except by nuclear disintegration.

THE NATURE OF MATTER Common elements are iron, oxygen, aluminium, hydrogen,
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space; hence copper, lead, gold, silver, and so on. The smallest division of any
everything that we can see and feel constitutes matter. If a of these elements will still have the properties of that element.
quantity of a common substance, such as water, is divided in
half, and the half is then divided, and the resulting quarter A compound is a chemical combination of two or more
divided, and so on, a point will be reached where any further different elements, and the smallest possible particle of a
division will change the nature of the water and turn it into compound is a molecule. For example, a molecule of water (H2O)
something else. consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

The smallest particle into which any compound can be divided

and still retain its identity is called a molecule.

If a molecule of a substance is divided, it will be found to consist

of particles called atoms.

An atom is the smallest possible particle of an element.

There are more than 100 recognised elements, several of which

have been artificially created from various radioactive elements. Figure 1 - Example of a compound (Water: H2O)

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Figure 2 - Diagram showing different arrangements of matter

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CONSTITUENTS OF AN ATOM
A proton weighs approximately 1,836 times as much as an
It has been found that an atom consists of infinitesimal particles
electron and that a neutron has the roughly the same weight as a
known as electrons, protons, and neutrons. All matter consists of
proton.
one or more of these basic components.

An atom carries two opposite charges - a positive charge in the

The simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which has one electron
nucleus, and a negative charge in each electron.
and one proton.

In a neutrally charged atom, the charges carried by the electrons

The path of an electron around the nucleus of an atom describes
and the protons are equal but opposite in nature; thus an atom
an imaginary sphere or shell.
which has an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically
neutral.
Hydrogen and helium atoms have only one shell, but the more
complex atoms have numerous shells.
The charge carried by the electrons is balanced by the charge
carried by the protons.
Oxygen has eight protons, eight neutrons, and eight electrons.

In some atoms the number of protons and electrons in the atom

The protons and neutrons form the nucleus of the atom;
are different.
electrons revolve around the nucleus in orbits varying in shape
from an ellipse to a circle and may be compared to the planets as
This difference in the number of positive and negative charges
they move around the sun.
present in the atom produces a resultant charge and so we call
that atom an ion.
A positive charge is carried by each proton, no charge is carried
by the neutrons, and a negative charge is carried by each
electron.
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If there are more positive charges (protons) than negative

charges (electrons) then we call the atom a positive ion.

Conversely, if there are more negative charges (electrons) than

positive charges (protons) we call this a negative ion.

Neutron Electron

Proton
Figure 4 - Example of ions

Figure 4 - Example of a neutrally charged atom

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE The elements are arranged in the Periodic Table in ascending
Every atom is made of a nucleus consisting of protons and order of atomic number so it's easy to find the name or symbol
neutrons. for an atom if you know the atomic number.

The nucleus is surrounded by electrons. Most elements exist in a number of different forms or varieties
called isotopes.
Protons and electrons are oppositely charged. Neutrons have no
charge. This means the nucleus of an atom is always positively Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers
charged. of neutrons, which gives them a different total mass.

An atom has a neutral overall charge because it has the same That means isotopes of an element have the same atomic
number of electrons as protons. number but different mass numbers.

Protons and neutrons have the same mass.

Electrons have such a small mass that this can usually be taken
as zero.

The atomic number (also called the proton number) is the

number of protons in an atom.

The mass number (also called the nucleon number) is the total
number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
Figure 5 - Diagram of atomic structure

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ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms of an element with the normal number of

protons and electrons, but different numbers of neutrons.

Isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass

numbers.

The different isotopes of an element have identical chemical

properties. However, some isotopes are radioactive.

ISOTOPES OF CHLORINE
Chlorine atoms contain 17 protons and 17 electrons.

About 75 per cent of chlorine atoms have 18 neutrons, while

about 25 per cent have 20 neutrons.

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN
Most hydrogen atoms consist of just one proton and one electron,
but some also have one or two neutrons.

Figure 6 - Isotopes of hydrogen

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RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

Different atoms have different masses. Atoms have such a small Example 2:Find the Mr of sodium oxide (Na2O).
mass it is more convenient to know their masses compared to
each other. The Ar of sodium is 23 and the Ar of oxygen is 16.
So the Mr of sodium oxide is (23 x 2) + 16 = 62.
Carbon is taken as the standard atom and has a relative atomic
mass (Ar) of 12. The relative formula mass of a substance, shown in grams, is
called one mole of that substance.
Atoms with an Ar of less than this have a smaller mass than a
carbon atom. So one mole of carbon monoxide has a mass of 28g, and one
mole of sodium oxide has a mass of 62g.
Atoms with an Ar which is more than this have a larger mass than
a carbon atom.
Chlorine's Ar of 35.5 is an average of the masses of the different
isotopes of chlorine.

RELATIVE FORMULA MASS

To find the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound, you just
add together the Ar values for all the atoms in its formula.

Example 1: Find the Mr of carbon monoxide (CO).

The Ar of carbon is 12 and the Ar of oxygen is 16.

So the Mr of carbon monoxide is 12 + 16 = 28.
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THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE Using atomic number instead of atomic mass as the organising
Russian chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev, made a major breakthrough principle was first proposed by the British chemist Henry Moseley
when it came to discovering a sensible order for the elements. He in 1913.
arranged them in a table according to their mass.
It solved anomalies like the example of iodine and tellurium.
Mendeleev's table needed one important modification before it
became the modern periodic table – the use of atomic number to Iodine has a higher atomic number than tellurium, so even
order the elements. though he didn't know why, Mendeleev was right to place it after
tellurium after all.
All atoms of the same element contain the same number of
particles called protons, and this is called the element's atomic
number.

Mendeleev put the elements in order of their relative atomic

mass, and this gave him some problems.

For example, iodine has a lower relative atomic mass than

tellurium, so it should come before tellurium in Mendeleev's table.

In order to get iodine in the same group as other elements with

similar properties such as fluorine, chlorine and bromine, he had
to put it after tellurium, so breaking his own rules.

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Figure 7 - the Periodic Table

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The periodic table contains elements collected into groups with DENSITY
similar properties.
The density of a substance is a measure of how much mass it
Alkali metals are reactive, soft metals with low densities. has for its size.

Transition metals are unreactive metals that have many have

everyday uses. It is measured in grams/cubic centimetre.

Halogens are reactive non-metals that form coloured vapours.

For example gold and lead are very dense metals - even a small
Noble gases are all unreactive non-metals.
lump of either of them can still feel heavy.
ALKALI METALS
The alkali metals show trends in physical properties down the The alkali metals have low densities compared to most other
group.
metals (they feel lighter).
MELTING POINT
The alkali metals have low melting and boiling points The densities then generally increase as you go down the group.
compared to most other metals. Apart from the other alkali
metals, only three metals (indium, gallium and mercury) have HARDNESS
lower melting points than lithium. The alkali metals are very soft. Lithium is the hardest alkali
metal and they become softer as you go down the group.
BOILING POINT
The boiling points of these alkali metals show a similar pattern to
the melting points.

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REACTIONS OF ALKALI METALS

All alkali metals react vigorously with cold water. In each
reaction, hydrogen gas is given off and the metal hydroxide is
produced.

The speed and violence of the reaction increases as you go down

the group.

This shows that the reactivity of the alkali metals increases as

you go down group 1.
Figure 8 - Alkali metal density

Figure 9 - Alkali metal melting points

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HALOGENS Astatine is below iodine in Group 7. The colour of these elements

The halogens show trends in physical properties down the group. gets darker as you go down the group. Iodine is purple, and, as
we would expect, astatine is black.
MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINT
The halogens have low melting points and boiling points. This is a REACTIONS OF HALOGENS
typical property of non-metals. Fluorine has the lowest melting The halogens become less reactive as you go down the group.
point and boiling point.
Fluorine, at the top of the group, is the most reactive halogen. It
The melting points and boiling points then increase as you go is extremely dangerous, causing severe chemical burns on
down the group. contact with skin.

STATE AT ROOM TEMPERATURE All halogens form acidic solutions.

Room temperature is usually taken as being 25°C. At this
temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid,
and iodine and astatine are solids.

There is therefore a trend in state from gas to liquid to solid down

the group.

COLOUR
The halogens become darker as you go down the group. Fluorine
is very pale yellow, chlorine is yellow-green, and bromine is red-
brown. Iodine crystals are shiny purple - but easily turn into a
dark purple vapour when they are warmed up.

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USES OF HALOGENS
Halogens are bleaching agents. They will remove the colour of
dyes.

Chlorine is used to bleach wood pulp to make white paper.

Halogens kill bacteria. Chlorine is added to drinking water at very

low concentrations. This kills any harmful bacteria in the water,
making it safe to drink. Chlorine is also added to the
water in swimming pools.

It is very important to take care when using the

halogens because they are very reactive and poisonous.
Chlorine is used only in a fume cupboard.

Iodine should not be handled unless gloves and goggles

are worn.

Figure 10 - Halogen melting and boiling points

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NOBLE GASES DENSITY

The elements in group 0 are called the noble gases. They belong The density of a substance is a measure of how heavy it is for its
to the right-hand column in the periodic table. size.

The noble gases are all chemically unreactive which means they The particles in gases are spread far apart, so gases have low
are inert. densities.

The noble gases have the following properties in common: The densities then increase as you go down the group. Radon, at
• They are non-metals the bottom of the group, is the densest gas known (1 g/dm3 =
• They are very unreactive gases 0.001 g/cm3).
• They are colourless
• They exist as single atoms (they are monatomic)

BOILING POINT
The noble gases all have low boiling points. This is a typical
property of non-metals.

The boiling points then increase as you go down the group.

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Figure 12 - Density of noble gases

Figure 11 - Boiling points of noble gases

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TRANSITION METALS
The elements in the centre of the periodic table, between groups
2 and 3, are called the transition metals.

Most of the commonly used metals are there, including iron,

copper, silver and gold.

COMMON PROPERTIES
The transition metals have the following properties in common:
• They form coloured compounds
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity
• They can be hammered or bent into shape easily
• They are less reactive than alkali metals such as sodium
• They have high melting points - but mercury is a liquid at
room temperature
• They are usually hard and tough
• They have high densities

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ELECTRON SHELLS The size of an atom as a whole is the volume enclosed by its
According to the Bohr’s atomic model, the electrons revolve outermost electron shell.
around the nucleus in certain orbits. The nucleus, in which the greater part of the mass is
concentrated, is a mere speck whose diameter is only about
These electrons are distributed in various orbits according to a 1/10,000 to 1/100,000 of that of the whole atom.
scheme proposed by Bohr and Bury.
The electrons are of almost negligible mass, since each one has a
According to the size of the atom, it can have up to seven distinct mass only 1/1836 of that of a proton (hydrogen nucleus).
shells of different radii which are designated by the letters K, L,
M, N, O, P and Q. It is obvious, therefore, that an atom contains far more empty
space than solid matter.
There is a limit to the number of electrons that can occupy any
given shell according to the formula,

Maximum number of electrons in shell N = 2N 2

Where N is the number of the shell counting from the nucleus

out.

Hence, the innermost shell (K) cannot hold more than two; the
second is complete when it has eight; the third can hold up to
eighteen electrons, the fourth 32 and so on.

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Figure 14 - Example of electron shells

Figure 13 - Table of electron shell designations

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THE VALENCY SHELL structure, and hence an electric current will flow through them
An atom is, in practice, a very complicated structure. The easily.
outermost orbital electrons – called ‘valency’ electrons, are held
very loosely to the nucleus like a very distant planet may be to The atoms of these elements give up electrons or receive
the sun. electrons in the outer orbits with little difficulty.

Collisions or forces may occur, which result in some electrons An element can be a conductor, a non-conductor (insulator), or a
being driven from their normal orbits and cause them to drift semiconductor, depending upon the number of electrons in the
through the material atomic structure. These are called free outer orbit of the atom, and how far away the valency shell is
electrons. away from the nucleus – the closer the valnce electron is to the
nucleus, the stronger the force holding the electron to it’s atom.
The atomic structure of a substance determines how well the
substance can conduct an electric current.

If the electrons are firmly held in their orbits by the atoms of a

substance then the valency electrons will not move easily, on the
other hand if the electrons are only lightly held by their atoms,
then they will be free to move about in the atomic structure of
the material.

Certain elements, chiefly metals are known as conductors

because the valency electrons are not strongly held to their
atoms and so will move almost freely through the metal’s atomic

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Figure 15 - Example of the valency shell and a valence electron

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ELECTRON ORBITALS What it actually says is that it is impossible to define with

When a planet moves around the sun, you can plot a definite absolute precision, at the same time, both the position and the
path for it which is called an orbit. momentum of an electron.

A simple view of the atom looks similar and you may have That makes it impossible to plot an orbit for an electron around a
pictured the electrons as orbiting around the nucleus. nucleus. Is this a big problem?

The truth is different, and electrons in fact inhabit regions of No. If something is impossible, you have to accept it and find a
space known as orbitals. way around it.

Orbits and orbitals sound similar, but they have quite different Suppose you had a single hydrogen atom and at a particular
meanings. It is essential that you understand the difference instant plotted the position of the one electron.
between them.
Soon afterwards, you do the same thing, and find that it is in a
To plot a path for something you need to know exactly where the new position. You have no idea how it got from the first place to
object is and be able to work out exactly where it's going to be an the second.
instant later. You can't do this for electrons.
You keep on doing this over and over again, and gradually build
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle says - basically that you up a sort of 3D map of the places that the electron is likely to be
can't know with certainty both where an electron is and where it's found.
going next.

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In the hydrogen case, the electron can be found anywhere within

a spherical space surrounding the nucleus. The diagram would
show a cross-section through this spherical space.

95% of the time, the electron will be found within a fairly easily
defined region of space quite close to the nucleus.

Such a region of space is called an orbital. You can think of an

orbital as being the region of space in which the electron lives.

Electrons fill low energy orbitals (closer to the nucleus) before

they fill higher energy ones.

Where there is a choice between orbitals of equal energy, they fill

the orbitals singly as far as possible.

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ELECTRON ENERGY LEVELS

The energy levels, measured in electron volts (eV) in which Crucial to the conduction process is whether or not there are
orbiting electrons exist comply with a law of physics which states electrons in the conduction band.
that energy can be given to electrons only in discrete amounts
(quanta) which means that there are energy values that an In insulators the electrons in the valence band are separated by a
electron cannot acquire. large gap from the conduction band – meaning a lot of energy is
needed to move an electron from its valency band into the
From this it can be deducted that there is a forbidden energy gap conduction band where it becomes a free electron.
between each of the allowed energy bands or orbitals.
In conductors like metals the valence band overlaps the
In order for an electron to ‘jump’ or ‘fall’ from one energy level to conduction band – so almost no energy is need to move an
the next it will need an EXACT amount of energy to do this. electron from its valency band to its conduction band.

The width of the forbidden energy gap between the top of the In semiconductors there is a small enough gap between the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band determine valence and conduction bands that thermal or other excitations
the electrical conducting properties of materials. can bridge the gap and push the electron into the conduction
band and make the semi-conductor conduct.
A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors,
insulators and semiconductors is to plot the available energies
bands for electrons in the materials.

Instead of having discrete energies as in the case of free atoms

such as -13.6eV or -5.3eV, the available energy states form
bands.
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Small gap
between

Atomic
valency band
Orbitals and conduction
band

Semi-Conductor
Large gap
between valency
Overlap band and
between
valency band Atomic conduction band
Atomic
and conduction Orbitals
band
Orbitals

Insulator
Conductor

Conduction
Band

Figure 16 - Example of valency and conduction band locations in conductors, semi- Valency Band
conductors and insulators

Atomic Orbital

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ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS

All matter is made from atoms. Atoms are very, very small.

A molecule is formed when atoms join together by chemical

bonds.

There are over a hundred different types of atom, called

elements. The atoms of a particular element are identical to each
other.

They cannot be changed chemically into any different element.

For example a piece of pure sulfur consists only of sulfur atoms.
No chemical process can break it down into a different substance.

Compounds are substances that contain atoms of at least two

elements chemically combined. For example: magnesium oxide
consists of magnesium atoms and oxygen atoms chemically
bonded together.

At the most elementary level, analysis concerns the separation of

a compound into its component elements, whereas synthesis is
the reverse process of combining elements to form a complex
compound.

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SYMBOLS AND FORMULAE sodium hydrogen carbon sulfur oxygen

Name Formula
Elements are represented by one or two letters. The first letter is atoms atoms atoms atoms atoms
always a capital and the second is always lower case. oxygen O2 2
carbon
CO 1 1
FORMULAE monoxide
Compounds are represented by formulae. Symbols and numbers carbon
CO2 1 2
show the atoms in the compound. dioxide
water H2O 2 1
For example: ZnCO3 is the formula of zinc carbonate. sulfur
SO2 1 2
One zinc atom (Zn) and one carbon atom (C) are chemically dioxide
bonded with three oxygen atoms (O3).
sulfuric
H2SO4 2 1 4
acid
Notice that we don't need to write a 1 next to the Zn or C.
sodium
NaCO3 1 1 3
carbonate
The chemical formula of a compound tells you how many atoms
of each element the molecule contains.
The small 2 after an element tells you there are two atoms of
that particular element in each molecule.
Formulas of some compounds, with the number of atoms of each
element in the molecule
For example, the water molecule H2O has two hydrogen atoms.
Notice that you do not write a number 1 if there is only one atom
of an element in a molecule.

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BRACKETS
Some formulas have brackets in them. For example, sodium
hydroxide is NaOH, but magnesium hydroxide is Mg(OH)2.

The 2 outside the brackets tells you that you have two of each
atom inside the bracket. So in Mg(OH)2 you have one magnesium
atom, two oxygen atoms and two hydrogen atoms.

The table shows some more examples of these formulas.

iron oxygen hydrogen

Name Formula
atoms atoms atoms

iron(III)
Fe(OH)3 1 1×3=3
hydroxide
iron(II) nitrate Fe(NO3)2 1 1×2=2 3×2=6

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DISPLAYED FORMULAS You should be able to write the molecular formula of a compound
A chemical formula, such as H2O, shows the number and type of when given its displayed formula.
each atom in a molecule. A displayed formula shows more
information. Compare each displayed formula in the table above with its
corresponding chemical formula: check that you can see the
In a displayed formula, the symbols for each atom are joined by connection between them.
straight lines. Each line represents a covalent bond (a shared pair
of electrons).

The table shows some examples of displayed formulas:

Chemical Displayed Molecular
Substance
formula formula model

hydrogen H2

water H2O

ammonia NH3

methane CH4

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CONSTRUCTING FORMULAE
The formula of a compound can usually be deduced if the ions in
it are known. For example, the compound formed from Na+ and
SO42- will consist of two Na+ ions to every one SO42- ion so that
the compound is neutral overall. The formula is therefore Na2SO4.

EQUATIONS
When the atoms in elements or compounds rearrange themselves
to form new substances it's called a chemical reaction.

The atoms are rearranged but no atoms are lost or made.

Chemical reactions are written down as chemical equations.

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CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Don't be tempted to change the formulae of any of the

A chemical equation shows the reactants changing into substances involved.
products.
What is the equation for the above reaction?
Reactants → products
The substances involved are copper atoms (Cu), oxygen
For example, when copper is heated in the air it reacts with the molecules in the air (O2) and molecules of copper oxide (CuO).
oxygen to form a new substance, called copper oxide. This can
be written: If we use them to write the equation it might not be balanced. It
would look like this:
copper + oxygen → copper oxide
Cu + O2 → CuO
Copper and oxygen are the reactants. Copper oxide is the
product. But that is not a balanced equation. This cannot be completely
correct because there are two atoms of oxygen on the left and
BALANCING EQUATIONS only one on the right.
This is not the whole story. A chemical equation needs to show
where all the atoms in the products have come from. It also One atom of oxygen is unaccounted for.
needs to account for all the atoms in all of the reactants.
We balance it by thinking about the atoms and molecules
To balance the equation, adjust the number of atoms or involved. Two atoms of copper are needed for every molecule of
molecules until there are the same numbers of each type of atom oxygen.
on both sides of the equation.

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Two atoms of copper react with two atoms of oxygen to form two
molecules of copper oxide, so the balanced equation is:

2Cu + O2 → 2CuO

Figure 17 - Balance chemical reaction

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Example: write the balanced equation for the reaction between

hydrogen and oxygen to produce water.

Step 1
Write the formulae for each substance:

H2 + O2 → H2O

Step 2
Check for an unbalanced element, for example, O. Adjust the
number of each atom or molecule needed, but never change a
formula. We need two O atoms on each side:

H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Step 3
Check for another unbalanced element. In this example, there
are 2 H atoms on the left and 2 × 2 = 4 atoms on the right. So
we need to double the number of hydrogen molecules:

2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

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ATOMIC BONDS Recall that electrons are negatively charged particles, so a chance
meeting between atoms usually results in the two repelling each
Atoms are the building blocks of all substances. But what is it
other.
that keeps atoms connected together?

Occasionally, however, atoms will stick together by forming a

They are held together by CHEMICAL BONDS, strong attractive
chemical bond.
forces between atoms. Without these ties that bind, the universe
would be nothing more than a mass chaos of individual atoms.

So what constitutes a chemical bond?

A bond is formed when electrons from two atoms interact with

each other and their atoms become joined.

The electrons that interact with each other are VALENCE

ELECTRONS, the ones that reside in the outermost electron shell
of an atom.

As you sit reading this sentence, billions of atoms surround you.

When any two of them approach each other, their outermost
electrons come into close contact.

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There are two main types of bonding: The chemical bonding that takes place in NaCl is different than
• A COVALENT BOND results when two atoms "share" that in HCl. This gives NaCl and HCl very different structures,
valence electrons between them. appearances, and properties.
• An IONIC BOND occurs when one atom gains a valence
electron from a different atom, forming a negative ion
(ANION) and a positive ion (CATION), respectively.
These oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other,
forming an ionic bond.

Why are chemical bonds important?

The type of chemical bond that occurs in a molecule or substance

in part defines its properties.

For example, consider sodium chloride (NaCl) and hydrogen

chloride(HCl).

Both substances contain chlorine, but NaCl is the white solid

crystalline substance sprinkled on French fries, and HCl is a foul
smelling gas.

How can this be if both materials have chlorine in them?

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What other differences are noticeable among molecules that As the name implies, metallic bonding usually occurs in metals,
result from different types of chemical bonding? such as copper.

Think about what happens when a bunch of sodium and chlorine A piece of copper metal has a certain arrangement of copper
ions join together to form rock salt. atoms. The valence electrons of these atoms are free to move
about the piece of metal and are attracted to the positive cores of
If we hit this with a hammer, it shatters into tiny pieces. It does copper, thus holding the atoms together.
this because the bonds between the atoms in rock salt are ionic.
Essential to understanding all types of chemical bonding is
The particles are arranged in such a way that they line up along realizing that all bonds use electron "glue."
rows of positive and negative charge. Under enough stress, the
salt crystals break along those lines into much smaller pieces. Every substance is made up of atoms, and all atoms are
surrounded by the charged particles called electrons.
The bonds that hold the carbon and hydrogen atoms in rubber
together, on the other hand, are not ionic but covalent. Each Electrons in the outermost shell can and do bond with those of
carbon atom shares four of its outermost electrons with its other atoms to create everything from quartz and quarters to
immediate neighbour’s. plastic and pennies.

Under stress, the bonds stretch, and then snap back as each In large part, the difference between materials as diverse as
atom pulls on the shared electrons. And that's the way the ball diamonds and pencils is how they're glued together.
bounces.

There is a third type of bonding, called METALLIC BONDING.

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COVALENT BONDS Hydrogen, ammonia, methane and water are also simple
Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms. molecules with covalent bonds.

Each bond consists of a shared pair of electrons, and is very All have very strong bonds between the atoms, but much
strong. Covalently bonded substances fall into two main types: weaker forces holding the molecules together.
• Simple molecules
• Giant covalent structures When one of these substances melts or boils, it is these weak
'intermolecular forces' that break, not the strong covalent bonds.
SIMPLE MOLECULES Simple molecular substances are gases, liquids or solids with low
These contain only a few atoms held together by strong covalent melting and boiling points.
bonds. An example is carbon dioxide (CO2), the molecules of
which contain one atom of carbon bonded with two atoms of
oxygen.

PROPERTIES OF SIMPLE MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES

Low melting and boiling points - This is because the weak
intermolecular forces break down easily.
Non-conductive - Substances with a simple molecular structure
do not conduct electricity. This is because they do not have any
free electrons or an overall electric charge.

Figure 18 - illustration of formation of simple covalent bonds

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Take a look at water (H2O). H2O is a MOLECULE, a discrete unit Another component of air is nitrogen. Like oxygen, nitrogen does
of atoms that are bonded together. not exist as a single nitrogen atom, but as a molecule made up of
two nitrogen atoms. The two nitrogen atoms in a molecule of
A molecule of water consists of an oxygen atom that is bonded to nitrogen share three pairs of valence electrons (six valence
two hydrogen atoms. A hydrogen atom and the oxygen atom electrons total) to form a TRIPLE COVALENT BOND.
each donate one valence electron to form a chemical bond.

These two valence electrons forming the bond are shared by

both atoms, resulting in a SINGLE COVALENT BOND.

Think of this in terms of two pieces of wood that are nailed

together. The pieces of wood are the atoms, and the nails
holding them together are the electrons that form the
covalent bond. Each piece of wood shares a portion of the
nails.

Air, too, contains oxygen. Oxygen does not exist as a single

oxygen atom, but as a molecule of two oxygen atoms. These
two oxygen atoms share two pairs of valence electrons (four
valence electrons total) between them, forming a DOUBLE
COVALENT BOND. This is true of any double covalent bond;
four valence electrons are shared between two atoms. Figure 19 - Example of covalent bonding between oxygen and hydrogen

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MACROMOLECULES makes graphite much softer than diamond. It is used in pencils

Macromolecules have giant covalent structures. They contain a lot and as a lubricant. Graphite conducts electricity.
of non-metal atoms, each joined to adjacent atoms by covalent
bonds. SILICA
Silica, which is found in sand, has a similar structure to diamond.
Their atoms are arranged into giant lattices, which are strong It is also hard and has a high melting point. However, it contains
structures because of the many bonds involved. silicon and oxygen atoms instead of carbon atoms

Substances with giant covalent structures have very high melting

points, because a lot of strong covalent bonds must be broken.
Graphite, for example, has a melting point of more than 3,600°C.

DIAMOND
Diamond is a form of carbon in which each carbon atom is
joined to four other carbon atoms, forming a giant covalent
structure. As a result, diamond is very hard and has a high
melting point. It does not conduct electricity.

GRAPHITE
Graphite is a form of carbon in which the carbon atoms form
layers. Each carbon atom in a layer is joined to only three
other carbon atoms.The layers can slide over each other Figure 20 - illustration of macromolecule structures

because there are no covalent bonds between them. This

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POLYMERS
Polymers have properties which depend on the chemicals they
are made from, and the conditions in which they are made. For
example, poly(ethene) can be low-density or high-density
depending upon the catalyst and reaction condition used to make
it. The table summarises some differences in their properties:

LDPE low-
HDPE high-density
density
poly(ethene)
poly(ethene)
Branches on
polymer Many Few
molecules
Relative
Weak Strong
strength
Maximum
useable 85°C 120°C
temperature

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THERMOSOFTENING POLYMERS
Thermosoftening polymers soften when heated and can be
shaped when hot.

The shape will harden when it is cooled, but can be reshaped

when heated up again. Poly(ethene) is a thermosoftening
polymer.

Its tangled polymer chains can uncoil and slide past each other,
making it a flexible material.

THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
Thermosetting polymers have different properties to
thermosoftening polymers.

Once moulded, they do not soften when heated and they

cannot be reshaped. Vulcanised rubber is a thermoset
used to make tyres.

Its polymer chains are joined together by cross-links, so

they cannot slide past each other easily.
Figure 21 - illustration of polymer bonds

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IONIC BONDS
Ionic bonds form when a metal reacts with a non-metal. Metals
form positive ions, while non-metals form negative ions. Ionic
bonds are the electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely
charged ions.

MELTING POINTS AND BOILING POINTS

Ionic bonds are very strong so a lot of energy is needed to break
them. Ionic compounds contain many of these strong bonds so
they have high melting and boiling points.

CONDUCTION OF ELECTRICITY
Ionic compounds conduct electricity when they are dissolved in
water or when they are melted. This is because their ions are free
to move and carry the current.

However, ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when they

are solid. This is because their ions cannot move around in their
lattice structure.

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IONIC BONDING IN SODIUM CHLORIDE

Sodium (2, 8, 1) has 1 electron more than a stable noble gas The chlorine has gained an electron, so it now has one more
structure (2, 8). If it gave away that electron it would become electron than proton. It therefore has a charge of 1-. If electrons
more stable. are gained by an atom, negative ions are formed.

Chlorine (2, 8, 7) has 1 electron short of a stable noble gas A negative ion is sometimes called an ANION.
structure (2, 8, 8). If it could gain an electron from somewhere it
too would become more stable. The sodium ions and chloride ions are held together by the strong
electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative
The answer is obvious. If a sodium atom gives an electron to a charges.
chlorine atom, both become more stable.

As can be seen, the sodium has lost an electron, so it no longer

has equal numbers of electrons and protons.

Because it has one more proton than electron, it has a charge of

1+. If electrons are lost from an atom, positive ions are formed.

The sodium has lost an electron, so it no longer has equal

numbers of electrons and protons. Because it has one more
proton than electron, it has a charge of 1+. If electrons are lost
from an atom, positive ions are formed.

Positive ions are sometimes called CATIONS.

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Figure 23 - Example of the formation of Cations and Anions

Figure 22 - Example of Ionic bonding between Sodium and Chloride

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METALLIC BONDS
Metals are malleable - they can be bent and shaped. This is
because they consist of layers of atoms.

These layers can slide over one another when the metal is bent,
hammered or pressed.

The simplest description of the bonding in metals consists of a

lattice of metal cations in a sea of electrons.

Metals tend to have high melting points and boiling points

suggesting strong bonds between the atoms.

Even a metal like sodium (melting point 97.8°C) melts at a

considerably higher temperature than the element (neon) which
precedes it in the Periodic Table.

Figure 24 - illustration of metal atoms sliding over

each other

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Sodium has the electronic structure (2, 8, 1). When sodium The metal is held together by the strong forces of attraction
atoms come together, the electrons in the valency shell of one between the positive nuclei and the delocalised electrons.
sodium atom shares space with the corresponding electron on a
neighbouring atom to form a molecular orbital - in much the
same sort of way that a covalent bond is formed.

The difference, however, is that each sodium atom is being

touched by eight other sodium atoms - and the sharing occurs
between the central atom and the valency shells on all of the
eight other atoms. And each of these eight is in turn being
touched by eight sodium atoms, which in turn are touched by
eight atoms - and so on and so on, until you have taken in all the
atoms in that lump of sodium.

All of the valency shells on all of the atoms overlap to give a vast
number of molecular orbitals which extend over the whole piece
of metal. There have to be huge numbers of shells, of course,
because any shells can only hold two electrons.

The electrons can move freely within these valency shells, and so
each electron becomes detached from its parent atom. The
electrons are said to be DELOCALISED.

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Figure 25 - Example of metallic bonding

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ALLOYS
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements, where at least one
element is a metal. Many alloys are mixtures of two or more
metals.

LAYERS
Alloys contain atoms of different sizes. These different sizes
distort the regular arrangements of atoms. This makes it more
difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are
harder than the pure metal.

It is more difficult for layers of atoms to slide over each other in

alloys

Copper, gold and aluminium are too soft for many uses.

They are mixed with other metals to make them harder for
everyday use. For example:
• Brass - used in electrical fittings - is 70 per cent copper
and 30 per cent zinc
• 18-carat gold - used in jewellery - is 75 per cent gold and Figure 26 - illustration of alloy metallic atomic layout
25 per cent copper and other metals
• Duralumin - used in aircraft manufacture - is 96 per cent
aluminium and 4 per cent copper and other metals

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BONDING SUMMARY

Type of bond Ionic Simple covalent Giant covalent Metallic

Shared pair of electrons Formed between metals.

How the bond is Ions formed between a Shared pair of electrons
between non-metals Has a 'sea' of delocalised
formed? metal and a non-metal between non-metals
forming a giant structure electrons

Example Sodium chloride Bromine, water Diamond Copper

Diagram

Melting and Usually high - except

High Low High
boiling points mercury

Solubility Many dissolve Some dissolve Insoluble Insoluble

Conducts as a liquid or in Most do not conduct except

Conductivity of Conducts as a solid or a
solution. Does not conduct Do not conduct graphite and buckminster-
electricity liquid
as a solid fullerene

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.2.1

Statics

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Intentionally Blank

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Reaction Forces ............................................................... 16

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Point Loads .................................................................. 16
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3
Reaction Forces - WORKED EXAMPLE ............................ 17
Section 2.2.1 – statics .......................................................... 5

Definitions of terms used in statics ...................................... 6

Calculating centre of gravity.............................................. 20
Non concurrent coplanar force systems ................................ 7
Centre of gravity - WORKED EXAMPLE .......................... 21
Concurrent Forces .......................................................... 7

Non – concurrent ............................................................ 7

Loaded Components......................................................... 23
Non - concurrent coplanar ............................................... 7
Static Forces & Structures .............................................. 23

Hooke's Law ................................................................. 25

Forces As Vectors .............................................................. 8
The spring constant .................................................... 26
Vector Addition And Subtraction ......................................... 10
Direct Stress (σ) ........................................................... 27
Resolution of Forces ....................................................... 11
Ultimate Tensile Stress ............................................... 27
Moments Of Force.......................................................... 12
Direct Strain (ε) ............................................................ 28
Moments of Force - WORKED EXAMPLE ......................... 13
Safety Factors .............................................................. 29

Stress & Strain - WORKED EXAMPLE............................. 30

Static Equilibrium ............................................................. 14
Modulus of Elasticity (E) ................................................ 31
Static Equilibrium - WORKED EXAMPLE .......................... 15

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Shear Stress (τ) ............................................................ 32 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE .............................................. 51

Shear Strain (γ) ............................................................ 33 Air pressure............................................................... 51

Modulus of Rigidity (G) ................................................... 34 Pressure Measuring Instruments ........................................ 52

Ultimate Shear Stress (τu) .............................................. 35 Piezometer ................................................................... 52

Elastic/Plastic Deformation.............................................. 36 U-tube manometer ..................................................... 53

The Barometer ............................................................. 55

Properties of solids, liquids and gases ................................. 38 Torricelli’s Barometer.................................................. 55

Fortin barometer ........................................................ 57

Fluid pressure ..................................................................41 Aneroid Barometer ..................................................... 59

Laws of fluid pressure .................................................... 41

Gauge and absolute pressures......................................... 42

Pressure in liquids ......................................................... 43

Transmission Of Fluid Pressure ........................................ 45

Hydraulic Rams ............................................................. 46

ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE ............................................... 48

Hydrometer ...............................................................50

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It also holds that the sum of all the forces acting on a body at
SECTION 2.2.1 – STATICS
rest has to be zero (i.e., the forces involved balance one another)
Statics, in physics is the subdivision of mechanics that is
and that there must be no tendency for the forces to turn the
concerned with the forces that act on bodies at rest under
body about any axis.
equilibrium conditions.

These three conditions are independent of one another, and their

Its foundations were laid more than 2,200 years ago by the
expression in mathematical form comprises the equations of
ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes and others while
equilibrium.
studying the force-amplifying properties of simple machines such
as the lever and the axle.

The methods and results of the science of statics have proved

especially useful in designing buildings, bridges, and dams, as
well as cranes and other similar mechanical devices.

To be able to calculate the dimensions of such structures and

machines, architects and engineers must first determine the
forces that act on their interconnected parts.

Statics provides the analytical and graphical procedures needed

to identify and describe these unknown forces.

Statics assumes that the bodies with which it deals are perfectly
rigid.

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DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN STATICS The magnitude of the force exerted on one
kilogram of mass by a 9.80665 m/s2 gravitational
KILOGRAMME
field
DISTANCE A length between two points FORCE

The rate of change of distance in a given time 1 kilogram-force is by definition equal to 9.80665
SPEED
regardless of any change in direction. Newtons

The rate of change of distance moved with time WEIGHT (IN mass x local value of gravity
VELOCITY
in a specified direction. KGF) 9.80665

ACCELERATION A rate of change of velocity

A measure of the amount of matter in the body.

MASS
Mass is independent of gravity.
The weight of a body is the gravitational force
with which the body experiences due to the fact
WEIGHT that it is within a gravitational field

weight = mass x gravity

FORCE mass x acceleration

The SI unit of force that gives a mass of 1

NEWTON kilogram an acceleration of 1m/s2 in the direction
of the applied force.

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NON CONCURRENT COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS

Y
CONCURRENT FORCES
The forces all act at a single point like that illustrated where all
the force acting on the cube pass through the centre.
X

NON – CONCURRENT
The forces do not act at a single point. In this case the cube is
likely to revolve as a result of the moments created. Z

Figure 1 - Non-concurrent forces

NON - CONCURRENT COPLANAR
The force act in different lines but only on one plane, in other
words two dimensions only.
Y

There will be a resultant force and a

resultant moment of force but only in
the plane of the paper. X
X

Z
Figure 3 - Non-concurrent Coplanar forces
Figure 2 - Concurrent forces

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FORCES AS VECTORS
When we use ordinary numbers we can add them, subtract them,
and multiply them and so on, but often there are problems where
the use of ordinary numbers does not work and we need to use
vectors instead.

Consider a weighing scale. If we put a 10 N on the hanger the

instrument shows 10 N.

If we add another 10 N the instrument shows 20 N being the sum

Figure 4 - Weighing scales
of 10 + 10 as we would expect. This is not always the case.

Now consider the following a pulley system. Two 10 N weights

are hung on the hangers, the weighting scales now reads 15 N
not 20 N.

This is because the two weights are no longer pulling in the same
direction but in two different directions.

Clearly when the direction is important, we need a different

Figure 5 - Pulley system
method of adding them together. This is when we need to use
vectors.

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A VECTOR may represent anything that has magnitude (size)

and direction.

If the quantity has magnitude and no direction, it is called a

SCALAR. Examples of scalar properties are temperature and
density. In this module we are only concerned with force.

In order to represent a force as a vector, we draw an arrow with

the length proportional to the force and the direction the same as
the true direction of the force.

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VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

In this module, we are only dealing with forces that act on the same 2
The diagram shows the forces acting on a body, which is called a SPACE
dimensional plane and these are said to be COPLANAR.
DIAGRAM.

When the space diagram applies to only part of a body showing all the
force acting on it, it is called a FREE BODY DIAGRAM. The Fig 6
illustrates how this is applied to a triangular frame (e.g. a roof truss).

When we draw a diagram to enable us to add or subtract vectors, it is

called a VECTOR DIAGRAM as shown in the following examples.

When two forces act at a point, the total force and its true direction are
found by adding the forces as vectors.

We do not add the values of the forces.

To do this we draw the first vector (it

doesn't matter which one) and then
draw the second starting on the tip of
the first.

The new vector which starts at the tail

of the first and ends at the head of the
second is the resultant force vector.
Figure 6 - Example of force diagrams

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RESOLUTION OF FORCES
This is particularly useful when the forces are not vertical and θº 0º 30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º
horizontal.
Sin θ 0 0.5 0.866 1 0.866 0.5 0

Consider a vector of magnitude F at angle θ as shown. Cos θ 1 0.866 0.5 0 -0.5 -0.866 -1

Note that θ is measured anticlockwise from the positive x axis. Figure 7 - Table of sin and cos values

The vertical component of F is called Fy and may be found from

trigonometry as:

Fy= F sin θ

The horizontal component is called F and may be found from

x

trigonometry as:

Fx= F cos θ

We can also use Pythagoras’ theorem to give

𝐹 = 2�𝐹𝑋 + 𝐹𝑌

If we add the vertical and horizontal components we get back to the

original vector as shown. Figure 8 - Resolution of forces

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MOMENTS OF FORCE If the mass is suspended from the far end of the stick, it is very
A moment of a force is the result of multiplying the force by the difficult to hold up.
distance from a given point.
If the mass is suspended from the end close to the hand, it is

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 easy to hold up.

o The weight is the same in both cases but the larger the moment,
The distance must be measured at 90 to the force.
the harder it is to hold it up.
This is referred to as the
The diagram shows a force acting on a body. The moment of the ‘perpendicular distance’
force about point P is:

Force
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹 × 𝑥 Distance (x)

The basic units are Nm.

Often the moment of a force is called Torque but this is more

likely to be used in connection with rotating bodies.

P
The distance x is called the moment arm. Figure 9 - Example of a moment

In order to demonstrate the effect of the moment arm, try

This is referred to as the
suspending a kg mass from a stick and hold it out horizontally.
‘pivot point’

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MOMENTS OF FORCE - WORKED EXAMPLE

If the mass of 1 kg is held 0.5 m from the hand, what is the
moment of force exerted by the hand on the stick? Assume
gravity = 10 ms-2.

SOLUTION

1 kg exerts a gravitational force downwards of:

F=mxa
F = 1 x 10
F = 10N

This acts 0.5 m measured horizontally from the hand.

The moment of force is given by:

Moment = Force x Distance

Moment = (1 x 10) x 0.5
Moment = 5 Nm

In order to hold the stick horizontally, the hand must exert a

moment of 5 N m in the other direction on the stick.

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STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
In other words:
Any mass that does not move has no resulting force or moment
ΣM=0
acting on it. It is said to have STATIC EQUILIBRIUM. This must
mean that:
This is known as D'Alambert's Principle.
• all forces in any given direction add up to zero
• all the turning moments about a given point must add up
An important point is that if a body is in static equilibrium, all the
to zero
force must be concurrent, i.e. they must all act through a

If we only use Cartesian coordinates it follows that: common single point.

• all the vertical forces upwards (+ve) must equal all the
vertical forces downwards (-ve).

In other words:
Σ Fx = 0

• all the horizontal forces to the right (+ve) must equal all
the horizontal forces to the left (-ve)
Σ means ‘sum off’

In other words:
Σ Fy = 0
•
• all the clockwise turning moments (+ve) must equal all the
anticlockwise turning moments (-ve).

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STATIC EQUILIBRIUM - WORKED EXAMPLE Balancing vertical forces, and since the body is not moving
Examine the diagram of a body that is not moving. Apply the horizontally, we have:
rules and determine the values of F1 and F2. Also determine the 100 – F2 = 0
distance Y. Hence:
F2 = 100 N

Now take turning moments about the bottom right hand corner
we can deduce the distance Y.

Remember that the clockwise and anticlockwise moments must

add up to zero and that the forces acting through the point do not
exert any moment.

Figure 10 - Diagram for worked solution C.W. moment is:

F1 x 0.5 = 200 x 0.5 = 100 Nm
SOLUTION

A.C.W. moment is:

Balancing the horizontal forces, and since the body is not moving
F2 y = - 100 y
horizontally, we have:
F1 - 200 = 0
Add and equate to zero:
Hence:
100 - 100y = 0
F1 = 200 N
So:
y=1m

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REACTION FORCES POINT LOADS

A reaction force is the force applied to a beam or other structure A point load is a load or force that acts at a single point on a

when it rests against something, for example the weight of an structure and it is depicted by a single arrow on diagrams.

aircraft pushing down on the undercarriage tyres

The loads are considered to be point loads. The rests are knife
edges or rollers.

We consider that a knife edge pushes upwards vertically with

reaction forces Ra and Rb as shown.

Reactions are solved by applying two simple rules.

A body in equilibrium has no resultant force in any direction.

Σ Fy = 0 and Σ Fx = 0

A body in equilibrium has no resultant turning moment in any

direction.

ΣM = 0

By applying these principles we can solve the reactions.

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REACTION FORCES - WORKED EXAMPLE

The diagram below shows the weights of components placed on a
simple aircraft, and then the diagram is re-drawn to show point
loads.

Calculate the reaction forces for the nose wheel and main wheels
on the hangar floor.

And
Calculate
calculate
this …
this …

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SOLUTION
Let us start by calling the nose wheel reaction RA and the main A.C.M. = 10m x RB
wheel reaction RB. A.C.M. = 10RB

Since the aircraft is no rotating about either the RA (the nose We know that:
wheel) or RB (the main wheels) we know that: C.M. + A.C.M. = 0
So:
ΣM = 0 1000 Nm + (- 10RB) = 0
1000 Nm – 10RB = 0
(the sum of all clockwise + anti-clockwise moments = 0) 1000𝑁𝑚
− = 𝑅𝐵
10𝑚
−100𝑁 = 𝑅𝐵
Since the reaction at that point cannot produce a moment, it is
eliminated from the balance. (Remember clockwise is negative)
Or RB = 100N acting upwards (anti-clockwise)

We now consider both the clockwise moments (C.M.) and anti-

clockwise moments (A.C.M.) about RA (you could choose RB if you
wanted):

C.M. + A.C.M. = 0

C.M. = (4m x 50N) + (8m x 100N)

C.M. = 200Nm + 800Nm
C.M. = 1000 Nm

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Ok so we now know what RB is. There are now 2 ways of 50N + 100N = 150N
calculating RA: Remembering that all these forces MUST add up to zero, and that
• Consider all the moments about RB … essentially do the all the forces going up are NEGATIVE:
same as we have just done, but about RB
• Consider ALL the forces acting up and down, since we 150N – RA – RB = 0
know they must be equal as the aircraft is sitting
stationary on the floor. Re-arranging for RA we obtain:

Let us use the second option as this is the quicker way. 150N – RB = RA

So for the aircraft to be stationary on the floor: We already know that RB = 100N, therefore:

Σ Fy = 0 150N – 100N = RA
50N = RA
(the sum of all the forces going up plus all the forces going down
must equal zero) Or RA = 50N clockwise

So let us first consider all the forces going up:

RA + R B

The forces going down consist of:

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CALCULATING CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of an object is the imaginary point through
Since we are looking for the point at which the centre of gravity
which all the weight of an object is said to act.
(CoG) lies, and since we have already stated that the CoG is the
point through which all weight acts, we now consider the TOTAL
Consider a ruler, it has a given number of atoms in it, each of
moment of the aircraft about a point (usually the aircraft’s datum
those atoms has a mass and hence a weight.
point) as well as the TOTAL weight of the aircraft.

Rather than trying to calculate the turning moment of each

This gives us the formula:
individual atom, it is simpler to calculate the turning moment
produced by the total weight of all the atoms at a given point on
the ruler, this point being the centre of gravity. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝐺 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
We can use our understanding of moments and point loads to
allow us to calculate the centre of gravity of an object. (Remember that weight is a force)

Consider the formula for a moment: Let us now consider an example of who we actually use this.

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Let us re-arrange this for distance:

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

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CENTRE OF GRAVITY - WORKED EXAMPLE

Let us consider the weight readings from weighing a nose wheel
aircraft as in the diagram.

Calculate the centre of gravity of an aircraft that has been

weighed, given the following results:

Position Weight Moment arm

Nose Wheel 100N 1m

L/H Main Wheel 1500N 5m

R/H Main Wheel 1500N 5m

Figure 11 - Diagram of CoG information

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SOLUTION 𝑁𝑂𝑆𝐸 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝐸𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 100𝑁 × 1𝑚

What information do we have? 𝑁𝑂𝑆𝐸 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝐸𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 100𝑁𝑚
• we have the weight from the nose wheel reading
• we have the distance from the nose wheel to the aircraft 𝐿/𝐻 𝑀𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝐸𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 1500𝑁 × 5𝑚
datum (usually found in the AMM) 𝐿/𝐻 𝑀𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝐸𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 7500𝑁𝑚

• we have the weight reading from both of the main

undercarriage 𝑅/𝐻 𝑀𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝐸𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 1500𝑁 × 5𝑚

• we have the longitudinal distance from the main wheels to 𝑅/𝐻 𝑀𝐴𝐼𝑁 𝑊𝐻𝐸𝐸𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 7500𝑁𝑚

the aircraft datum (again found in the AMM)

We can now calculate the TOTAL moment as being:

Since we have both weights (which are just forces) and we have
distances, you should appreciate that we can calculate both of the 𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑀𝑂𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = 100𝑁𝑚 + 7500𝑁𝑚 + 7500 𝑁𝑀

following: 𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 𝑴𝑶𝑴𝑬𝑵𝑻 = 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎

• Total weight
Using the simple formula given above we can now calculate the
• Total moment
distance of the CoG from the datum position:

The total weight is simply calculated by adding together all the

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
weight readings: 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝐺 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑇𝑂𝑇𝐴𝐿 𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇 = 100𝑁 + 1500𝑁 + 1500𝑁

15 100 𝑁𝑚
𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑨𝑳 𝑾𝑬𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻 = 𝟑𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑵 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝐺 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 =
3 100 𝑁
In order to calculate the total moment we must calculate all the
individual moments and then add them up: 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝐺 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟕 𝒎

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LOADED COMPONENTS The force may bend the body in which case both tensile and
compressive forces may occur.
This section is about stress and strain, not only in structures like
beams partly covered in the last section, but also in many other
A structure used to support a bending load is called a BEAM or
engineering components and structures.
JOIST or SPAR.

STATIC FORCES & STRUCTURES

Static forces will deform a body in one or more of the following
manners.

The force may stretch the body, in which case it is called a

TENSILE FORCE.

The force may squeeze the body in which case it is called a Figure 13 - Example of struts and ties

COMPRESSIVE FORCE.

A rod or rope used in a frame designed to take a tensile load is

called a TIE.

If it takes a compressive force it is called a STRUT.

A strut that is thick compared to its length is called a COLUMN.

Figure 12 - Example of a beam or joist

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The force may try to shear the body in which case the force is
called a SHEAR FORCE. A scissors or guillotine produces shear
forces.

The force may twist the body in which case SHEAR FORCES
occur.

A structure that transmits rotation is called a SHAFT and it

experiences TORSION.
Figure 14 - Example of a shear force

Figure 15 - Example of a body experiencing torsion

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HOOKE'S LAW
When an elastic object - such as a spring - is stretched, the
increased length is called its extension. The extension of an
elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied to it:

𝐹 = 𝑘 × 𝑒

Where:
• F is the force in newtons, N
• k is the 'spring constant' in newtons per metre, N/m
• e is the extension in metres, m

This equation works as long as the elastic limit (the limit of

proportionality) is not exceeded.

If a spring is stretched too much, for example, it will not return to

its original length when the load is removed.

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THE SPRING CONSTANT

The spring constant k is different for different objects and
materials.
It is found by carrying out an experiment.

For example, the unloaded length of a spring is measured.

Different numbers of slotted masses are added to the spring and
its new length measured each time. The extension is the new
length minus the unloaded length.

Assuming the limit of proportionality (elastic limit) is not

exceeded, a graph of force against extension produces a
straight line that passes through the origin.

The gradient of the line is the spring constant, k.

The greater the value of k, the stiffer the spring.

Figure 16 - illustration of Hooke's law

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DIRECT STRESS (σ)

When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms. Areas may be calculated in mm2 and units of stress in N/mm2 are
quite acceptable.
The way in which the body deforms depends upon the type of
force applied to it. Since 1 N/mm2 converts to 1 000 000 N/m2 then it follows that 1
N/mm2 is the same as a 1 MPa
A compression force makes the body shorter. A tensile force
makes the body longer. ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS
If a material is stretched until it breaks, the tensile stress has

Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES. reached the absolute limit and this stress level is called the
ultimate tensile stress (𝝈𝑼𝑻𝑺) .

Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts:

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅
𝝈𝑼𝑻𝑺 =
𝑶𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

And has the units N/m2 or Pascals.

The symbol σ is called SIGMA

The fundamental unit of stress is N/m2 and this is called a Pascal.

Figure 17 - Illustration of change in length due to application of a force

This is a small quantity in most fields of engineering so we use

the multiples kPa, MPa and GPa.

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DIRECT STRAIN (ε) Engineers use the abbreviation με (micro strain) to denote this
In each case, a force F produces a deformation x. multiple.

In engineering we usually change this force into stress and the For example a strain of 0.000068 could be written as 68 x 10-6
deformation into strain and we define these as follows. but engineers would write 68 με.

Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length Note that when conducting a British Standard tensile test the
symbols for original area are S0 and for Length is Lo.
𝒙
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 =
𝑳

The symbol ε is called EPSILON

Strain has no units since it is a ratio of the increase in length to

the original length.

Most engineering materials do not stretch very much before they

become damaged so strain values are very small figures.

It is quite normal to change small numbers in to the exponent for

of 10-6.

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SAFETY FACTORS If we decide what the fail stress is for a given material, then we
If we want to be confident that the structure or component does design the component so that the working stress is less. We
not fail by being overstressed, we design it so that working define the safety factor as the ratio such that:
stress is smaller than the stress at which it fails.
𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆
𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
If we want to define what failure means, we would need to study 𝜎𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑
stress and strain and material science to a much greater depth
than covered by this unit.

Failure might mean that the material has yielded or that it has
broken.

Also calculation of maximum stress in a component is much more

complicated than the cases studies here.

If a material has direct stress and shear stress at the same time,
the maximum stress may well exceed either of them on their
own.

Also the stress may be raised by things like sharp corners and
undercuts. Other factors such as fatigue and creep also affect the
stress.

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STRESS & STRAIN - WORKED EXAMPLE

A metal rod with a square cross-section has a width of 0.5m and

2 m long.

A force of 1000 N is applied to it and it stretches 0.005 m.

Assume the material is elastic.

Determine the following.

a. The stress in the wire σ.
b. The strain in the wire ε.

If the stress that produces failure is 300 MPa, calculate the safety
factor.

SOLUTION

𝐴 = 𝑤 × 𝑏 = 0.5 × 0.5 = 0.25 𝑚2

𝐹 1000
𝝈= = = 𝟒 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝒎−𝟐
𝐴 0.25

𝝈 = 𝟒 𝑲𝑵𝒎−𝟐 = 𝟒 𝑲𝑷𝒂

𝑥 0.005
𝜺= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝑜𝑟 𝟐. 𝟓 𝝁𝜺
𝐿 2 000

300 000 000 300 000

𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 𝟕𝟓 𝟎𝟎𝟎
4 000 4

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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

Elastic materials always spring back into shape when released.
If F and x refer to direct stress and strain then:
They also obey HOOKE'S LAW – this is called the ELASTIC These are just the
RANGE. F = σA stress and strain
x = εL formulae re-arranged

This is the law of a spring which states that deformation is Hence:

directly proportional to the force. 𝐹 𝜎𝐴
= F and x have just been
𝑥 𝜀𝐿
replace using the 2
And:
A material’s ability to resist deformation due to an applied force is formulae above
𝑭𝑳 𝝈
called its stiffness and is given the letter ‘k’. =
𝒙𝑨 𝜺

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 (𝑭)

𝑆𝑇𝐼𝐹𝐹𝑁𝐸𝑆 = The stiffness is now in terms of stress and strain only and this
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝒙)
constant is called the MODULUS of ELASTICITY and it has a
symbol E.

The stiffness is different for different materials and different sizes

𝝈 𝑭𝑳
of the material. 𝑬= =
𝜺 𝒙𝑨

We may eliminate the size by using stress and strain instead of

A graph of stress against strain will be a straight line with a
force and deformation as follows.
gradient of E.

The units of E are the same as the units of stress.

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SHEAR STRESS (τ) The sign convention for shear force and stress is based on how it
shears the materials

Shear force is a force applied sideways on to the material

(transversely loaded).

Shear stress is the force per unit area carrying the load.

This means the cross sectional area of the material being cut, the
beam and pin respectively.

Figure 19 - Example of transverse loading

Shear stress:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑭)
𝑺𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑹 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 (𝝉) =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑨)

The symbol τ is called Tau.

Figure 20 - Example of shearing and punching forces

Note that A is the area being sheared.

As with direct stress, we may define a safety factor as the ratio of

the fail shear stress to the actual working stress.

Figure 18 - Example of shear force

conventions

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SHEAR STRAIN (γ)

In order to understand the basic theory of shearing, consider a
block of material being deformed sideways as shown. (Note in
reality the deformation is very small and the diagram is much
exaggerated).

The shear force causes the material to deform as shown.

The shear strain is defined as the ratio of the distance deformed

to the height

The end face rotates through an angle γ.

Since this is a very small angle, it is accurate to say the distance

x is the length of an arc of radius L and angle γ so that:

𝒙
𝜸 =
𝑳

It follows that γ is the shear strain.

Figure 21 - Illustration of shear

The symbol γ is called Gamma. strain

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MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (G) But:

If we were to conduct an experiment and measure x for various Calculate the force needed to
values of F, we would find that if the material is elastic, it behave 𝐹
= 𝜏
𝐴
like a spring and so long as we do not damage the material by
And:
using too big a force: that is remaining within the elastic limit, 𝑥
= 𝛾
the graph of F and x is a straight line as shown 𝐿
So:
The gradient of the graph is constant so: 𝐹 𝑥 𝐹𝐿 𝝉
÷ = = = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴𝑥 𝜸

𝑭
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 This constant will have a special value for each elastic material
𝒙
and is called the Modulus of Rigidity with symbol G.
This is the shear spring stiffness of the block in N/m.
𝝉
𝑮=
If we divide F by the area A and x by the height L, the 𝜸
relationship is still a constant and we get:

𝐹 𝑥 𝐹𝐿
÷ = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴𝑥

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ULTIMATE SHEAR STRESS (τU)

If a material is sheared beyond a certain limit it becomes
permanently distorted and does not spring all the way back to
its original shape.

The elastic limit has been exceeded.

If the material is stressed to the limit so that it parts into two

(e.g. a guillotine or punch), the ultimate limit has been
reached.

The ultimate shear stress is τu and this value is used to

calculate the force needed by shears and punches.

Figure 22 - Example of a stress/strain graph

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ELASTIC/PLASTIC DEFORMATION
When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural
material, it will cause the material to change shape. This change
in shape is called deformation.

A temporary shape change that is self-reversing after the force is

removed, so that the object returns to its original shape, is called
elastic deformation.

In other words, elastic deformation is a change in shape of a

material at low stress that is recoverable after the stress is
removed. This type of deformation involves stretching of the
bonds, but the atoms do not slip past each other.

When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it

is called plastic deformation.

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Plastic deformation involves the breaking of a limited number of

atomic bonds by the movement of dislocations. Recall that the
force needed to break the bonds of all the atoms in a crystal
plane all at once is very great.

However, the movement of dislocations in groups of atoms allows

atoms in crystal planes to slip past one another at a much lower
stress levels than is required to completely destroy all the bonds.

Since the energy required to move is lowest along the densest

planes of atoms, dislocations have a preferred direction of travel
within a grain of the material.

This results in slip that occurs along parallel planes within the
grain.

These parallel slip planes group together to form slip bands,

which can be seen with an optical microscope.

A slip band appears as a single line under the microscope, but it

is in fact made up of closely spaced parallel slip planes as shown
in the image.
Figure 23 - illustration of material grain deformation mechanisms

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PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES Is there any feature that remains constant during such changes?
We find that the weight, as measured by any kind of balance (or
Solids, liquids and gases are usually distinguished by saying that:
rather, the result of the operation which we call ‘weighing’) does
• a solid has a definite volume and shape under given
remain constant, at least within the accuracy-limits of our
conditions
measurements.
• a liquid a definite volume but no shape other than that of
the vessel containing it
This does not say that the weight is the quantity of matter there -
• a gas has neither definite volume nor shape, always
but simply that if the weight of a sample of matter does not
expanding to fill its container
change we believe that the quantity of matter itself is the same.

All gases can be liquefied and solidified, and all solids which do
We believe this also if the volume (which is often readily altered)
not decompose can be melted and vaporised.
does not change - so that for the right substance in the right
conditions either weight or volume can be used to tell how much
When a gas changes into a liquid, there is usually a very large
matter is there.
reduction in volume.

When a liquid changes into a solid there is a relatively small

decrease or increase in volume.

These statements are all vague, for the important phrase has
been left out - they refer to a fixed quantity of substance. This is
a property of what is there, not just something that we observe it
doing or submitting to.

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Mass is a property, more permanent than weight or volume, It is measured in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) or grams per
which is more closely related to the quantity of matter in a body. cubic centimetre (g/cm3).
The property itself is hard to define - but the permanence makes The SI unit for density is derived from the kilogram and the
it important. metre, and is one kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3).

We can call it ‘quantity-mass’ here and will suppose for the If you measure masses in grams and volumes in cubic
moment that the mass of a body is proportional to its weight. centimetres, you will naturally express densities in grams per
cubic centimetre.
The SI unit of mass is the kilogramme or kilogram (kg) and one-
thousandth of this is the gram (g or gm).

Masses are compared with known multiples or submultiples of the

standard directly by the beam balance or indirectly by a
calibrated direct-reading balance of the spring or lever type.

Simple experiments show that for a given substance the quantity-

mass is proportional to the volume. That is, mass/volume is a
property of the substance which is called its density.

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝑘𝑔)
𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 (𝑚3 )

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Pressure is defined as the ‘force per unit area’, and as such is

obtained from the formula:-

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝑁)
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚−2 𝑂𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 (𝑚2 )

The area in the formula is considered as being at right angles to

the line of action of the force.

The units of pressure are Newtons per square metre, (N/m2) but
other units are often used and conversions may often be
required.

Other units of pressure are:

Pascals (Pa) 1Pa = 1N/m2

bars (although not SI units) 1 bar = 105 N/m2

millibars (mb) 1 mb = 1 hPa (hectoPascal)

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FLUID PRESSURE cause by the collision between the atoms of the fluid that are
moving about at relatively high speeds and the stationary wall of
LAWS OF FLUID PRESSURE the container the fluid id housed in.
When considering the pressure exerted by a fluid, it is useful to
think of the fluid in its molecular form. Thirdly, the pressure of a fluid increases with depth.

The relatively free movement of molecules within the fluid will

bring many of them in contact with the sides of any containing
vessel or any body immersed in it.

It is the summation of these minute forces imparted by the

molecules on a specified area that we consider as
producing fluid pressure.

There are a number of ‘laws’ associated with pressure and the

following section will elaborate on these, however it is worth
stating them first.

Firstly, at a point in a fluid at rest, the pressure acts equally in

all directions.
Figure 24 - Illustration of pressure force imparted on

Secondly, the pressure exerted by a fluid will always act at container walls by atomic collisions

right angles to any surface in contact with the fluid, and is

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GAUGE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURES

Consider the reading on a car tyre pressure gauge. When not
connected to a tyre, the gauge reads zero although the ambient
air pressure is approximately 15 psi (sea level).

When the gauge indicates a tyre pressure of 30 psi,

it is indicating 30 psi above the ambient pressure
of 15 psi. Therefore the total pressure in the tyre is
actually 30 + 15 psi or 45 psi.

Hence the total or absolute pressure is the sum of

the gauge and the ambient pressures and the
gauge is indicating the differential pressure
(difference between absolute and ambient).

Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + ambient

pressure

Gauges are sometimes labelled to show pressures in

psid instead of psi in order to indicate the fact that
the gauge is reading differential pressure.

Figure 25 - Illustrations of different types of pressure

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𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
𝜌 ×𝑣 ×𝑔
With liquids, pressure, in many instances, is associated with 𝑃=
𝐴
depth or height in metres (m).
But volume = area × height
In a number of simple pressure measuring instruments, it is the
height of the liquid column that is proportional to the pressure 𝜌 ×𝐴×ℎ ×𝑔
𝑃=
𝐴
being measured.

This can be seen, if you consider a column of liquid of h metres

𝑷 = 𝝆𝒉𝒈 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝑚−2
with a constant cross-sectional area of ‘A’ square metres and
having a density of ρ kg/m3 as shown.

The pressure on the base of the column:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛

𝑃= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 × 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

But since: mass = density × volume

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If we were to consider the pressure that is present at the base of

a column of water 3 metres in height, the pressure due to that
column would be:

P = 1000 kg/m3 x 9.81 m/s2 x 3m

= 29430 N/ m2 or 29.43 kN/m2

It is interesting to note that the area

becomes irrelevant in this final formula of P
=ρgh.

This apparatus consists of a set of glass

vessels, each with a different shape and
base area, but all connected.

By pouring a liquid into the vessels it is

noticed that a common height is reached in
all, irrespective of their shape.

Figure 26 - Illustration of pressure in a fluid

This indicates that the pressure along the
horizontal connecting tube must be the same, otherwise the
liquid would flow to equalise the pressure.

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TRANSMISSION OF FLUID PRESSURE

When a fluid is confined with a closed container and its pressure
is increased by a piston or other means, then it is found that the
pressure at every point within the container is increased by the
same amount.

This is known as the ‘principle of transmissibility of fluid

pressure’, and is utilised in many forms of hydraulic
transmission.

Figure 27 - Illustration of principle of

transmissibilty of fluid pressure

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HYDRAULIC RAMS
One of the most important results of this is that it allows a large 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

force to be obtained from the application of a relatively small

force. 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 500 𝑁𝑚−2 × 2 𝑚2

Consider the arrangement consisting of two pistons ‘A’ and ‘B’ 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵 𝑜𝑟 𝟏 𝑲𝑵

connected to each other through the medium of a hydraulic fluid.

The system is pressurised through the smaller piston ‘A’.
Further, it will be evident that a large downward movement on

For simplicity, let’s consider that the smaller piston’s area is the part of the piston ‘A’ will produce only a relatively small

0.02m2 whilst the larger piston’s area is 2m2. upward movement of the larger piston ‘B’.

If a force of 10 Newtons is now applied to the smaller piston ‘A’ The volume displaced by the movement of the smaller piston

then the fluid will suffer an increase in pressure of 500 N/m2. must be accommodated by the larger piston’s movement.

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 10 𝑁
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = = 500 𝑁𝑚−2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 0.02𝑚2

This increase in pressure is transmitted throughout the fluid and

will eventually act on the larger piston ‘B’.

Now, we determine the upward force, on piston ‘B’, produced as

a result of this pressure increase, we see that it has risen to a
value of 1000 N

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Force 1 = 10N
Piston B
Area = 2m2

Piston A
Area = 0.02m2

Pressure = 500 Nm-2

Force 2 – 1000N

Figure 28 - Illustration of hydraulic ram operation

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ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
A body that is immersed in fluid will experience an upward force Weight of object out of water = 0.67N
owing to the pressure exerted on it by the fluid.

Weight of object submerged = 0.40N

This is apparent when a cork is held below the surface of a liquid.

Upthrust = 0.67N – 0.40N

On release it will immediately rise to the surface,
Upthrust = 0.37N
but with other materials that sink in the same
liquid, this up thrust is not so apparent, although
a simple experiment shows that it is present.
Weight of water displaced by
object

This experiment requires a section of the material = 0.37N

to be weighed in air using a spring balance.

Immersing it now in the liquid, the reading on the

spring balance will decrease, indicating the
presence of an upward force.

It was the Greek mathematician, Archimedes who

enunciated the principle which stated that:

‘a body in fluid experiences an upthrust

equal to the weight of fluid it displaces’
Figure 29 - Illustration of experiment proving Archimedes' principle

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Archimedes’ principle may be used to determine the density of a If the average density of the body is less than the density
body. of the liquid in which it is placed, then the body will float.

If for example a body is weighed in air using a spring balance and This accounts for the fact that a hollow steel shell, such as the
then weighed when completely immersed in water, the hull of a ship, will float.
difference in readings will give a measure of upthrust.

This relative density may then be calculated using the formula:

F = Weight of object

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑼𝒑𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕

𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 − 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅

Note this is the relative density of the solid relative

to the density of the fluid.

Fb = Upthrust

Figure 30 - Calculation of upthrust created by a body

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HYDROMETER
An instrument which makes use of Archimedes’ principle
and which provides for a direct reading of relative density
is called the hydrometer. It consists of a loaded tube
calibrated to read such values.

When placed in a liquid, it floats upright with the

immersed volume representing the volume of liquid
having an equal mass to that of the hydrometer.

The greater the density of the liquid, the smaller is

the volume that is displaced.

The hydrometer will thus ride high in high density liquids

and low in low density liquids.

Figure 31 - Example of a hydrometer used to measure density of electrolyte

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

AIR PRESSURE
In the section dealing with fluid properties, the pressure due to a
column of fluid was studied.

This understanding can be applied to the pressure

exerted on a unit area of earth’s surface by a
column of air being present above that area, and
stretching upwards to the very edge of the
atmosphere

Such a column of air would produce a force of

approximately 101.3 kN at sea level, acting on an
area of 1 m2.

The atmospheric pressure is therefore taken as

approximately 101.3 KN/m2. This can also be
stated as 1013 mb (mllibars).

Figure 32 - Illustration of atmospheric pressure due to column of air

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PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

PIEZOMETER
The determination of pressure by looking at the height of a
column of liquid is utilised in several simple pressure measuring
instruments.

The simplest is the piezometer which is used to measure the

pressure of liquids in pipes and is a glass tube inserted into the
pipe carrying the liquid.

The liquid will rise up the tube until the pressure produced by its
height equals the pressure of the fluid in the pipe.

Measurements are normally taken from the centre-line of the

pipe, and the bore of the piezometer tube must not be so fine as
to encourage capillary action.

The pressure at the pipe centre line would be calculated from the
formula ρgh with ρ being the density of the liquid carried in the
pipe. Figure 33 - Illustration of a basic piezometer

Pressure at pipe centre = ρgh N/m2

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U-TUBE MANOMETER
The U-tube manometer may be used to measure the pressure of We now have 2 heights:
liquids or gases. • h1, which is the caused by the pressure that we wish to
measure.
This instrument is a glass-tube formed into a U-shape and which • h2, which is caused by ambient pressure
contains a liquid that will not react with the fluid carried by the
pipe.

On side of the U tube is open to atmosphere, so we can assume it

Difference in height due Ambient Pressure (Pamb)
feels a pressure of 14.7 PSI (ISA standard).
to pressure difference

The other side of the U tube is fed by the pressure we wish to between P and Pamb

measure.

The static pressure of the fluid being carried in the pipe at point A
will force the column of liquid in the U-tube around until the static
pressure felt by the by the liquid column at point 3, in the right
hand branch, is equal to the pressure at point 2 in the left hand
part of the tube.

The pressure at point 2 or 3 due to the liquid column, therefore is

Pressure to be measured
equal to ρgh, where ρ is the density of the liquid in the
(P)
manometer tube.

Figure 34 - U Tube manometer

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We know that:
𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ2 If we know the ambient pressure, then finding the exact value of
And that: the pressure to be measured becomes very simple. You will
𝑃 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 remember that:

If we want to calculate the difference between the ambient 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏
pressure at one end of the U tube and the pressure that is
unknown all we simply do is look at the differences in the heights All we simply do is replace this into the equation above and add
of the 2 columns of fluid within the U tube: the ambient pressure Pamb.

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 ( ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

Now simple replace P and Pamb for ρgh so that: 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 ( ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏 𝑃 = [𝜌 × 𝑔 ( ℎ1 − ℎ2 )] + 𝑃𝑎𝑚𝑏

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 ) − (𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ2 )

Since the density of the fluid in each column of the U tube, and
the acceleration due to gravity are the same, we can make the
equation easier by removing the common factors in each bracket
to give:

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ1 ) − (𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ2 )
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 ( ℎ1 − ℎ2 )

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THE BAROMETER
The effect of atmospheric pressure, demonstrated early in the
17th century by the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli, formed
the basis of the mercury in glass barometer.

His experiment involved the total immersion of a long glass tube,

about one metre in length, into a bath of mercury.

The glass tube was closed at one end, and when all the air had
been displaced it was uprighted with the open end still immersed
in the mercury bath.

Torricelli observed that some of the mercury flowed back into the
bath, creating a space at the closed end

TORRICELLI’S BAROMETER
The experiment with mercury conducted by Torricelli
demonstrated that the pressure exerted on the base of the
mercury column, due to its height, was in fact equal to the
pressure exerted by the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 35 – Torricelli’s barometer

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FORTIN BAROMETER
The present day Fortin barometer is of a very similar Since pressure due to height:
construction, although for increased accuracy of readings a
Vernier gauge is incorporated. P = ρgh , h = P / ρg

Adjustments to the mercury column are also made possible, 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 =
which enables readings to be taken relative to the same datum. 𝝆𝒈

Torricelli had, in uprighting the tube, created a vacuum in the 101.3 × 103
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟗𝟑 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔
space formed at the top of the tube. 13 600 × 9.81

The pressure in such a space would theoretically be zero,

although in reality only a partial vacuum would be formed, as
mercury and water vapour will move into this space.

These vapours produce a slight pressure on the upper surface of

the mercury column, but in most calculations this is ignored.

Using the formula associated with the pressure due to a column

of liquid, the height of the mercury column can be calculated
given that density ρ = 13 600 kg/m3 for mercury g = 9.81 m/s2
and standard atmospheric pressure = 101.3 kN/m2.

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It will be apparent, therefore that any variation in the

atmospheric pressure will register on the column’s height.

Times of low atmospheric pressure will produce a fall in column

height, whilst times of high pressure produce a rise in height.

These changes in height can be followed for trends, allowing

predictions of weather conditions to be made.

The requirement for atmospheric pressure to be known occurs

often when making sensitive experimental readings, involving
other pressure measuring instruments such as manometers.

Note: A manometer (pressure measuring device) that contains

mercury must never be taken on board an aircraft, due to the
corrosive nature of mercury on aluminium and its alloys. Mercury
gas is also very toxic.

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ANEROID BAROMETER
An aneroid barometer is simply a barometer without liquid that is This reference level can be set manually by an adjustment knob
used to measure the atmospheric pressure. to either the standard pressure of 1 013mb (29.9 in Hg) or the
forecast mean sea level pressure for the region or airfield.
It consists of a sealed capsule from which the air has been
partially removed. The altimeter then reads either the standard levels (called flight
levels) or the altitude above mean sea level.
As the air pressure outside of the capsule is greater than inside
there is a tendency for the capsule to collapse.

The capsule does collapse, until the force exerted by the

atmospheric pressure is counter balanced by tension of a spring.

This is the type of barometer installed in aircraft for the

measurement of altitude.

As atmospheric pressure drops with increase in altitude, the

reduction of pressure surrounding the capsule will allow the
capsule to expand until a balance between spring tension
and atmospheric pressure is once more reached.

This capsule movement will be conveyed to a pointer movement

over a scale, which is marked off in feet to indicate the altitude
above a reference level.

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Figure 36 - Aneroid barometer

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.2.2

Kinetics

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Intentionally Blank

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Distance travelled ...................................................... 13

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Final velocity ............................................................. 13
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3

Section 2.2.2 - Kinetics ......................................................... 5

NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION ............................................. 14

Newton’s first law of motion ........................................... 14

Uniform Motion ................................................................. 5
Newton’s second law ..................................................... 14
Speed and Velocity ......................................................... 6
Momentum ................................................................ 15
Acceleration ................................................................... 7
Momentum in Collisions ........................................... 16
Distance-time graphs ...................................................... 8
Kinetic energy in collisions ........................................ 17
Distance - time graph ................................................... 8
Momentum, force and Newton’s second law of motion .... 18
Velocity-time graphs ....................................................... 9
Impulse .................................................................... 19
The area underneath a velocity/time graph .................... 10
Newton’s third law of motion .......................................... 20
Area of light-blue triangle ......................................... 10
Examples on momentum and force ................................. 21
Area of dark-blue rectangle ....................................... 10
Newton's law of universal gravitation............................... 23
Area under the whole graph ...................................... 10

The equations of motion ................................................. 11

Circular motion................................................................ 24
Distance from initial and final velocities ......................... 11
Angular Motion ................................................................ 26
Rearranging the equation .......................................... 11
Transformation and angular equations ............................. 26
Final speed ................................................................12
Angular velocity ............................................................ 27
Initial speed ...............................................................12

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PERIODIC MOTION ........................................................... 28 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (M.A.) ...................................... 40

Vibrations .....................................................................28 Machines ..................................................................... 40

Periodic motion definitions .............................................. 28 The Lever.................................................................. 40

Relation between Period and Frequency............................ 29 Mechanical advantage of a lever .................................. 42

Simple Harmonic Motion (or Sinusoidal Motion) ................ 30 Pulleys......................................................................... 43

Pendular motion ............................................................ 31 The single fixed pulley ................................................ 43

Vibrations .....................................................................32 The single moving pulley ............................................. 44

Resonance ....................................................................33 Direction of a tension in a string ................................ 44

The block and tackle ................................................... 45

Mechanical work, energy and power ................................... 35 VELOCITY RATIO (V.R.) (or SPEED RATIO) ......................... 46

Work done ....................................................................35 EFFICIENCY.................................................................. 47

Energy .........................................................................36 Work done by a machine. ............................................ 47

Mechanical energy ...................................................... 37 Relationship between MA, VR and efficiency ..................... 48

Potential Energy ...................................................... 37 The screw jack ............................................................. 49

Strain energy .......................................................... 37 Gear trains ................................................................... 51

Kinetic energy ......................................................... 37

Conservation of mechanical energy ............................ 38

Power ..........................................................................39

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SECTION 2.2.2 - KINETICS

Kinematics is the description of motion.

The motion of a point particle is fully described using three terms

- position, velocity, and acceleration.

For real objects (which are not mathematical points),

translational kinematics describes the motion of an object's
center of mass through space, while angular kinematics describes
how an object rotates about its centre of mass. In this section,
we focus only on translational kinematics

UNIFORM MOTION
Motion may be defined as a continuing change of position or
place, or as the process in which a body undergoes displacement.

When an object is at different points in space at different times,

that object is said to be in motion, and if the distance the object
moves remains the same for a given period of time, the motion
may be described as uniform.

Thus an object in uniform motion always has a constant speed.

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SPEED AND VELOCITY 𝒔

𝑽𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 =
In everyday usage, speed and velocity often mean the same 𝒕
thing. In physics they have definite and distinct meanings.
Where: VAverage = the average velocity

Speed refers to how fast an object is moving, or how far the s = distance travelled

object will travel in a specific time. t = the elapsed time

The speed of an object tells nothing about the direction an

object is moving.

For example, if the information is supplied that an aircraft leaves

London and travels 8 hours at a speed of 450 mph, this
information tells nothing about the direction in which the plane is
moving. At the end of 8 hours, it might be in New York, or if it
travelled in a circular route, it could be back in London.

Velocity is that quantity in physics which denotes both the speed

of an object and the direction in which the object moves.
Velocity can be defined as the rate of motion in a particular
direction.

The average velocity of an object can be calculated using the

formula:

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ACCELERATION If the object accelerated to 22 mph in the first second, 24 mph in

Acceleration is defined by the physicist as the rate of change of the next second and 26 mph in the third second, the change in
velocity. velocity each second is 2 mph.

If the velocity of an object is increased from 20 mph to 30 mph, The acceleration is said to be constant, and the motion is
the object has been accelerated. If the increase in velocity is 10 described as uniformly accelerated motion.
mph in 5 seconds, the rate of change in velocity is 2 mph per sec
If a body has a velocity of 3 mph at the end of the first second of
Expressed as an equation: its motion, 5 mph at the end of the next second, and 8 mph at
the end of the third second, its motion is described as

𝑽𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝑽𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 acceleration, but it is variable accelerated motion.

𝒂=
𝒕

Where: a = acceleration
Vfinal = the final velocity (30 mph)
Vinitial = the initial velocity (20 mph)
t = the elapsed time

Hence :

𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 30 − 20 10
𝑎= = = = 2 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑡 5 5

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DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS
You should be able to draw and explain distance-time graphs for
objects moving at steady speeds or standing still.

The vertical axis of a distance-time graph is the distance travelled

from the start. The horizontal axis is the time from the start.

When an object is stationary, the line on the graph is horizontal.

When an object is moving at a steady speed, the line on the

graph is straight, but sloped.

The diagram shows some typical lines on a distance-time graph.

DISTANCE - TIME GRAPH

Note that the steeper the line, the greater the speed of the
object.

The blue line is steeper than the red because it represents an

object moving faster than the one represented by the red line.

The red lines on the graph represent a typical journey where an

Figure 1 - illustration of a distance/time graph
object returns to the start again. Notice that the line representing
the return journey slopes downwards.

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VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS
You should be able to explain velocity-time graphs for objects
moving with a constant velocity or constant acceleration.

The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular direction. This

means that two cars travelling at the same speed, but in opposite
directions, have different velocities.

The vertical axis of a velocity-time graph is the velocity of the

object. The horizontal axis is the time from the start.

When an object is moving with a constant velocity, the line on the

graph is horizontal. When an object is moving with a constant
acceleration, the line on the graph is straight, but sloped. The
diagram shows some typical lines on a velocity-time graph.

The steeper the line, the greater the acceleration of the object.
The blue line is steeper than the red line because it represents an
object with a greater acceleration.

Notice that a line sloping downwards - with a negative gradient -

represents an object with a constant deceleration - slowing down.
Figure 2 - illustration of a velocity/time graph

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THE AREA UNDERNEATH A VELOCITY/TIME GRAPH AREA UNDER THE WHOLE GRAPH
The area under the line in a velocity-time graph represents the The area of the light-blue triangle plus the area of the dark-blue
distance travelled. rectangle is:

To find the distance travelled in the graph above, you need to 16 + 48 = 64 m.

find the area of the light-blue triangle and the dark-blue
rectangle. This is the total area under the distance-time graph. This area
represents the distance covered.
AREA OF LIGHT-BLUE TRIANGLE
The width of the triangle is 4 seconds and the height is 8 metres
per second. To find the area, you use the equation:

1
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2

so the area of the light-blue triangle is 1⁄2 × 8 × 4 = 16 m

AREA OF DARK-BLUE RECTANGLE

The width of the rectangle is 6 seconds and the height is 8
metres per second.

So the area is 8 × 6 = 48 m.

Figure 3 - illustration of area under a velocity time graph

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THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION REARRANGING THE EQUATION

You may need to rearrange the equation above. For example, you
DISTANCE FROM INITIAL AND FINAL VELOCITIES could use it to find the time taken for a journey, or the final
This equation shows how to calculate the distance travelled if you velocity.
know the initial and final velocities:
Here are two ways it could be rearranged:
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠 = × 𝑡
2 2𝑠
𝑡 =
𝑢 + 𝑣
where:
• s = distance in m 2𝑠
𝑣 =
𝑡– 𝑢
• u = initial speed (speed at the start) in m/s
• v = final speed (speed at the end) in m/s

• t = time taken in s

For example, a car accelerates from 20 m/s to 30 m/s in 4 s:

s = (20 + 30)/2 x 4
s = 50/2 x 4
s = 25 x 4 = 100 m

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FINAL SPEED INITIAL SPEED

The final speed of a travelling object can be calculated using this The equation above can be rearranged to find the initial speed if
equation: you know the final speed, acceleration and journey time:

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 = 𝑣 − 𝑎𝑡

where: For example, a car reaches 25 m/s after accelerating at 2 m/s for
• v = final speed in m 5 s:
• u = initial speed in m/s
• a = acceleration in m/s2 (assuming that the acceleration is 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 25 – (2 × 5)
uniform or constant) = 25 – 10 = 15 𝑚/𝑠
• t = time taken in s

For example, a car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at 3

m/s2 for 10 s:

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 0 + (3 × 10)

= 0 + 30 = 30 𝑚/𝑠

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DISTANCE TRAVELLED FINAL VELOCITY

The distance travelled can also be calculated using this equation: The final velocity, v, can be calculated using this equation:

𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + ½ 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

where: For example, what is the final velocity of the car in the example
• s = distance travelled in m opposite?
• u = initial velocity in m/s u = 10 m/s
• a = acceleration in m/s a = 4 m/s2
• t = time taken in s s = 100 m
𝑣 2 = 102 + (2 × 4 × 100)
For example, a car accelerates at 4 m/s2 for 5 s from an initial
velocity of 10 m/s: = 100 + 800 = 900

4 × 52 v is the square root of 900, so:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = (10 × 5) +
2

𝑣 = √900 = 30 𝑚/𝑠
2
4 ×5
= 50 +
2

= 50 + 50 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒎

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NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION A body that has great momentum has a strong tendency to
remain in motion and therefore hard to stop.
When a magician snatches a tablecloth from a table and leaves a
full setting of dishes undisturbed, he is not displaying a mystic
For example, a train moving at even low velocity is difficult to
art; he is demonstrating the principle of inertia.
stop because of its large mass. Newton’s second law applies to
this property. It states that:
The INERTIA of a body is the property that enables it to resist
changes in its motion.
When a force acts upon a body, the momentum of that
body is changed. The rate of change of momentum is
Inertia is responsible for the discomfort felt when an aeroplane
proportional to the applied force.
is brought to a sudden halt in the parking area and the
passengers are thrown forwards in their seats. Inertia is a
On earth, gravity exerts a force on each body causing an
property of matter. Newton’s first law of motion states that:
acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 (32 ft/sec2) which is usually

Objects at rest tend to remain at rest and objects in designated as “g”.

motion tend to remain in motion at the same speed and in

the same direction. The force is commonly called weight, W which equals mass x
gravity i.e.

W = mg.

Therefore:
m = W/g

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MOMENTUM This is called the principle of conservation of momentum.

A truck requires a larger force to set it in motion when it is
heavily laden than when it is empty. Likewise, far more powerful
brakes are needed to stop a heavy goods vehicle than a light car
moving with the same speed. The heavier vehicle is said to
possess a greater quantity of motion or momentum than the
lighter one.

The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass

and its velocity.

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎 × 𝒗 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔𝑠 −1

When two bodies, a heavy one and a light one, are acted upon by
the same force for the same time, the light body builds up a
higher velocity than the heavy one. But the momentum they
gain is the same in both cases.

Momentum is a vector quantity, and the direction of the

momentum is the same as the direction of the velocity.

It is useful because it is a conserved quantity, ie the total

momentum is the same before and after a collision, in the
absence of external forces.
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MOMENTUM IN COLLISIONS Consider the following example:

The principle of conservation of momentum states:
Two cars are travelling towards each other as shown below. They
“the total quantity of momentum before a collision is the same as collide, lock together and move forwards (ie to the right) after
the total quantity of momentum after the collision in the absence the collision.
of an external force.”
Find the speed of the cars immediately after the collision.
This is a fundamental law of physics and applies to all collisions: Before After
road accidents, collisions between meteors and planets, collisions
between atoms. 10 m s–1 8 m s–1 ?

1200 kg 1000 kg 1200 kg 1000 kg

The law applies to total momentum, not individual momentum.
A B

Since momentum is a vector quantity we cannot add momenta

(plural of momentum) like ordinary numbers; we must take Take motion → as +

account of direction.
m 1 u 1 = 1200 × 10 = 12,000 (m 1 + m 2 )v = (1200
+ 1000)v
For the problems that we will consider this means that some
momenta (usually in the original direction) may be positive (+) m 2 u 2 = 1000 × –8 = - 8000 = 2200v

while other momenta (the opposite direction) are negative (–). total momentum before = total momentum after

12,000 – 8000 = 2200v

v = 4000/2200 = 1.8 ie = 1.8 m s –1 to the right

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KINETIC ENERGY IN COLLISIONS Usually this will involve using conservation of momentum first to
Momentum is always conserved in collisions and explosions. By calculate all the relevant velocities. Remember, momentum is
the law of conservation of energy, the total energy is also always conserved in the absence of external forces.
conserved in collisions and explosions, but kinetic energy is not
necessarily conserved.

There are two kinds of collision:

1. those in which kinetic energy (KE) is conserved ie total KE
before = total KE after
o This is called an elastic collision.

2. those in which kinetic energy is not conserved ie KE is lost

during the collision to other forms of energy, such as heat
energy
o This is called an inelastic collision.

If after a collision the objects stick together, this is always an

inelastic collision.

If the objects bounce apart the collision may be elastic; the only
sure way of finding out is to calculate the total KE before and
after the collision.

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MOMENTUM, FORCE AND NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

The important connection between force and momentum was (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )
Since is acceleration:
𝑡
expressed by Sir Isaac Newton in his second law of motion, which
states that:
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚 × 𝑎
“The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force Therefore

acts.”
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑁)
Another way to look at the law is to consider the force causing a
change in velocity for a given mass i.e. causing an acceleration or It is this equation which enables us to define an absolute unit of
deceleration. force. The SI unit of force is the newton (N), which is the force
that produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 when it acts on a mass of
If a force was to cause a change of velocity from v1 to v2 for a 1 kg.
mass, m then:

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

(𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = =𝑚
𝑡 𝑡

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IMPULSE 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹 × 𝑡
The change of momentum: So we must have:
𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹 × 𝑡 = 𝑀𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1
Is known as the impulse of the force.

𝑭 × 𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 − 𝒎𝒗𝟏
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ( 𝑘𝑔 𝑚/𝑠 )

The impulse given to a body is equal to the change in

momentum. Impulse is defined as the product of force and the
time for which it is applied, hence:

𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕

But we have already stated impulse is given by the change in

momentum, therefore:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒

And

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚 × 𝑣

But:

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NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION It is to be noted that momentum is a vector quantity, i.e. it
Whenever a force acts on one body, an equal and opposite force has direction as well as magnitude.
acts on some other body. This is sometimes stated
The momentum of the bullet and gun are equal but in opposite
“to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction” directions. Consequently, the sum total of their momentum is
zero.
It is important to realise that the action and reaction act on
different bodies.

When a bullet is fired from a gun equal and opposite forces are
exerted on the bullet and gun during the time the bullet is
passing down the barrel.

Since, both bullet and gun are acted upon by equal forces for the
same time, they will, in accordance with the second law of
motion, acquire equal and opposite momentum.

The backward momentum of the gun itself is shown by its kick or

recoil. Hence,

mass of bullet x muzzle velocity = mass of gun x recoil velocity

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EXAMPLES ON MOMENTUM AND FORCE

1. A mass of 5 kg is moving at 20 m/s. Find the change in

momentum and the external force acting if its velocity is

a) Reduced to 10 m/s in 5 s
b) Reduced to zero in 0.4 s
c) Reversed to -20 m/s in 10 s
d) Increased to 30 m/s in 5 s

2. A train of 50,000 kg mass and travelling at 72 kph is

brought to a stop through braking. Assuming g = 10 m/s2
determine:

a) the momentum of the train

b) the braking force required to stop the train in 50
seconds
c) time taken by the train to stop if the deceleration is
3 m/s2

3. A train has a mass 12,000 kg and is travelling at 20 m/s.

What force is required to bring it to rest in 10 seconds?

4. A body of moves from A to B in 5s. If the speed at A is 100

m/s and at B it is 200 m/s, calculate the acceleration.

5. An aircraft weights 6,000 kgf. How much force is needed

to give it an acceleration of 6 m/s2?

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Answers:

1
a) 50 kg m/s and -10 N
b) 100 kg m/s and -250 N
c) 200 kg m/s and 20 N
d) 50 kg m/s and 10 N

2 a) 1,000,000 kg m/s
b) 20 kN
c) 6 2/3 seconds

3 24,000 N (negative sign because it is a braking force)

4 20 m/s

5 36,000 N

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NEWTON'S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton theorised that the force of gravity acting between the 𝑚1 × 𝑚1
𝐹𝐺𝑅𝐴𝑉𝐼𝑇𝑌 = 𝐺
𝑑2
earth and any other object is directly proportional to the mass of
the earth, directly proportional to the mass of the object, and
Where:
inversely proportional to the square of the distance that
• m1 and m2 are the masses of the 2 objects in question
separates the centers of the earth and the object.
• d is the distance between the 2 objects
• G is the universal gravitation constant
But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond
earth. Newton's law of universal gravitation is about the
The constant of proportionality (G) in the above equation is
universality of gravity.
known as the universal gravitation constant.

Newton's place in the Gravity Hall of Fame is not due to his

The precise value of G was determined experimentally by Henry
discovery of gravity, but rather due to his discovery that
Cavendish in the century after Newton's death.
gravitation is universal.

The value of G is found to be G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

ALL objects attract each other with a force of gravitational
attraction.
The units on G may seem rather odd; nonetheless they are
sensible.
This force of gravitational attraction is directly dependent upon
the masses of both objects and inversely proportional to the
When the units on G are substituted into the equation above and
square of the distance that separates their centers.
multiplied by m1 x m2 units and divided by d2 units, the result will
be Newtons - the unit of force.
Newton's conclusion about the magnitude of gravitational forces
is summarized symbolically as:

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CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular motion is the motion of an object along a curved path
that has a constant radius.

For example, if one end of a string is tied to an object and the

other end is held in the hand, the object can be swung in a circle.

The object is constantly deflected from a straight (linear) path by

the pull exerted on the string as shown in figure 43.

As an object travels along the circumference from X to Y, the pull

or force on the string deflects is from Y toward Z.

This pull is called a centripetal force, which deflects an object

from a straight path and forces it to travel in a curved path.
Thus, the string exerts a centripetal force on the object, and the
object exerts an equal but opposite force on the string, obeying
Newton’s third law of motion.

The force that is equal to centripetal force, but acting in an

Figure 4 - Example of circular motion
opposite direction, is called centrifugal force.

Without a centripetal force, there is no centrifugal force.

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Centripetal force is always directly proportional to the mass

of the object in circular motion. Thus, if the mass of the object in
figure 1 is doubled, the pull on the string must be doubled to
keep the object in its circular path, provided the speed of the
object remains constant.

Centripetal force is inversely proportional to the radius of

the circle in which an object travels. If the string in figure 1 is
shortened and the speed remains constant, the pull on the string
must be increased since the radius is decreased, and the string
must pull the object from its linear path more rapidly.

Using the same reasoning, the pull on the string must be

increased if the object is swung more rapidly in its orbit.
Centripetal force is thus directly proportional to the square of
the velocity of the object. The formula for centripetal force is:

𝒎 × 𝒗𝟐
𝑭𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 =
𝑹

Where: m = the mass of the object

V = velocity
R = radius of the objects path.

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ANGULAR MOTION where:

• r =radius of body from center of rotation
You previously met the equations for linear motion.
• θ, ω and α are the angular distance, angular velocity and
angular acceleration, respectively.
A similar set of equations exists to solve engineering problems
that involve angular motion as experienced, e.g. in the rotation of
Angular Equation of
a drive shaft. Linear Equation of Motion
Motion
(𝜔1 + 𝜔2 ) × 𝑡 (𝑢 + 𝑣) × 𝑡
The linear equations of motion may be transformed to represent
𝜃= 𝑠=
2 2
angular motion using a set of equations that we will refer to as
1 1
the transformation equations. 𝜃 = 𝜔1 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2

These are given below, followed by the equations of angular 𝜔22 = 𝜔21 + 2𝛼𝜃 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
motion, which are compared with their linear equivalents.
(𝜔1 + 𝜔2 ) 𝑣−𝑢
𝛼= 𝑎=
𝑡 𝑡
TRANSFORMATION AND ANGULAR EQUATIONS

𝑠 =𝜃 × 𝑟

𝑣 =𝜔 × 𝑟

𝑎=𝛼 × 𝑟

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ANGULAR VELOCITY So to convert 350 RPM into rad/s we multiply the RPM by 2π/60.
Angular velocity (ω) refers to a body moving in a circular path
and may be defined as:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝑟𝑎𝑑)

𝜔=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑠)

Or in symbols
𝜃
𝜔=
𝑠

And is measured in radians per second.

We are often given rotational velocity in rpm.

It is therefore useful to be able to convert rpm into rad/s and vice

versa.

If
1 revolution = 2π radians
Then
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
1 𝑅𝑃𝑀 = =
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐

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PERIODIC MOTION PERIODIC MOTION DEFINITIONS

VIBRATIONS the time for the completion of

Period or periodic time (T)
If a particle moves backwards and forwards about an equilibrium one cycle of the motion

or mean position its motion is described as oscillatory or the number of cycles per unit
Frequency (f)
vibratory. time (cycles per second)
The unit of measurement is the
Hertz(Hz)
Examples of this motion are that of a pendulum bob, the up and hertz.

down movement of the piston in a car engine, the motion of a a periodic motion that is 2π

sounding violin string, the tremors in a bridge due to traffic times the frequency,

movements over it and the swaying of limbs of trees in the wind. Angular frequency (ω)
ω = 2πf
Vibratory motion that continually repeats itself in equal time
intervals is said to be periodic or cyclic. The following terms the distance of a vibrating
are used in the discussion of periodic motion. Displacement (d) particle from its mean position
at any instant
the maximum displacement in
Amplitude (A)
a periodic motion

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RELATION BETWEEN PERIOD AND FREQUENCY

If there are f cycles per unit time, then the period, the time for 1
cycle is 1/f.

We can therefore say that:

𝟏
𝑻=
𝒇

And

𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻

Thus a frequency of 50 cycles per second corresponds to a period

of:

1 1
𝑇= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 = 20 𝑚𝑠
𝑓 50

A period of 2.5 ms corresponds to a frequency of:

1 1 1 000
𝑓= = = = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝑇 0.0025 2.5

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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (OR SINUSOIDAL MOTION)

Consider a rotating arm moving in a circular path and take Other waveforms such as square waves or triangular waves
horizontal diameter as the reference line. require the addition of multiples of the fundamental frequency
(known as harmonics) to produce the waveform shape.
Plotting the sine value of the arm against the angle formed with
the horizontal reference will produce a graph as shown. This gives
us a sine wave.

You will see that the maximum value of such a graph is M and if
the instantaneous value (m) of the alternating quantity is
required it can be determined from:

𝒎 = 𝑴 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

The sine wave is considered to be a pure wave

because it represents the oscillation at a single
frequency.

It does not require any other frequencies to be

added or subtracted to the fundamental frequency
to produce it.

Figure 5 - Example of simple harmonic motion

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PENDULAR MOTION Provided the amplitude is small, ie, not more than a few degrees,
Another form of periodic motion would be the pendulum. the periodic time depends only on the length of the pendulum
and the acceleration due to gravity. The periodic time, T of a
A simple pendulum is made by attaching a length of thread to a simple pendulum is given by the formula:
small sphere called the bob. The thread is held firmly by a clamp
and stand.
𝒍
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅�
𝒈
One complete to and fro movement of the pendulum is called an
oscillation or vibration.

The time taken for one complete oscillation is called the periodic Where: l = length in m

time. g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2

The length of the pendulum is defined as the distance from the It can therefore be said that the period of a pendulum

point of suspension to the centre of gravity of the bob. increases with an increase in pendulum length or a
decrease in gravity.

As the pendulum swings to and fro, the maximum displacement

of the bob from its rest position is called the amplitude. Alternately, we can say that the frequency of oscillation of a
pendulum decreases with an increase in pendulum length or

Alternatively, we speak of the angular amplitude of the decrease in gravity.

pendulum or the angle between the extreme and the rest

positions of the string. Note that the periodic time does not depend on the mass or
material of the bob.

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VIBRATIONS
A string, or wire, stretched over two bridges can be set into They are called harmonics which alter the shape of the wave
vibration by striking or plucking or bowing. from the string to produce the particular quality of sound from
that string
The bridges can set a wooden board into vibration by forced
oscillation, so that pressure pulses are sent out from the board
through the air.

In this way the system acts as a source of sound. The frequency

of the sound waves is the same as the frequency of vibration of
the string. The vibrations, and the sound, die down fairly slowly.

But the string is carrying waves of its own - ‘string waves’, which
travel up and down, are reflected (with phase change – the
waves effectively start at different times) at each end, and form a
stationary wave system.

It is possible for the string to vibrate in a number of different

ways, each of them involving a whole number of loops.

As each of these is a stationary wave system the wavelengths of

the possible stationary waves on a string of length L are:

Figure 6 - Example of wave harmonics

2L/1, 2L/2, 2L/3, 2L/4, ....... and so on.

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RESONANCE
The phenomenon known as resonance may be using an
apparatus known as Barton’s pendulums.

This consists of a series of paper cone pendulums which are given

additional mass by us of plastic rings, or similar.

The pendulums progressively vary in length and are all

suspended from the same cord.

A heavy bob-weight driving pendulum is pulled well aside, so

that it oscillates perpendicular to the plane of the paper.

The motion settles down after a period of time so that the

paper pendulums oscillate at very nearly the same frequency
as the driver but with different amplitudes, thus the
pendulums are subject to forced vibration.

The pendulum whose string length equals that of the driver

has the greatest amplitude and its natural frequency of
oscillation is the same as the frequency of the driving
Figure 7 - Illustration of Barton's pendulum
pendulum, this is an example of resonance, where the
driving pendulum transfers its energy most easily to the
paper cone pendulum having the same length.

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The amplitudes of oscillations also depend on system damping.

If we remove the plastic rings from the cone pendulums, their

mass is reduced and so damping is increased.

All amplitudes are reduced, where that of the resonant frequency

is less pronounced.

Resonance may be desirable or a source of trouble, dependent on

the system.

In electronic systems resonance is used in the tuning mechanism,

where the frequency of the desired radio signal is matched with
the natural frequency of the tuner.

In mechanical systems resonance is a problem, e.g. in bridges

and other large civil engineering structures, when the wind
produces an oscillation that is in harmony with the natural
frequency of the structure.

The oscillations set-up on the millennium bridge, when it first

opened, resulted from the pace of the people walking across it!

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MECHANICAL WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

WORK DONE
The energy possessed by a body is its capacity to do work. So,
before we discuss energy, let us first consider the concept of
work.

Mechanical work is done when a force overcomes a resistance

and it moves through a distance. Mechanical work may be
defined as:

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

Note: No work is done unless there is both resistance and

movement.

The resistance and the force needed to over- come it

are equal.

The distance moved must be measured in exactly

the opposite direction to that of the resistance being
overcome.

The English Engineering unit of work is the ft lbf.

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ENERGY
Energy may exist in many different forms, e.g. mechanical,
electrical, nuclear, chemical, heat, light and sound.

The principle of the conservation of energy states that:

energy may neither be created nor destroyed, only changed from

one form to another

There are many engineering examples of devices that

transform energy, these include the:
• loudspeaker which transforms electrical to sound energy
• petrol engine which transforms heat to mechanical
energy
• microphone which transforms sound to electrical energy

• dynamo transforms mechanical to electrical energy

In the study of dynamics we are primarily concerned with

mechanical energy and its conservation.

Provided no mechanical energy is transferred to or from a body,

the total amount of mechanical energy possessed by a body
remains constant, unless mechanical work is done.

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MECHANICAL ENERGY STRAIN ENERGY

Mechanical energy may be subdivided into three different forms; Strain energy is a particular form of PE possessed by an elastic
• potential energy (PE) body that is deformed within its elastic range, e.g. a stretched or
• strain energy compressed spring possesses strain energy.
• kinetic energy (KE)
KINETIC ENERGY
POTENTIAL ENERGY KE is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.
PE is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position, Translational KE, i.e. the KE of a body travelling in a linear
relative to some datum. direction (straight line) is:

The change in PE is equal to its weight multiplied by the change 1

𝐾. 𝐸. = × 𝑚 𝑥 𝑣2
2
in height. Since the weight of a body is mg, then the change in
PE may be written as:

𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝑬 = 𝒎 × 𝒈 × 𝒉

This is identical to the work done in overcoming gravity.

The work done in raising a mass to a height is equal to the PE it

possesses at that height, assuming no external losses

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CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY Since the total energy is constant, then immediately after impact
From the definition of the conservation of energy we can deduce with the datum surface, the mechanical KE is converted into
that the total amount of energy within certain defined boundaries other forms, such as heat, strain and sound.
will remain the same.

When dealing with mechanical systems, the PE possessed by a

body is frequently converted into KE and vice versa. If we ignore
air frictional losses, then:

𝑃. 𝐸. + 𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Thus, if a mass m falls freely from a height h above some datum,

then at any height above that datum:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸

This important relationship is illustrated, where at the highest

level above the datum the PE is a maximum and is gradually
converted into KE, as the mass falls towards the datum,
immediately before impact when height h = 0, the PE is zero and
the KE is equal to the initial PE.

Figure 8 - Illustration of change of energy forms

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POWER
Power is a measure of the rate at which work is done or the rate
of change of energy.

Power is therefore defined as the rate of doing work.

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑱)

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒔)

The SI unit of power is the watt (W).

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MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (M.A.) Levers are based on the principle of moments. A force called the
effort is applied at one point on the lever, and this overcomes a
force called the load at some other point.
MACHINES
Most people think of a machine as being a more or less
Incidentally, the terms effort and load are not restricted to levers
complicated piece of mechanism which includes gear wheels,
but apply to all types of machine. Figure 48 illustrates some
levers, screws, and so on.
simple machines based on the lever principle.

But however complex a machine may appear to be, its various

parts can always be shown to be applications of a limited number
of basic mechanical principles.

Essentially a machine is any device by means of which a force

applied at one point can be used to overcome a force at some
other point – or a device for the transmission of energy.

THE LEVER

The simplest form of lever in common use is a steel rod known as

a crowbar, but the term lever may be applied to any rigid body
which is pivoted about a point called the fulcrum.

Figure 9 - Applications of the lever principle

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The mechanical advantage of a machine is defined as the ratio of Under ordinary conditions the resistance to the motion of a
the load to the effort or bicycle along a level road is comparatively small, and therefore a
large mechanical advantage is unnecessary.
𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅
𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 =
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 Thus, although a cyclist works at a “mechanical disadvantage”,
he nevertheless gains in the speed with which he can travel.

If a lever can be used to overcome a load of 50 N by applying an

On the other hand, the fact that the mechanical advantage of a
effort of 10 N, the lever is said to have a mechanical advantage
bicycle is less than 1 becomes painfully obvious when we begin to
of:
ascend a hill.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 50
𝑀. 𝐴. = = =𝟓
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 10 Whereas previously only a small amount of work had to be done
against friction and air resistance, we now have to do a vastly
increased amount against the force of gravity.
Some machines are designed to overcome a load much greater
than the effort used, for example, a spanner used to undo a tight Under these conditions it is usually easier to dismount and walk,
bolt or a screw jack to lift a motor-car. In such cases the unless the mechanical advantage of the bicycle can be increased
mechanical advantage is greater than 1. by using a low gear.

In certain other machines the mechanical advantage is less

than 1, and in these the effort is greater than the load. It is not
generally realised that a bicycle is a machine with a mechanical
advantage of less than 1.

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MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE OF A LEVER

If we neglect friction at the fulcrum and the weight of the lever
itself (both being comparatively small in most cases) the
mechanical advantage in any particular case may be obtained by
writing down the equation of moments for the load and effort
about the fulcrum.

Remembering that:

𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑐𝑟𝑢𝑚

We have, from the diagram opposite:

𝐿 × 15 = 𝐸 × 90

Therefore mechanical advantage:

𝐿 90
𝑀. 𝐴. = = =6
𝐸 15

The mechanical advantage in any particular case will depend, of Figure 10 - Example of mechanical advantage of a lever
course, on the position of the fulcrum in relation to the effort and
load.

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PULLEYS the load raised, we obtain the greater convenience and ease of
A pulley is a wheel with a grooved rim, and there may be several being able to stand on the ground and pull downwards, instead of
of these mounted in a framework called a block. having to haul the load upwards from the top of the building.

The effort is applied to a rope which passes over the pulleys.

THE SINGLE FIXED PULLEY

This is often used for the purpose of raising small
loads contained in a bucket or basket to the top of
Tension in rope
a building during construction or repair work Moving
Fixed Pulley
(Figure 11). Pulley
MA = 1
MA = 2

The tension is the same throughout the rope, so

that, neglecting the weight of the rope itself and
any friction in the pulley bearings, we have:

load = effort

And mechanical advantage:

𝐿
𝑀. 𝐴. = =1
𝐸

Figure 11 - Example of mechanical advantage in pulleys

In this case, although the effort applied is equal to

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THE SINGLE MOVING PULLEY The arrow pointing upwards represents the force which the string
This is shown in Fig 7. Here the tension in the string or rope is exerts on the load, while the arrow pointing downwards shows
equal to the effort applied, so that the total upward pull on the the force exerted by the string on the hand.
pulley is twice the effort E.
This is another example of Newton’s third law, “action and
Suppose a load of 4N is supported by the pulley and that the reaction are equal and opposite”.
weight of the pulley block and string is negligible.
In general, we do not put in both arrows, but only the one which
Since the load is supported by the tension in two sections of gives the direction of the force in which we are interested.
string, the effort applied need only be 2 N. Thus,
Thus, in Fig 7, both arrows are drawn upwards as we wish to
𝐿 4 indicate the force exerted by the string on the load.
𝑀. 𝐴. = = =2
𝐸 2

We are not here concerned with the downward pull of the string
on the support.
DIRECTION OF A TENSION IN A STRING
In all pulley diagrams some consideration must be given to the
direction in which force arrows are drawn on the strings. Take the
case of a 2Kg mass supported by a string held in the hand (Fig.
7).

Assuming g = 10 m/s2 the tension in the string is 20 N and acts

equally in both directions.

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THE BLOCK AND TACKLE It follows that, if an effort E is applied to the free end of the
This is by far the most important pulley system of all, being string, then the total upward force on the load will be 4E.
commonly used for lifts and cranes.
If we ignore friction and the weight of the moving parts of the
Two blocks are employed containing from two to eight pulleys in system, then:
each, according to the mechanical advantage required. To 4𝐸
𝑀. 𝐴. = =4
𝐸
illustrate the principle, Fig. 8 has been drawn to show two pulleys
in each block.
In practice, however, the practical mechanical advantage in a
case such as this is always less than 4, since extra effort must be
For simplicity, the pulleys are shown on separate axles placed
applied to overcome friction and the weight of the moving pulley
one above the other.
block and string.

In practice, however, the pulleys in each block are mounted side

by side and run independently on a common axle (Fig. 8). A
single string is used which passes round each pulley in turn.

It will be seen that the lower block is supported by four sections

of string.

Incidentally, the number of sections of string supporting the

lower block is always equal to the total number of pulleys in the
two blocks together.

Figure 12 - Example of block and tackle

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VELOCITY RATIO (V.R.) (OR SPEED RATIO) The ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance
moved by the load in the same time is called the velocity ratio
In the pulley systems we have already considered where the
of the machine, i.e.,
mechanical advantage is greater than 1; it might appear at first
sight that we are getting more out of the machine than we are
putting into it. 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
=
But while in such cases the load is greater than the effort, it must 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
be remembered that the effort moves through a much greater
distance than that of the load.

Consequently, the work obtained from the machine is equal

to the work put into it, less any work wasted in the machine.

From Fig. 8 it will be clear that, in order to raise the load by 1 m,

each string supporting the load must be shortened by 1 m.

The effort must therefore be applied through a total distance of

4m.

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EFFICIENCY The ratio of the useful work done by the machine to the
total work put into the machine is called the efficiency of the
WORK DONE BY A MACHINE. machine. Usually, this ratio is expressed as a percentage as
If the pulley system were a “perfect machine”, i.e., composed of follows:
weightless and frictionless strings and pulleys, then a load of 40
N would be raised through a distance of 1 m by an effort of 10 N 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
moving a distance of 4 m. 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

The work done by the machine on the load is then:

40 𝑁 𝑥 1𝑚 = 40 𝐽

While the work done by the effort is:

10 𝑁 𝑥 4 𝑚 = 40 𝐽

These are equal, as we should expect for a perfect machine.

In practice, however, some work is always wasted in overcoming

friction and raising moving parts, and therefore the useful work
done by a machine is always less than the work done by the
effort.

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RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MA, VR AND EFFICIENCY

Since: Or:
1 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
=
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

This now gives:

It follows that:
1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ×
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
So:

Hence :
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑴𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

But we already know that:

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
So:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ×
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

But also:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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THE SCREW JACK

The screw jack is a simple machine making use of the screw
thread, for raising relatively large loads by means of a small
effort.

An example of the use of the screw jack may be found in the

mechanical trestles used for stabilizing aircraft structures during
aircraft jacking operations.

In this application normally, a pair of screw jacks are worked in

tandem to raise and lower the trestle steadying beam.

The thread pitch is the vertical distance from one thread to the
next, measured along the axis of the screw.

The lead (DL) is the vertical distance travelled by the jack for one
complete revolution of the screw thread.

For a single start thread this will be equivalent to the pitch of the
thread.

Figure 13 - Illustration of a mechanical screw jack

For a multiple start thread the lead will be equal to the pitch
multiplied by the number of starts.

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If the effort is applied directly to the screw jack then for one
revolution:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

𝑉. 𝑅. =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝜋 × 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑉. 𝑅. =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

If the effort is applied horizontally by a lever, then:

2 × 𝜋 ×𝑟
𝑉. 𝑅. =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

Where r is the length of the lever.

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GEAR TRAINS
A simple gear train consists of two meshed gears of different So for the simple gear train:
sizes mounted on two separate shafts.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑉𝑅 =
If gear wheel A is the driver then gear wheel B is the driven. The 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟
driver and driven gears rotate in opposite directions.

If rotation in the same direction is required an idler gear is

added

If the simple gear train without an idler is driven at N rpm and T

is the number of teeth on a gear wheel, then assuming no
slippage, the number of teeth meshing on each gear wheel must
be the same, therefore:

𝑁1 × 𝑇1 = 𝑁2 × 𝑇2

And:

𝑇1 𝑁2 1 Figure 14 - Illustration of non compound gear train with idler

= =
𝑇2 𝑁1 𝑉𝑅

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When two or more gears are placed on the same shaft, the gear
arrangement is known as a compound train.

In general, the VR for these systems can be shown to be:

𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑉𝑅 =
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠

𝑉𝑅 =
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠

For example, if a compound gear system has, gear A has 20

teeth, gear B has 80 teeth, gear C has 10 teeth and gear D has
40 teeth, then assuming gear A is a driver:

𝐵 × 𝐷
𝑉𝑅 =
𝐴 × 𝐶

80 × 40
𝑉𝑅 =
20 × 10

𝑉𝑅 = 16
Figure 15 - illustration of compound gear train

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.2.3

Dyamics

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Intentionally Blank

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Interchange of energy between potential energy and kinetic

TABLE OF CONTENTS
energy......................................................................... 16
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3
Internal energy............................................................ 17
Section 2.2.3 - Dynamics ...................................................... 5
Kinetic energy .............................................................. 18
Definitions of principal terms .............................................. 6
Heat energy ................................................................. 20
Mass ............................................................................. 6

Weight .......................................................................... 6
Gyroscopic Principles ........................................................ 21
Force ............................................................................ 7
Rigidity ........................................................................ 21
Gravitational force ....................................................... 8
Precession ................................................................... 22
Weights of standard masses .......................................... 9
Sperry’s Rule ............................................................. 23
Action and reaction forces ............................................ 10
Gyro topple and gimbal lock ........................................... 24
Force and Newton’s laws of motion .................................. 11
Limitations of a free gyro ............................................... 25
Inertia ..........................................................................12
Mechanical drift - (real drift, wander or veer). ............... 25

Apparent wander / Earth Rate- (drift or veer) ................ 26

Work ..............................................................................13
Transport wander (apparent tilt) ................................. 27

Gyro erection rates ....................................................... 28

Energy ............................................................................14

Definition......................................................................14

Mechanical energy ......................................................... 15

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FRICTION ........................................................................31

Types of friction ............................................................ 31

Static and Limiting Friction. .......................................... 31

Kinetic Friction ........................................................... 32

Co-efficients of friction ................................................... 33

Coefficient of Static Friction.......................................... 33

Coefficient of Kinetic Friction ........................................ 34

Forces on a body at rest on an inclined plane ................. 37

Angle of friction (φ) ....................................................... 40

Forces on a body moving up and down an inclined plane . 41

Forces on body moving up the plane (Fig 8) ................ 42

Forces on body moving down the plane (Fig 9): ........... 43

Contact area and friction ................................................ 44

Reduction of Friction ...................................................... 45

Metallic Friction ............................................................. 46

Rolling Friction ..............................................................47

Examples on Friction ...................................................... 48

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Linear dynamics concerns objects moving in a line and involves
SECTION 2.2.3 - DYNAMICS
such quantities as force, mass/inertia, displacement (in units of
Dynamics is a branch of physics (specifically classical mechanics)
distance), velocity (distance per unit time), acceleration (distance
concerned with the study of forces and torques and their effect
per unit of time squared) and momentum (mass times unit of
on motion, as opposed to kinematics, which studies the motion of
velocity).
objects without reference to what causes them to move.

Rotational dynamics concerns objects that are rotating or moving

Generally speaking, researchers involved in dynamics study how
in a curved path and involves such quantities as torque, moment
a physical system might develop or alter over time and study the
of inertia/rotational inertia, angular displacement (in radians or
causes of those changes.
less often, degrees), angular velocity (radians per unit time),
angular acceleration (radians per unit of time squared) and
In addition, Isaac Newton established the undergirding physical
angular momentum (moment of inertia times unit of angular
laws which govern dynamics in physics.
velocity).

Dynamics is mostly related to Newton's second law of motion.

Very often, objects exhibit linear and rotational motion.
However, all three laws of motion are taken into consideration,
because these are interrelated in any given observation or
experiment.

The study of dynamics falls under two categories:

• linear
• rotational

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DEFINITIONS OF PRINCIPAL TERMS WEIGHT

The weight of a body is the force it exerts on anything which

MASS freely supports it and, normally, it exerts this force owing to

the fact that it is itself being attracted towards the earth by the
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains, and the
force of gravity.
basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram.

In everyday conversation the distinction between mass and

The standard kilogram is the mass of a certain cylindrical piece of
weight is relatively unimportant: a butcher who had not studied
platinum-iridium alloy kept at Sèrves in France.
physics would doubtless be surprised if a customer asked him
what was the mass of the week-end joint.
Its various multiples and sub-multiples are given below:

In science, however, we must be careful to distinguish between

1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg
them.
1 Kg = 1000 grams (g)
1g = 1000 milligrams (mg)
The mass and weight of a body are different and are measured in
1g = 1 000 000 micrograms (µg)
different units. As we have already said the unit of mass is the
kilogram, but the unit of weight which is a force is the Newton
(N).
The kilogram was originally intended to be equal to the mass of
1000 cubic centimetres (cm2) of pure water at the temperature
An important distinction between mass and weight is that the
of its maximum density, 4oC, but a slight error was made at the
mass of a body does not depend on where the body happens to
time and the kilogram is actually equal to the mass of 1 000.028
be, whereas the weight of a body can vary from place to place –
cm3 of water under these conditions.
on earth or in space.

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FORCE This unit of force is called the newton (N) and is defined as
The word “force” generally denotes a ‘push’ or a ‘pull’. Now it is follows:
not possible to describe a force as we can describe some material
object such as an apple. “One Newton is the force required to give a mass of one
kilogram an acceleration of one metre per second per
We can only say what force can do. When a body is acted upon second.”
by a resultant force it will begin to move.
The Newton received its name in honour of Sir Isaac Newton who
If the body is already moving a force may alter its speed or alter laid the foundations of the study of the relation between force
its direction of motion or bring it to rest. and motion in the seventeenth century.

We therefore define force as follows: It is useful to think of a Newton as being roughly equal to the
weight of a 100 g mass.
“Force is that which changes a body’s state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line”

Another way of expressing this would be to say that a force

causes a body to accelerate.

We define our unit of force in terms of the acceleration produced

when the force acts on a mass of one kilogram.

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GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
The force of which we are constantly aware in our daily lives is 𝑴𝟏 𝑴𝟐
𝑭𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
that which pulls us towards the earth. 𝑹𝟐

This is called gravitational force. Newton realised that gravitational attraction applied not only to
bodies on the earth but was also responsible for holding the
Sir Isaac Newton came to the conclusion that gravitational force moon in its orbit about the earth and also the earth and its fellow
exists between all bodies. Thus, two stones are not only planets in their orbits round the sun.
attracted towards the earth but also attract each other.

Normally we do not notice this force owing to its smallness,

although it can be measured with sensitive instruments.
Nevertheless, two 50,000 ton ships lying side by side attract each
other with a force of about 180 N.

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that any two particles

of matter attract one another with a force which is proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of their distance apart.

Strictly, this law applies only when the distance is large compared
with the dimensions of the particles.

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WEIGHTS OF STANDARD MASSES on the string with this same force, and this is what we call its
In science we frequently use the force of gravity acting on a weight. So the weight of one kilogram is 9.8 N.
standard mass to provide a known force.
For many purposes it is sufficiently accurate to take the weight of
In order to show the relationship between the mass of a body and one kilogram as 10 N.
the gravitational pull on it we have to take another look at the
definition of the newton. On the moon where the acceleration of a freely falling body is
only 1.6 m/s2 the weight of one kilogram would only be 1.6N.
As we have seen, this is defined as the force which gives a mass
of one kilogram an acceleration of one metre per second2.

If a mass of one kilogram is allowed to fall freely in a vacuum it

acquires an acceleration which varies slightly from place to place
on the earth, but which has an average value of about 9.8 m/s2.

To produce this acceleration the force acting on the mass of one

kilogram must therefore be 9.8 N, since a force of one Newton
produces unit acceleration. Thus we may say that, on the
average on the earth, the force of gravity on a mass of one
kilogram is 9.8 N.

Now, if the kilogram is resting on the earth’s surface or is

attached to a string it will press down on the surface or pull down

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ACTION AND REACTION FORCES
Sir Isaac Newton pointed out that, whenever a force acts on a
body, there must be an equal and opposite force or reaction
acting on some other body.

He called this one of the laws of motion and expressed it in the

simple form:

“To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

For example consider a simple aircraft.

If the aircraft is fitted with a propeller, then the action of the

propeller is to move air backwards with a given force F.

The Newton’s law reaction to this will be the air moving the
propeller forward with an equal and opposite force.

This force is written as F| and is referred to as ‘F bar’.

Together F and F| make what is called a Third law pair, that is

they are a pair of forces that obey Newton’s third law … they are
exactly equal in magnitude, but exactly opposite in direction. Figure 1 - illustration of Newton’s third law pair forces

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FORCE AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

It is a matter of common experience that objects at rest do not When a bullet is fired from a gun its motion is opposed both by
begin to move of their own accord. air resistance and the pull of the earth.

If we place an object in a certain place we expect it to remain Sooner or later it returns to the earth, but it would be reasonable
there unless a force is applied to it. to suppose that, if air resistance and gravitation could be
eliminated, the bullet would go on moving in a straight line for
It is not immediately obvious that a body moving with uniform ever.
velocity in a straight line tends to go on moving for ever without
coming to rest. We have already come across Newton’s first law of motion in the
previous section. Another way of stating the same law is:
A person riding a bicycle along a level road does not come to rest
immediately he stops pedalling. “Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion
in a straight line unless compelled by some external force
The bicycle continues to move forward, but eventually it comes to to act otherwise.”
rest as a result of the retarding force provided by air resistance
and friction. In the early seventeenth century the German astronomer, Johann
Kepler, had shown that the planets move in elliptical paths or
In a collision between two motor vehicles the passengers are orbits round the sun, but he was unable to explain why.
frequently injured when they hit the windscreen.
It was left to Sir Isaac Newton to offer a satisfactory explanation
An external force stops the vehicle, but not the passengers who based on the first law of motion and the law of universal
simply continue their straight-line motion in accordance with gravitation. Newton pointed out that the planets move in curved
Newton’s first law. paths because the sun is attracting them.

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INERTIA
No slowing up occurs, since there is no retarding force. The Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in
planets move in the vacuum of space, carrying their atmospheres its motion (including a change in direction).
with them.
In other words, it is the tendency of objects to keep moving in a
If the attraction of the sun suddenly ceased, a planet would straight line at constant linear velocity, or to keep still.
continue to move in a straight line making a tangent with its
original orbit.

It is important to realise that, once a body is moving with uniform

speed in a straight line, it needs no force to keep it in motion
provided there are no external opposing forces.

The tendency of a body to remain at rest or, if moving, to

continue its motion in a straight line is described as inertia.

For this reason, Newton’s first law is sometimes called the law of
inertia.

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WORK Larger units used are the kilojoule (kJ) and the megajoule (MJ)

In ordinary conversation the word “work” refers to almost any

1 kJ = 1000 J (or 103 J)
kind of physical or mental activity, but in science and
1 MJ = 1,000,000 J (or 106 J)
mathematics it has one meaning only.

It follows that a locomotive which exerts a force of 9000 N over a

Work is done when a force produces motion.
distance of 6 m will do:

A locomotive pulling a train does work; so does a crane when it

9 000 × 6 = 54 000 = 54𝐾𝐽
raises a load against the pull of the earth.

If we wish to calculate the work done by a man of mass 65 kg in

Similarly, a workman who is employed to carry bricks up a ladder
climbing a ladder 4 m high, we multiply his weight, mg, by the
and on to a scaffold platform also performs work.
vertical height raised. Assuming g = 10 m/s2,

Work is said to be done when the point of application of a

The work done is calculated by:
force moves and is measured by the product of the force and
the distance moved in the direction of the force.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 × 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

The SI unit of work is called the joule (J) and is the work done
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = (65 × 10) × 4
when the point of application of a force of 1 newton (N) moves
through 1 metre (m) in the direction of the force.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 650 × 4 = 2 600 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 2.6 𝐾𝐽

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ENERGY

DEFINITION
Anything which is able to do work, as defined in the previous
section, is said to possess energy and therefore energy is the
capacity to perform work.

Work and energy are, of course, both measured in the same

units, namely, joules.

The world we live in provides energy in many different forms, of

which the most important has been chemical energy.

The utilisation of the latent chemical energy in coal, oil and gas,
released in the form of heat to drive steam turbines and internal
combustion engines, has been a major factor in the development
of modern civilisation.

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MECHANICAL ENERGY When something is lifted vertically, work is done against its
In mechanics energy is divided into two kinds called potential weight and this work becomes stored up in the body as
and kinetic energy. gravitational potential energy.

Kinetic energy (K.E.) is the energy which a body has by reason Another example of the potential energy a body has by reason of
of its motion. its state is the elastic potential energy stored up in a wound
clock-spring.
Potential energy (P.E.) is the energy something has by reason
of its position in a field of force or by its state.

Obvious examples of kinetic energy are moving bullets or

hammer heads.

These are able to do work by overcoming forces when they strike

something.

A heavy flywheel stores energy in the form of rotational kinetic

energy and so keeps an engine running smoothly in between the
working strokes of its pistons.

One of the commonest forms of potential energy is that

possessed by a body when it is above the level of the earth’s
surface.

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INTERCHANGE OF ENERGY BETWEEN POTENTIAL ENERGY AND This is an example of the law of conservation of energy which

KINETIC ENERGY states that:

A swinging pendulum bob is an example of a body whose energy

can be either kinetic or potential or a mixture of both. Energy cannot be destroyed: it only becomes transferred
to a different form of energy.

It is all potential at the extreme end of the swing (the

velocity at this point is zero) and all kinetic when passing
through the rest position.

At intermediate points it is partly kinetic and partly potential.

If we turn our attention to a falling stone, it is obvious that at any

particular moment, it possesses both potential and kinetic
energy.

As it falls its speed increases so that it gains in K.E. at the

expense of its P.E.

If we ignore the energy the stone gives to the air molecules as it

pushes them out of its way, then the loss of P.E. of the stone is
exactly equal to its gain in K.E.

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INTERNAL ENERGY

We remarked on the obvious nature of the two kinds of energy

possessed by a falling stone.

What is not quite so obvious is the internal energy of the

molecules inside the stone.

The molecules of a substance are in continual motion.

According to the state of the substance, the molecules possess

kinetic energy of motion or vibration together with potential
energy resulting from the attractions and repulsions they exert on
one another.

Internal energy increases as the temperature of a body

increases.

Scientists sometimes refer to the K.E. and P.E. of a body taken as

a whole as being macroscopic (visible to the naked eye).

Internal energy may be described as microscopic (invisible to

the naked eye).

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KINETIC ENERGY In accordance with the law of conservation of energy, the work
Where there are no opposing forces, a moving body needs no done by the force F in pushing the body through distance x will
force to keep it moving with a steady velocity. become transferred to kinetic energy of motion in the body.

If, however, a resultant force does act on a moving body in the 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
direction of its motion, then it will accelerate and the work done
by the force will become transferred to increased kinetic energy
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹 × 𝑠
in the body.

Since ‘F = ma’
In order to calculate the kinetic energy of a body mass m moving
with a velocity v, we begin by supposing that the body starts
from rest and is acted upon by a force F (no friction or other
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚 × 𝑎 × 𝑠
forces acting).
Applying the equation v2 = u2 + 2as and remembering that u

This force will give the body a uniform acceleration a, and it will =0

acquire a final velocity v, after travelling a distance s. These

quantities, a, v and s will be related by the equation re-arranging for ‘a’

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 𝑣2
𝑎=
2𝑠

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Substituting this value of a, we obtain

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚 × 𝑎 × 𝑠

𝑣2
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚 × × 𝑠
2𝑠

Hence,

𝟏
𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐

Where: m = mass in kg and v = velocity in m/s

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HEAT ENERGY
In everyday life we sometimes loosely refer to the “heat energy
in a body”, instead of using the term “internal energy”.

In physics, heat is defined as energy which is transferred from

one place to another owing to a temperature difference
between them.

There are three main processes of heat transfer, namely

conduction, convection, and radiation.

These will be covered in more detail in section 2.3.

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GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES
A gyroscope is a rotating mass that has freedom to move at right
angles to its plane of rotation.

Gyro instruments utilise either or both of a gyroscope’s

fundamental characteristics which are: -
• Rigidity (or gyroscopic inertia)
• Precession

RIGIDITY
This is an application of Newton’s laws of motion; a body remains
in its state of rest or uniform motion unless compelled by some
external force to change that state.

If a gyro rotor is rotating it will continue to rotate about that axis

unless a force is applied to alter the axis.

The rigidity of the gyro is increased by:

1. Making the rotation faster
2. Increasing the mass
3. Increasing the distance of that mass from the axis
Figure 2 - illustration of a gyroscope

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PRECESSION The rate of precession is:

This is the reaction to a force applied to the axis of a rotating • inversely proportional to the rotor speed.
assembly. • directly proportional to the applied force (torque).

Consider a gyroscope with the rotor broken down into two 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝛺)
segments opposite to each other rotating about a fixed axis (See 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑜
figure 57).
=
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑜 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The rotation, mass, and distance of that mass from the axis will
give a certain rigidity.

If a force is applied to the axis then the rotating segments have

two forces acting on them, the revolving force and the force
applied to the axis.

The effect is that a resultant is formed and the segments will now
move diagonally. This diagonal movement must tilt the rotor
axis.

Precession will continue :-

• as long as the external force is applied – or –
• until the plane of spin is in line with the external force, the
gyro will then topple.

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SPERRY’S RULE
A simple rule of thumb to determine the direction of precession
is:

“Take one of the forces producing the torque move it in the

direction it is pointing onto the spinning rotor. Move it
3. Axis gyro would rotate about
round in the direction of the spinning rotor by 90 degrees
if it were not spinning
and the rotating mass will move in a direction as if acted
on by a force at this point”.

4. Rotational axis rotated 90°

2. Input Force
The movement or tilting of the axis compared to the
about the spin axis, in the
displacing force is at right angles. 90°
1. Gyro Spin Axis

To monitor the movements the axis of the rotor is

5. Effective point of
mounted in an inner gimbal ring which is in turn mounted
application of input force
in an outer gimbal ring, this supporting the assembly in
the case.

6. Resultant axis that gyro rotates

about (whilst spinning) due to input
force.
Figure 3 - illustration of Sperry's rule

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GYRO TOPPLE AND GIMBAL LOCK

This is a term given to a gyro that is displaying a continuous dial
rotation.

If a gyro’s spin axis precesses and comes in line with the pivots
of the outer gimbal (this is called gimbal lock), and a force is then
applied to the gyro, topple will occur.
This is a rapid spinning motion around the outer gimbal pivots,
this is prevented by limiting the movement of the inner gimbal to
85º either side of the vertical position

Should the gyro topple then the power should be removed and
the gyro allowed to come to rest, the power should then be
reapplied and the gyro checked for correct indication.

Topple occurs mainly on the Artificial Horizon, rarely on the

Directional Gyro and never on the turn and slip indicator.

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LIMITATIONS OF A FREE GYRO

There are three basic limitations to a free space gyro. These are:
• Mechanical drift
• Apparent drift
• Transport wonder

MECHANICAL DRIFT - (REAL DRIFT, WANDER OR VEER).

This is caused by mechanical defects causing the gyro to precess
to a false position, the cause can be attributed to defective pivots
(bearings) or unbalance of the gimbals.

Mechanical drift can only be rectified by using high quality

bearings, precision balancing techniques and equally important,
by good gyro handling during transportation and storage to
ensure the gyro does not suffer shock loading.

A gyro should always be kept in a padded container right up to

the moment of fitment, and also stored on a padded shelf.

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APPARENT WANDER / EARTH RATE- (DRIFT OR VEER) 2. Deliberately unbalance the inner gimbal to cause the gyro
This is a problem concerning the horizontal spin axis gyro (DIG) to precess at the local apparent drift rate.
and is caused by the earth rotating on its axis 360º in 24 Hrs.
(15º/Hr. anti-clockwise when viewed from above the north pole). This can only be carried out in an instrument workshop and
is achieved by using balancing nuts on the inner gimbal.
Because the gyros rigidity maintains its plane of spin in a fixed
direction, but the earth turns, it would appear to an observer that This correction is only good for the setting latitude and if
the gyro has precessed in the opposite direction to the earth’s the aircraft flies away from that latitude then ‘apparent
rotation. drift’ will appear, with the error increasing with the change
of latitude.
The amount of error is variable depending on the latitude where
the gyro is positioned, with the maximum error being apparent at 3. 3Use a variable electro-magnetic torque on the inner
the poles. gimbal, to precess the gyro at an amount equal to the local
earth rate.
The error will cause a numerical decrease in the indicated
heading at the North Pole, and a numerical increase in indicated The benefit of this method is that the gyro can now be
heading at the South Pole. corrected during flight for any position on the earth’s
surface.
Apparent wander may be corrected by the following 3 ways:
1. Calculate the error from the earth rate formula (15 x sin
lat. in degrees/Hr.) and manually adjust the gyro at set
time intervals (not used now).

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TRANSPORT WANDER (APPARENT TILT)
This is an error that affects the vertical spin axis gyro and is due
to the gyro maintaining its spin axis relative to a point in space.

If a gyro is set up at the North Pole and then transported towards

the equator, the aircraft will change its position relative to space
by following the earth’s curvature.

This will change the gyro’s spin axis from starting on the aircraft’s
vertical axis to being in line with the aircraft’s longitudinal axis.

This change of position will be seen as a pitch error and must

therefore be corrected.

This error may be corrected by the following:

• with the spin axis in the position drawn at the North pole,
the error can be determined by Earth rate x cos latitude
(15 x cos lat.)
• if the rotor was positioned to be vertical above the equator
the error would be Earth rate x sin latitude (15 x sin lat.)

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GYRO ERECTION RATES

This is a term that is used to indicate the rate at which a gyro
running at normal speed will erect to the vertical after being
displaced.

Erection rates are given in degrees / minute.

Typical rates are:

Air driven - 8º/min Electricallv driven - 4º/minute

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BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES The eccentricity of the rotating masses cannot be removed, as
Perhaps the most common of all the systems encountered in they are either a result of the design of the mechanism, such as a
mechanical engineering practice is the rotating shaft system. crankshaft, or are due to unavoidable manufacturing
imperfections.
If the centroid of any mass, mounted on a rotating shaft, is offset
from the axis of rotation, then the mass will exert a centrifugal The problem is solved, or at least minimised, by the addition of
force on the shaft. balance weights, whose out of balance centrifugal force is exactly
equal and opposite to the original out of balance force.
This force is directly proportional to the square of the speed of
rotation of the shaft, so that, even if the eccentricity is small, the A common example of this is the weights put on motor car
force may be considerable at high speeds. wheels to balance them, which makes the car much smoother to
drive at high speed.
Such a force will tend to make the shaft bend, producing large
stresses in the shaft and causing damage to the bearings as it A similar method is used on the rotating assemblies of a gas
does so. turbine engine, such as the fan shown

A further undesirable effect would be the inducement of sustained

vibrations in the system, its supports and the surroundings.

This situation would be intolerable in an aircraft, so that some

attempt must be made to eliminate the effect of the unwanted
centrifugal force.

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.

Figure 4 - illustration of fan blade balancing

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FRICTION
The friction forces generated between two surfaces when there is
Experience shows that the sliding, or the tendency to slide, of one
no sliding are termed forces of static friction.
surface over another is opposed by a force we call friction.

Provided no sliding occurs static friction always adjusts to such a

Frictional forces always oppose sliding, or the tendency to
value as to maintain equilibrium.
slide, and are always tangential to the two surfaces at their
points of contact.
When one surface is on the point of sliding over the other we
reach the maximum value of static friction.
TYPES OF FRICTION
There 2 basic types of frictional forces:
The maximum value of static friction is called limiting
• Static or limiting friction
friction.
• Kinetic friction

STATIC AND LIMITING FRICTION.

Suppose A is a block on a horizontal table.

When A is pulled horizontally as shown it is found that sliding

does not start until the pull exceeds a certain value.

As an example suppose that sliding does not start until the pull P,
read from the spring balance S, exceeds 2 lbf. When P has any
value less than this, say 0.5 lb, 1 lbf, etc. there is no sliding and
the friction force adjusts itself to be equal and opposite to P. Figure 5 - illustration of friction measuring
experiment

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KINETIC FRICTION
As soon as the object is moving, immediately friction has been
overcome and the block is sliding, the spring balance reading
decreases and remains approximately constant at the reduced
value even though sliding continues.

The friction force generated when one surface slides over another
is called kinetic or sliding friction and experiments show it to be
less than limiting friction for the same surfaces.

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CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION
This can be stated as a formula:
COEFFICIENT OF STATIC FRICTION
The so-called laws of friction, first recorded by Leonardo da Vinci 𝑭
= 𝝁𝒔
and re-discovered in 1699 by Amontons, were verified in 1781 by 𝑵
Coulomb.
Where µs is a constant called the coefficient of static friction

The first “law” which applies more exactly to clean dry metallic between the two surfaces.

surfaces but approximately for many others can be stated:

Force required to
‘for two given dry surfaces, the ratio of the limiting friction to the
overcome friction
normal (i.e. perpendicular) reaction is approximately constant’
F
If, for instance, the normal reaction on the block A is doubled by
placing a weight on top of it, the limiting frictional force is also
doubled. Thus for any two given surfaces

𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Weight of object Normal reaction force by

= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 W=mxg table on object

N=W=mxg
Figure 6 - illustration of frictional forces

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COEFFICIENT OF KINETIC FRICTION
Values of µk are included in the following table.
For low sliding speeds, kinetic or sliding friction is approximately
independent of the speed, but, like limiting friction is proportional Note that for cast iron on cast iron µs is greater than 1 - that is
to the normal reaction between the surfaces. Hence, we have: the friction force is greater than the reaction force.

𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Also note that there is a dramatic drop in friction when sliding
= 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 occurs for some surfaces.
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑭
= 𝝁𝑲
𝑵

Where a pair of surfaces, µk is a constant

µS µK
known as the coefficient of kinetic friction. MATERIAL
DRY GREASY DRY GREASY

Hard steel on hard steel 0.78 0.005-0.23 0.42 0.096-0.12

For given surfaces µk is less than µs the
coefficient of static friction. Copper on mild steel 0.53 -- 0.36 0.18

Cast iron on cast iron 1.10 0.2 0.15 0.07

Teflon on teflon or on 0.04 -- 0.04 --

steel
Glass on glass 0.94 0.35 0.4 0.09

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From the above laws we have established that the sliding It is the coefficient of static friction μs, that we use in the
frictional force F is proportional to the normal force N pressing examples, which is considered to be the limiting friction
the two surfaces together, i.e. F ∝ N. coefficient.

You will remember from your mathematical study of proportion, You may find the solution of problems involving friction rather
that in order to equate these forces we need to insert a constant, difficult. This is because it is often difficult to visualize the nature
the constant of proportionality, i.e. F =μ N. and direction of all the forces that act on two bodies in contact,
as well as resolving these forces into their component parts.
This constant μ is known as the coefficient of friction and in
theory it has a maximum value of 1. Problems involving friction may be solved by calculation or by
drawing.
Figure 4.62 shows the space diagram
for the arrangement of forces on two horizontal
surfaces in contact.

We know that the value of the force required to just start to

move a body is greater than the force needed to keep the body
moving.

The difference in these two forces is due to the slightly higher

value of the coefficient of static friction (μs) between the two
surfaces when the body is stationary compared to the coefficient
of dynamic friction (μd) when the body is rolling.

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If the block is in equilibrium, i.e. just on the point of moving, or
moving with constant velocity then we can equate the horizontal
and vertical forces as follows:

Resolving horizontally gives:

𝑃 = 𝐹

Resolving vertically gives:

𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔

But from the laws of dry friction

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁

Substituting this into the horizontal component gives:

𝑃 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔

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FORCES ON A BODY AT REST ON AN INCLINED PLANE And resolving perpendicular to the plane we get:
Remembering that the frictional resistance always acts in such a
way as to oppose the direction in which the body is tending to 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
move.
And from ‘𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁’ we see that:
So if we have a body on an inclined surface where the body is in
limiting equilibrium (i.e. on the point of slipping down the plane) 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝜇 × 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
the frictional resistance will act up the plane.
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
= 𝜇
𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
It can be seen that there are now three forces acting on this
body, the weight mg acting vertically downwards, the normal
force N acting perpendicular to the plane and the frictional 𝝁 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
resistance F acting parallel to the plane.
Note: When and only when, a body on an inclined plane is
in limiting equilibrium and no external forces act on
These forces are in equilibrium and their values can be found by
the body then the angle of slope θ is equal to the
calculation or drawing.
angle of friction φ, i.e. θ =φ.

Again, using simple trigonometry we can resolve the forces

parallel and perpendicular to the plane.

Resolving parallel to the plane we get:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

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Normal Reaction Force

N
Friction Force
F

Pulling Force
P
Step 4.
If the angle in step 3 is (90º - θ), then this
Step 3. angle must be θ since these 2 angles
Since shape is triangle added together make 90º
this angle must be …
Inclined angle Weight of object 180 º - 90º - θ = 90º - θ
W=mxg
(θ)
Parallel lines
Step 1.
Angle of incline = Angle
θ

Step 2.
Since shape is a triangle
this angle is 90º

Figure 7 - illustration of resolution of forces

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Normal Reaction Force

N
Friction Force
F

Pulling Force
P

Inclined angle
(θ)

Inclined angle Weight of object

W=mxg
(θ)
Component of weight
at 90º to incline
Mg Cos θ

Weight of object Component of weight

W=mxg PARALLEL to incline
Mg Sin θ
Figure 8 - illustration of forces on a body on an inclined plane

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ANGLE OF FRICTION (Φ)

For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in
terms of the maximum angle of an included surface before which
one of the items will begin sliding down.

This is called the angle of friction or friction angle and is given the
letter Φ (Phi).

It is defined as:

𝐹
𝛷 = 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑁𝑆

Where θ is the angle from horizontal and µs is the static

coefficient of friction between the objects, F is the pulling force,
and N is the normal reaction force between the object and the
surface.

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FORCES ON A BODY MOVING UP AND DOWN AN INCLINED PLANE
The diagram shows the arrangement of forces acting on a body
that is moving up an inclined plane (since the force P is pointing
up the incline) and the next diagram shows a similar
arrangement when a body is moving down an inclined plane.

Study both of these diagrams carefully, noting the arrangement

of forces.

Also note the clear distinction (in these cases) between the angle
of friction φ and the angle of slope θ.

The weight mg always acts vertically down and the frictional

force F always opposes the forces P, tending to cause motion
either up or down the slope.

All problems involving bodies moving up or down on an inclined

plane, can be solved by calculation or drawing.

The resolutions of forces and general vector diagrams for each

case are detailed below. Figure 9 - illustration of forces on a body moving up an inclined
plane

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FORCES ON BODY MOVING UP THE PLANE (FIG 8)

Resolving forces horizontally

𝑃 = 𝐹 + 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

Resolving vertically
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Therefore:

𝑃 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

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FORCES ON BODY MOVING DOWN THE PLANE (FIG 9):

Resolving forces horizontally

𝑃 + 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹

Resolving vertically
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑃 + 𝑚𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

Therefore:

𝑷 = 𝝁𝒎𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝒎𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

Figure 10 - illustration of forces acting on a body moving

down an inclined plane

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CONTACT AREA AND FRICTION

The second law of friction states:

“if the normal reaction between two surfaces is unaltered, the

magnitude of limiting friction is approximately constant and does
not depend on the area of the surfaces in contact”

In support of this, it will be found that if the surface of body A of

is grooved, approximately the same force as before is required to
just cause A to slide.

This rule - that the frictional force is independent of the area

of surface contact, holds for clean dry metallic surfaces until
the reaction between them becomes quite large.

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REDUCTION OF FRICTION These additives react with the metal in such a way as to make
Without friction walking would be impossible and motor cars their surfaces better able to withstand the high temperatures
could not be driven along roads. developed when the fluid film fails under high loads and the
metals make contact.
Against such advantages, however, there are many
disadvantages arising from friction.

An example of this is the wear and abrasion of the moving parts

in machinery.

Friction in these cases can be reduced by the introduction of

solid lubricants like graphite and molybdenum disulphide
or by covering the surface of hard metals with a thin layer of soft
metal.

Another method is to introduce fluid lubricants such as oils,

which form a persistent thin film between the sliding surfaces –
such as on aircraft engine bearings; resistance to motion then
arises not from friction between solid surfaces but from the
viscosity of the lubricant.

Sometimes compounds of phosphorus, sulphur or chlorine are

added to these oils.

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METALLIC FRICTION When sliding occurs another effect develops in that the leading
Research has revealed that friction between metallic surfaces edge of the sliding surface displaces a minute ridge of metal
arises from two causes commonly called adhesion and on the fixed surface, much like the bow wave on a ship.
displacement.
Hence during sliding there are friction forces due to adhesion
Even the most carefully smoothed metallic surfaces have and displacement of material.
irregularities and with great care it is possible to reduce these to
the extent that no “hill” is more than 10-5 cm (0.000 01 cm) high In sliding, however, the welds are broken before they have
as against 10-2 cm (0.01 cm) for a roughened flat surface. become firmly established and the resulting friction from this
cause is so much less that, overall, the friction force is less than
When, therefore, one metallic surface presses against another, for the static case.
actual contact is confined to a relatively few irregularly spaced
points. At high speeds (100 m/s or more) friction is found to be
considerably reduced and this is believed to be due to the large
There will be intense pressures in the small zones around quantity of heat generated around the contact points being
these points and as a result the metal in these regions sufficient to actually melt the metal in these regions.
becomes plastic and the two surfaces adhere; in effect a
number of welds are established between the metals. There is thus a thin layer of liquid metal between the sliding
surfaces and this acts as a lubricant in much the same way as
This adhesion is the origin of static friction since force is required does the water layer underneath the blade of an ice skater; as a
to break the contact. result friction is much reduced at high speeds.

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ROLLING FRICTION
Frictional resistance between two surfaces is considerably
reduced when one body rolls on another.

In this case the main cause of friction is probably that due to the
ridge of displacement formed in front of the rolling body.

The larger the diameter of the rolling body, the smaller the
frictional resistance. This reduced friction is the reason for the
use of ball and roller bearings in machines.

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EXAMPLES ON FRICTION 5. A rectangular block of 50 kg starts to slide down when the

surface is inclined to an angle of 45º to the horizontal.
What is the co-efficient of static friction?
1. A box of mass 200 lb rests on a horizontal floor. A man
pulls horizontally on the box with a gradually increasing
force until he exerts a force of 80 lbf when the box starts
to slide.

Once in motion it is only necessary to exert a force of 60

lbf to maintain a constant speed. Find the coefficients of
static and kinetic friction.

2. If the coefficient of friction between the wheels of a

locomotive and the rails is 0.12 find the greatest tractive
force which a 50 ton locomotive can exert before its wheels
slip on horizontal rails.

3. A 20 lb block is held against a vertical wall without sliding

down by a horizontal push P lbf. What is the minimum
value of P if the coefficient of static friction is 0.5?

4. A rectangular block of mass 50 kg resting on a horizontal

surface is pulled along by means of a rope attached to it,
the rope. If the tension in the rope is 30 kgf when the
block just slides, find:

a. the limiting friction force

b. the normal reaction on the block and
c. the coefficient friction for the two surfaces.

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Answers:

1. 0.4, 0.3

2. 6 tonf

3. 40 lbf

4. a) 30kgf
b) 50 kgf
c) 0.6

5. 1

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.2.4

Fluid Dynamics

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3

Section 2.2.4 – Fluid Dynamics .............................................. 4

Properties of Fluids ............................................................ 6

Density ......................................................................... 7

Specific Gravity .............................................................. 8

Example ..................................................................... 8

Determination of Gravity and Specific Gravity .................... 9

Specific Gravity Bottle .................................................. 9

The Hydrometer ......................................................... 10

Viscosity .........................................................................11

Streamline Flow ............................................................ 15

Fluid Flow ........................................................................17

Bernoulli’s principle .......................................................... 19

The Bernoulli’s equation ................................................. 20

Convergent/Divergent Ducts ........................................... 24

Compressibility ................................................................26

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The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves
SECTION 2.2.4 – FLUID DYNAMICS
calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity,
In physics, fluid dynamics is a sub discipline of fluid mechanics
pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and
that deals with fluid flow—the natural science of fluids (liquids
time.
and gases) in motion.

It has several sub disciplines itself, including aerodynamics (the

study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the
study of liquids in motion).

Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including

calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass
flow rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather
patterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space.

Some of its principles are even used in traffic engineering, where

traffic is treated as a continuous fluid.

Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure—which underlies

these practical disciplines—that embraces empirical and semi-
empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve
practical problems.

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PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Fluids comprise both liquids and gases.

They differ from solids in that the molecules in fluids are

constantly in motion and occupy the volume available.

Pressures within fluids are transmitted in all directions.

When confined by the space inside a pipe the fluid pressure can
be directed to specific locations. This property is used to direct
hydraulic pressures to various aircraft control actuators as well as
a host of hydraulic devices used in engineering.

The properties of fluids that need to be understood are density,

relative density or specific gravity and viscosity. These are
defined in the subsequent paragraphs.

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DENSITY The following relationships enable densities to be converted from

Every-day experience shows that equal volumes of different one system to another:
materials have different weights and, therefore, different masses.
𝒈 𝒌𝒈 𝒍𝒃
𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. 𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝒎𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑

If the density of a substance is denoted by ρ then Because of the volume changes which occur with
temperature and pressure variations, density varies with
𝑚 both temperature and pressure.
ρ =
𝑣
For solids and liquids these effects are small unless the
Where m is the mass of a volume v of the substance. temperature and pressure changes are substantial, but for gases
the effect can be significant with quite small variations in
3
The SI unit is the kilogramme per cubic metre (kg/m or kg pressure or temperature.
-3
m )

Hence, when specifying a density it is necessary to quote the

In the CGS (centimetre-gramme-second) system is the gramme relevant temperatures and pressure.
3 -3
per cubic centimetre (g/cm or g cm )

Whilst the FPS (foot-pounds-seconds) unit is the pound per cubic

foot (lb.ft3 or lb ft-3).

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity (or relative density) of a substance is the
ratio of the density of the substance to that of water:

𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒔. 𝒈. =
𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Since density is mass per unit volume an equivalent definition is:

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝒔. 𝒈. =
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Strictly, because the volume of a given mass varies with

temperature the definition of specific gravity should also specify
the temperatures of the substance and the water.

EXAMPLE

1. Given that 1 ft3 of water weights 62.4 lb and that the

specific gravity of fuel is 0.81 find the mass of 5 ft3 of fuel.

Answer

1. 252.7 lb

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DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY If m2 and m3 are masses when the bottle is filled with liquid and
water respectively, then
SPECIFIC GRAVITY BOTTLE
The densities and specific gravities of substances can be found in 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝑆. 𝐺. = =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚3 − 𝑚1
a variety of ways. The density (or the specific gravity) of liquids
can be determined by finding the mass to fill a container of
𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏
known volume such as the specific gravity bottle. 𝒔. 𝒈. =
𝒎𝟑 − 𝒎𝟏

The specific gravity of liquids may be easily determined with a

specific gravity bottle.

The glass stopper, which has a hold through it, is ground to fit
the neck of the bottle, so that when the latter is filled with a
liquid and the stopper inserted, any surplus liquid is forced
through the hole always leaving the same volume in the bottle.

To find the specific gravity of a liquid, a clean, dry bottle is

weighted (m1) and then two further weighings are made with the
bottle containing liquid and water respectively.

Care being taken that it is completely filled in each case and that
Figure 1 - picture of a specific gravity bottle
the outside of the bottle is quite dry.

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THE HYDROMETER
A hydrometer is usually graduated to read directly the density
of a liquid from the extent to which it is immersed when floating
in the liquid.

The instrument can also be calibrated to read relative density /

specific gravity.

In the common hydrometer there is mercury or lead in the

bottom chamber and a large air chamber above it.

The sensitivity depends upon the diameter of the stem -by

sensitivity we mean the ability to distinguish between two
densities which are close to each other.

The range of the instrument depends upon the diameter of the

stem.

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VISCOSITY In a highly viscous liquid such as glycerine the motion ceases

almost at once. The higher the viscosity of a liquid then the
In streamline motion, layers of fluid travel at different speeds
longer the time it will take to pour out of a container.
(like traffic in the lanes of a motor-way) and slide over one
another.
Viscosity is a property of both liquids and gases. Viscosity in
gases can be explained in terms of molecular movement.
Forces which are in essence equivalent to frictional forces are
set up between two layers of a fluid which are in relative
Very briefly, in the case of a gas it is due to molecules moving
motion.
from the slower moving layers into the faster moving layers, and
from the faster moving layers to the slower moving layers.
This is called viscosity.

The net result of this is that more momentum is carried one way
If you stir a cup of tea which has tea leaves floating on top so
than the other, which means that forces between the layers
that a circular motion takes place you will see that the leaves
retard the faster moving layers and accelerate the slower moving
near the centre revolve more quickly than do those near the
ones.
edge.

We define viscosity as:

If we imagine the liquid to consist of a number of concentric
vertical thin cylinders, there is relative motion between these
‘the property of a fluid that offers resistance to the relative
cylinders, the liquid in contact with the side of the cup being at
motion of its molecules’
rest.

Frictional forces exist between these cylinders, when they move

relatively to each other, which eventually stop the motion.

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The energy losses due to friction within a fluid are dependent on A fundamental condition exists between a fluid and a boundary,
its viscosity. where the velocity of the fluid at the boundary surface is identical
to that of the boundary.
As a fluid moves, there is developed a shear stress in it, the
magnitude of which depends on the viscosity of the fluid.

You have already met the concept of shear stress (τ) and should
remember that it can be defined as the force required to slide one
unit area of a substance over the other.

The diagram illustrates the concept of velocity

change in a fluid by showing a thin layer of fluid (a
boundary layer) sandwiched between a fixed and Moving boundary
moving boundary.
Velocity = v
Distance from
stationary boundary
The boundary layer is a thin layer of fluid between a
y
fixed and moving boundary, across which a velocity
change takes place.
Stationary boundary
Velocity = 0
An example of this situation could be an aircraft
wing skin traveling through stationary air where the
moving boundary is the wing skin and the fixed
boundary is the stationary air, a small distance away Figure 2 - illustration of boundary layer shearing effect
from the skin.

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So again considering our example the air in direct contact with ease with which the fluid shears will dictate the rate at which the
the wing skin (the moving boundary) has the velocity of the wing velocity of the fluid changes, i.e. its gradient.
skin.
So using a constant of proportionality μ we have:
The air within the boundary further away from the wing skin is
gradually reduced in velocity until it has the velocity of the 𝛥𝑣
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏 = 𝜇
𝛥𝑦
stationary air, i.e. zero.

The constant of proportionality μ is known as the dynamic or

The rate at which this velocity changes across the boundary
absolute viscosity.
depends on the rate at which the air is sheared, i.e:

𝛥𝑣 The units of viscosity are Ns/m2

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝛥𝑦

Where the term Δ means ‘a small change in’

Another way of visualizing this situation is to consider a new pack

of playing cards being force to slide over one another, where the
card nearest the table has the velocity of the table, and across
the whole deck of cards (the fluid) this velocity gradually changes
until the outer card has the velocity of the air at this boundary.

Now, from our definition of shear stress we know that shear

stress is directly proportional to the velocity gradient because the

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If you have not completely followed the above argument do not For a volatile fluid the reference temperature is 40ºC.
worry, it is rather complex.
• For a liquid - the kinematic viscosity will decrease with
Just remember that viscosity is the resistance to fluid flow and higher temperature
that the units of dynamic viscosity in the SI system are Ns/m2. • For a gas - the kinematic viscosity will increase with higher
temperature
You may be wondering why we keep talking about dynamic
viscosity, this is because another form of viscosity exists, which
takes into consideration the density of the fluid, this is known as
kinematic viscosity, ν, which is defined as:

𝜇
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣 =
𝜌

Kinematic is the ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density

- a quantity in which no force is involved.

The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature dependent and for

either dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful, the
reference temperature must be quoted.

In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for a residual fluid is

100ºC.

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STREAMLINE FLOW The opposite is actually the case, and it can be found out by
When a fluid, liquid or gas is flowing steadily over a smooth experiment that, as the fluid speeds up to pass the narrowest
surface, narrow layers of it follow smooth paths that are known part of the tube, the pressure actually falls.
as streamlines.
The principle of the venturi can be found, not only in carburettors
This smooth flow is also known as laminar flow. on petrol engines but also in the theory of flight and how an
aeroplane flies, which will be covered later.
If this stream meets large irregularities, the streamlines are
broken up and the flow becomes irregular or turbulent, as may be
seen when a stream comes upon rocks in the river bed.

By introducing smoke into the airflow in a wind tunnel or coloured

jets into water tank experiments, it is possible to see and
photograph these streamlines and eddies.

A tube, which comes smoothly to a narrow constriction and then

widens out again is known as a venturi tube.

When a steady stream of liquid is driven through such a tube, the

streamlines take up the form shown in the diagram below.

Figure 3 - illustration of wing streamlines

The crowding together of the streamlines at the constriction gives
the impression that the pressure will be higher at that point.

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The resistance to fluid flows can be divided into two general
groups:
• Skin friction
• Turbulence

The first, Skin friction, is the resistance present on a surface,

which is edgewise on to the flow.

The fluid is slowed up near the surface owing to the roughness

of the surface and it can be shown that the fluid is actually Laminar streamlined flow

stationary at the surface.

From the preceding, it can be seen that the surface roughness

has an effect on the streamlines that are away from the surface
and, therefore, if the surface can be made smoother, the
overall friction or drag can be reduced.

The second form of resistance is known as eddies or

turbulence. This can be demonstrated by placing a flat plate at
right angles to the flow.

Turbulent flow
This causes a great deal of turbulence behind the plate and a
very high resistance, which is almost entirely due to the Figure 4 - illustration of laminar and turbulent flow
formation of these eddies.

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FLUID FLOW
Fluid flow is usually measured in terms of cubic metres per
second. This may be seen by considering fluid issuing from a
pipe as shown.

Let the velocity of the flow be ‘v’ metres per second, with a cross
sectional of ‘a’ m2.

If the flow is observed from a fixed point then a length of ‘v’

metres will pass in 1 second or a volume of:

𝑎 × 𝑣 cubic metres
2
Cross sectional area = a m
Hence the rate of flow

𝑸 = 𝒂 × 𝒗 m3/s

Direction of fluid flow

Figure 5 - illustration of fluid flow through a straight tube

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If this flow is now directed through a tapering tube as shown in
then assuming no compressibility, the quantity of liquid
entering the tube must be the same as that leaving the tube, that
is the rate of flow must be constant.

Therefore, we can say that the rate of fluid flow:

𝑸 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒗𝟐

This equation is often known as the ‘continuity of flow

equation’

2 2
Cross sectional area = a m Cross sectional area = a m
1 2

Fluid velocity v1 Fluid velocity v2

Figure 6 - illustration of fluid flow through a tapered duct

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BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
The tapered tube, used to develop the continuity of flow equation
may also be used to develop a most important equation known as
Bernoulli’s equation.

You may remember that the conservation of energy states that

energy cannot be created or destroyed but only changed
from one form to another.
Cross sectional
2
area = a m
Let the tapered tube, this time, be positioned as shown. 2

With regard to the fluid carried in the tapered tube, three forms
Cross sectional
of energy may be considered: 2
area = a m
1
1. Pressure energy 𝑝𝑉 joules
2. Kinetic energy (energy of motion) 1/2 𝑚𝑣 2 joules
Fluid velocity
3. Potential energy (energy of position) 𝑚𝑔ℎ joules v2
Fluid velocity
v1
Where m is mass, P is pressure, v is velocity, h is the height
from some datum, V is the volume of the fluid and g is Height h2
gravitational acceleration. Height h1

Figure 7 - illustration of inclined tapered tube

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THE BERNOULLI’S EQUATION Then in symbols we have the energy equation:

The principle of the conservation of energy has already been
discussed, earlier in our study of physics. 1 1
𝑚𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑚𝑣12 + 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑣22 + 𝑝2 𝑉2
2 2

This principle is equally valid for fluids in motion, as it is for

Note that in some texts z is used instead of h in the PE terms, to
solids, except that we now include a pressure energy term.
indicate the height above a datum.

The pressure energy of a fluid in motion is defined as:

The above formula in terms of energies is not very useful. In fluid
dynamics, we wish to compare pressures in terms of an
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 = 𝒑𝑽
equivalent head of water, i.e. we need each term in our formula
to have units of height, and this is achieved by a little
Note that pV gives Nm the correct SI units of energy, since
mathematical manipulation!
1Nm=1 J.

Applying the principle of the conservation of energy to fluids in

motion, we know that the total energy is conserved, i.e.:

𝑃𝐸1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃1 = 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃2

Where P=fluid static pressure energy and the subscript 1=inlet,

and subscript 2=outlet.

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Dividing each term in the above energy equation by m gives us Then using fundamental units for the newton (kgm/s2) and thus
energy per unit mass, if at the same time we divide each term by for pressure (kgm/m2s2) and also for acceleration due to gravity
the acceleration due to gravity g, it can be seen immediately (m/s2) and density (kg/m3).
from the equation given below, that the PE term now has units of
height as required, but what about the other two terms? Our pressure energy term on division by ρg, also has units of
height as required. So our energy equation may be written as the
𝑚𝑔 1 𝑚 2 𝑉1 𝑚𝑔 1 𝑚 2 𝑉2 head equation:
ℎ1 + 𝑣1 + 𝑝1 = ℎ2 + 𝑣2 + 𝑝2
𝑚𝑔 2 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔 2 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔

𝑣12 𝑉1 𝑣22 𝑉2
𝑣12 𝑉1 𝑣22 𝑉2 ℎ1 + + 𝑝1 = ℎ2 + + 𝑝2
2𝑔 𝑚𝑔 2𝑔 𝑚𝑔
ℎ1 + + 𝑝1 = ℎ2 + + 𝑝2
2𝑔 𝑚𝑔 2𝑔 𝑚𝑔
But:
𝑚 1 𝑣
𝜌= → =
𝑣 𝜌 𝑚
The KE term can also be shown to have units of height. Using
fundamental units velocity, v is in m/s and so v2 has units m2/s2 Substituting this into 𝑝1 𝑚𝑔
1𝑉
gives:
and acceleration due to gravity g has units m/s2.

𝑉1 𝑝1
2 2 2 𝑝1 →
Then KE term on division by mg has units m /s ×s /m giving 𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝑔
units of metres, m, as required.
So the new equation is given:
The third term for fluid pressure, can also be shown to have units
of height by making the substitution, ρ =m/V or 1/ρ =V/m this 𝑣12 𝑝1 𝑣22 𝑝2
ℎ1 + + = ℎ2 + +
makes our third term=p/ρg. 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔

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The head equation now shows the total energy at the inlet and Where:
total energy at the outlet in terms of the sum: p1 and p2 are the static pressures in the fluid flow
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 and 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 are the dynamic pressures in the fluid flow,
𝟐 𝟐
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑷𝑬 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑲𝑬 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 and 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐 are the pressures due to change in level of the
fluid flow.
Thus each of the terms in the head equation is measured in units
of equivalent height.
The units of each term are Pa or N/m2.

Thermodynamicists and aerodynamicists prefer to measure

The pressure equation is better known as Bernoulli’s theorem
pressures in Pa (N/m2), rather than in terms of equivalent head.
and is only valid for incompressible flow.

The mathematical manipulation given above to produce the head

equation has not been wasted!

Since, all we need to do to convert the head equation into an

equation involving pressures is multiply each term by density and
acceleration due to gravity, to yield the pressure equation:

𝟏 𝟏
𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟏 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 + 𝒑𝟏 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝒑𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

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If the flow is horizontal then:
h1 = h2

Then Bernoulli’s theorem becomes:

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝝆𝒗𝟏 + 𝒑𝟏 = 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 + 𝒑𝟐 = 𝑪
𝟐 𝟐

This is a most useful equation and yields a wealth of information.

The equation tells us that, as the flow progresses from one point
to another, an increase in velocity is accompanied by a
decrease in pressure.

This follows because the sum of the static pressure (p) and
𝟏
dynamic pressure ( 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 ), is a constant along a streamline.
𝟐

The constant C represents the total or stagnation pressure.

The total pressure being the sum of the static and dynamic
pressures, while the name stagnation arises from the fact that
when the velocity is reduced to 0 (stagnation), the stagnation
pressure is equal to the total pressure.

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CONVERGENT/DIVERGENT DUCTS Since the value of the dynamic pressure is rising, this must mean
The most important application of Bernoulli’s theorem is when that the value of the static pressure must drop.
looking at convergent and divergent duct.

A convergent duct is defined as a duct that has a bigger entrance

cross-sectional area (a1) than exit area (a2).

From the principle of conservation of mass flow we have already

seen that as the cross sectional area of the duct decreases so the
velocity of the fluid increases.

If we now apply this change in fluid velocity to Bernoulli’s

equation we see that the dynamic pressure (PD) is actually a
function of the fluid velocity (v), such that:

1
𝑃𝐷 = × 𝜌 × 𝑣2
2

This means that as the velocity of the fluid increases as it passes

into the narrowing duct, so the dynamic pressure will also
increase.

We already know that Bernoulli’s equation says that the dynamic

pressure plus the static pressure gives a constant value.
Figure 8 - illustration of a converging duct

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A divergent duct is the complete opposite of a convergent duct.
FLUID DYNAMIC STATIC
DUCT TYPE
Here we have the cross sectional area of the duct increases as VELOCITY PRESSURE PRESSURE
the fluid travels through the duct.
Converging Increasing Increasing Decreasing

Again by the principle of conservation of mass flow we see that as

Diverging Decreasing Decreasing Increasing
the cross sectional area of the duct increases, so the velocity of
the fluid travelling through it will decrease.

Again by Bernoulli’s equation we see that the dynamic pressure is

a function of the velocity of the fluid, so since the velocity of the
fluid is decreasing, the dynamic pressure will also decrease.

Since the sum of the dynamic and static pressure is constant, we

can now see that since the dynamic pressure is decreasing, so
the static pressure must increase.

The table summarises how static and dynamic pressure change in

both a converging and diverging duct.

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COMPRESSIBILITY This is particularly true when considering the possible

inaccuracies in aircraft pitot–static instruments, where such
So far all of our work on fluids has been based on the assumption
instruments depend on true static and dynamic air pressures for
that fluids are incompressible.
their correct operation.

This is certainly true for the practical application of fluid theory to

The air entering the duct at section A consists of air at pressure
liquids such as water but not so for air, which is most definitely
(P1) and velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area
compressible!
of the duct at B it will spread out to fill the increased area.

Our theory based on the incompressible behavior of fluids is still

This will cause the air flow to slow down and give a change in
sufficiently valid for air when it flows below speeds of
velocity (V2).
approximately 130–150 m/s.

The static pressure of the air will increase (Bernoulli’s theorem)

As speed increases compressibility effects become more
to become P2 in the wider section of the duct and, because air is
apparent. The table below shows one or two values of speed
compressible, the air density will increase as it is compresses by
against error when we assume that air is incompressible.
the rise in pressure in section B of the duct.

Therefore when we study high-speed flight where aircraft fly at

velocities close to, or in excess of, the speed of sound (340 m/s FLUID DYNAMIC STATIC
DUCT TYPE
at sea level under standard ISA conditions), then the VELOCITY PRESSURE PRESSURE

compressibility effects of air must be considered.

Converging Decreasing Decreasing Increasing

In reality as seen in the table, compressibility effects need to be Diverging Increasing Increasing Decreasing
considered at speeds much below the speed of sound.

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Figure 9 = illustration of changes in dynamic and static pressure in a convergent/divergent duct for compressible and
incompressible fluids

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.3

Thermodynamics

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Specific heat at constant volume .................................. 18
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Specific heat at constant pressure ................................ 18
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3
Latent heat .................................................................. 19
Section 2.3 – Thermodynamics .............................................. 7
Latent heat calculations .............................................. 21

The Refrigerator ........................................................... 22

Heat ................................................................................ 8

Definition of Heat ........................................................... 8

The relationship between pressure, volume and temperature 24
Temperature scales ........................................................ 9
Boyle’s Law .................................................................. 25
Units of Heat .................................................................11
Charles’ Law ................................................................. 28
Joule .........................................................................11
The Combined Gas Law ................................................. 30
Calorie ......................................................................11
The characteristic gas equation ....................................... 31
British thermal unit ..................................................... 11
Saturated Vapour Pressure............................................. 33
The therm..................................................................11
Evaporation and boiling ................................................. 34
Specific Heat .................................................................12
Evaporation ............................................................... 34
Definition ...................................................................12
Evaporation Vs Boiling ................................................ 35
Specific heat with expansion allowed ............................. 14

Heat transfer during a temperature change .................... 14

Examples of Changes in Heat Energy ............................ 15

Thermal Capacity........................................................... 16

Examples of Thermal Capacity Calculations .................... 17

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Humidity ......................................................................36 Fluid expansion ............................................................... 52

Absolute humidity ....................................................... 37 Liquid expansion ........................................................... 52

Relative humidity ........................................................ 37 Expansion of Gases ....................................................... 52

Specific humidity ........................................................ 38 Entropy ....................................................................... 53

Measuring humidity Hygrometer A hygrometer ............... 39

Thermodynamic systems ............................................... 54

Heat Transmission ............................................................ 40 Properties of thermodynamic systems........................... 54

Energy in transit ............................................................ 40 The closed system...................................................... 55

Modes of heat transmission............................................. 42 The open system........................................................ 56

Conduction ................................................................42

Convection .................................................................43 The first law of thermodynamics ..................................... 57

Thermal Radiation ....................................................... 44 First law of thermodynamics applied to a closed system .. 57

First law of thermodynamics applied to an open system .. 59

Expansion of Solids........................................................... 47 Thermodynamic processes ............................................. 61

Effect of temperature change ....................................... 47 Reversible and irreversible processes .............................. 61

Force due to Expansion ............................................... 47 Constant volume process ............................................... 63

Co-efficient of linear expansion ..................................... 48 Constant pressure process ............................................. 64

Examples ................................................................50 Isothermal processes .................................................... 65

Volumetric Expansion ..................................................... 51 Polytropic process ......................................................... 66

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Reversible adiabatic process ........................................... 67

The second law of thermodynamics.................................. 68

Energy changes and reversible reactions .......................... 70

Exothermic reaction .................................................... 70

Endothermic reactions ................................................. 70

Reversible reactions .................................................... 71

Internal combustion engine cycles ................................... 72

The working cycle of the gas turbine ................................... 73

The Brayton cycle or constant pressure cycle .................... 74

The practical Brayton cycle .......................................... 75

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Much of the content of thermodynamics is contained in the four
SECTION 2.3 – THERMODYNAMICS
thermodynamic laws.

Thermodynamics is a branch of natural science concerned with

heat and its relation to energy and work.

It defines macroscopic variables (such as temperature, internal

energy, entropy, and pressure) that characterize materials and
radiation, and explains how they are related and by what laws
they change with time.

Thermodynamics describes the average behaviour of very large

numbers of microscopic constituents, and its laws can be derived
from statistical mechanics.

Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and

engineering—such as engines, phase transitions, chemical
reactions, transport phenomena, and even black holes.

Results of thermodynamic calculations are essential for other

fields of physics and for chemistry, chemical engineering,
aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, cell biology,
biomedical engineering, and materials science, and useful in
other fields such as economics.

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HEAT

DEFINITION OF HEAT
When one body does work on another there is a transfer of
energy from one to the other.

In experiments such as those of Joule, falling weights did work on

the water and caused a temperature rise, an effect which could
equally well have been produced by an inflow of heat produced
for instance by plunging a piece of high temperature metal into
the water.

We therefore ask:

“Under what conditions is energy to be classified as heat?”

Our answer is that heat is the term applied to energy which flows
into or out of a body solely as the result of temperature
differences between the body and its surroundings.

Alternatively, heat is energy in transit due to temperature

differences.

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TEMPERATURE SCALES Conversion factors for the two are given below:
In recording temperature, the changes in the volume of mercury
and alcohol have been used since the end of the 17th century. Degrees Celsius to Degrees Fahrenheit to
Degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Celsius
Temperature is a measure of the effect of heat energy, and it is
expressed in terms of degrees as measured on four different 𝟗 𝟓
scales. The two most commonly used scales are Celsius (°C) and ℉ = 𝟑𝟐 + ℃ ℃= ℉ − 𝟑𝟐
𝟓 𝟗
Fahrenheit (°F).

In the mercury or alcohol in glass thermometer, water is used to

The Celsius scale divides the temperature spread between these
fix the Celsius scale of temperature.
points into 100 equal degrees. Water freezes at 0°C and boils at
100°C.
The freezing point of water forms the zero value 0 ºC while
the boiling point is given a value of 100 ºC.
The Fahrenheit scale divides the spread into 180 equal degrees.

The two most common scales in use are the degree Celsius and
Water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F. Absolute zero is -273°C
the degree Fahrenheit.
and -460°F.

Absolute temperature is measured in Kelvin and Rankine degrees.

The Kelvin scale uses the same divisions as the Celsius scale. All
molecular motion stops at0°K; water freezes at 273°K and boils
at 373°K.

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The Three temperature scales use the same three reference
points:
• the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases,
• the temperature at which pure water changes from a liquid
into a solid,
• the temperature at which pure water changes from a liquid
into a gas.

Two types of temperature are important in the study of gas

turbine engines. These are static temperature and total
temperature.

Static temperature is the temperature of the ambient or

surrounding air that is still, or not moving.

Total temperature is the temperature a column of moving air

has when stopped. Total temperature is the sum of the static
temperature and the temperature rise caused by the ram effect.

Figure 1 - Different Temperature Scales

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UNITS OF HEAT BRITISH THERMAL UNIT

The British thermal unit (B.T.U.) is defined as the energy
JOULE required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1 ºF.
The SI unit of heat quantity is the joule.
𝟏 𝑩𝒕𝒖 = 𝟏 𝟎𝟓𝟓. 𝟎𝟔 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
Since it is now accepted that heat is energy, heat can clearly be
measured in other energy units such as the kilowatt hour, the erg THE THERM
and the ft lbf. An energy unit used as the basis of charging for town gas is the
therm
Because the older so called “heat units” are still in use, the 1948
International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined
𝟏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑩𝒕𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝟎𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑱
them in terms of the joule.

CALORIE
Originally the calorie was defined as the heat required to raise
the temperature of one gramme of water by one Celsius
degree. On the international table, the calorie is now defined in
terms of joules as follows:

𝟏 𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝟖 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔

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SPECIFIC HEAT

DEFINITION
Equal quantities of heat imparted to equal masses of different
substances produce unequal temperature rises.

For instance, when equal masses of copper and water absorb

equal quantities of heat the temperature rise of the copper is
approximately ten times that of water.

The specific heat of a substance at a given temperature is:

“the heat energy required to raise the temperature of unit

mass of the substance through one degree above that
temperature”

As can be seen the specific heat of a substance varies with

temperature.

In general, however, over small temperature ranges specific heat

can be taken as constant.

With the exception of hydrogen, water has the highest

specific heat of any known substance.
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Temperature Specific Heat (Pressure constant)

Substance o
C joule kg-1 ºC-1 cal g-1 ºC-1 BTU lb-1 ºF-1
0 4 217.7 1.007 4 1.007 4

Water 50 4 180.7 0.998 5 0.998 5

100 4 216.0 1.007 0 1.007 0

0 879 0.210 0.210

Aluminium
600 0.180 0.282 0.282

Brass 0 377 0.090 0.090

0 381 0.091 0.091

Copper
100 398 0.095 0.095

Glass 10.50 670 0.16 0.16

Ice 0 2 100 0.502 0.502

Iron 0 439 0.105 0.105

100 477 0.114 0.114

Lead 0 126 0.030 0.030

Mercury 0 138 0.033 0.033

Olive Oil 70 1 970 0.470 0.470

Sand 20-100 790 0.19 0.19

Figure 2 - table of specific heat values for various substances

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SPECIFIC HEAT WITH EXPANSION ALLOWED The specific heat values given in the table in this section were
According to the kinetic theory of matter, an increase in internal determined with expansion allowed at constant pressure
kinetic energy of a body is sensed as a temperature rise; changes (atmospheric); they are therefore termed specific heats at
in internal potential energy do not affect a thermometer. constant pressure.

Consider unit mass of a substance which receives sufficient heat HEAT TRANSFER DURING A TEMPERATURE CHANGE
to raise its temperature by one degree but which is prevented From the definition of the specific heat, c, a mass m of the
from expanding. substance will require ‘mc’ units of heat energy to change its
temperature one degree.
All the energy supplied must then go to increase the internal
kinetic energy, i.e., to produce a temperature rise. Hence the quantity, Q, of heat needed to change the temperature
t degrees is given by
If, however, either a full or partial expansion were allowed, then
to raise the temperature one degree, additional energy must be 𝐻𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑜 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑛𝑛𝑑 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑆𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑦 × 𝑇𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛
supplied to increase the internal potential energy and do work as
the body expands against the external forces acting on it. That is:

In this case, therefore, the heat supplied for a unit temperature 𝑸 = 𝒎 × 𝒄 × ∆𝒕

rise must exceed that supplied when the volume was maintained
constant, i.e.

“the specific heat of a substance with expansion allowed

must exceed that for the constant volume case”

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EXAMPLES OF CHANGES IN HEAT ENERGY

1. Assuming that all the kinetic energy of a car is dissipated

as heat at the brake drums, calculate the temperature rise
which would be produced if all the heat developed in
stopping a car of mass 1 000 kg travelling 72 km/hr were
communicated without loss to 20 kg of water. (Take the
specific heat of water to be 4000 J/kg/ºC)

2. Calculate the heat energy (in joules) to raise the

temperature of 3 kg of water from 20oC to 75oC. Take the
specific heat of water as 4 200 joule per kg per ºC.

3. What quantity of heat will raise the temperature of 300 g

of copper (specific heat = 0.095 cal g-1 degC-1) from 20oC
to 70oC?

Answers
1. 2.5 oC
2. 693 kJ
1425 cal

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THERMAL CAPACITY
The thermal capacity of a body is defined as:

“the heat energy required to raise its temperature by one

degree”

You may have noticed the similarity of this definition with that of
specific heat, the difference being that specific heat is related to
unit mass while thermal capacity is not.

Very simply thermal capacity, C and specific heat, c are related

by the equation:

𝑪 = 𝒎𝒄

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EXAMPLES OF THERMAL CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
1. Find the thermal capacity of an aluminium pot of mass 1.5
kg given that the specific heat of aluminium is 880 joule
kg-1 degC-1.

2. What is the thermal capacity of an iron vessel of mass 150

g? (Specific Heat of iron = 0.11 cal gm degC-1)

3. A glass flask has its temperature raised 16 deg C when it

absorbs 480 calories of heat energy. What is its thermal
capacity?

Answers
1. 1 320 joule ºC-1
2. 16.5 cal ºC-1
3. 30 cal ºC-1

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SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT VOLUME Thus for the same amount of heat energy there has been an
If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with an amount of heat energy increase in internal energy (U), plus work.
sufficient to raise the temperature by 1◦C or 1K while the volume
of the gas remains constant, then the amount of heat energy The value of cp is, therefore, greater than the corresponding
supplied is known as the specific heat capacity at constant value of cv.
volume and is denoted by cv.
The specific heat capacity at constant pressure for air (cp air) is
Under these circumstances no work is done, but the gas has 1005 J/kg/K, again this is a constant worth remembering.
received an increase in internal energy (U).

The specific heat at constant volume for air (cv air) is 718 J/kg/K,
this constant is well worth memorizing!

SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

If 1 kg of a gas is supplied with a quantity of heat energy
sufficient to raise the temperature of the gas by 1◦C or 1K while
the pressure is held constant, then the amount of heat energy
supplied is known as the specific heat capacity at constant
pressure and is denoted by cp.

This implies that when the gas has been heated it will expand a
distance h, so work has been done.

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LATENT HEAT In the case of latent heat, specific, refers to unit mass of the
When a substance changes state, i.e. when heat is applied to a material, i.e. per kilogramme.
solid and it turns into a liquid and with further heating the liquid
turns into a gas we say the substance has undergone a change in We define the specific latent heat of fusion of a substance as:
state.
‘the thermal energy required to turn 1 kg of a substance from a
The three states of matter are: liquid into a solid without change in temperature’
• Solid
• Liquid If we wish to find the thermal energy required to change any
• gas amount of a substance from a solid into a liquid, then we use the
relationship:
Therefore, the heat energy added to a substance does not
necessary give rise to a measurable change in temperature - it 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝐿

may be used to change the state of a substance.

where L is the specific latent heat of the substance.

Under these circumstances we refer to the heat energy as latent

or hidden heat.

We refer to the thermal energy required to change a solid

material into a liquid as, the latent heat of fusion.

For water, 334 kJ of thermal energy are required to change 1 kg

of ice at 0◦C into water at the same temperature. Thus the
specific latent heat of fusion for water is 334 kJ.
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The thermal energy required to change 1 kg of a substance from The steam rising from a puddle, when the sun comes out after a
a liquid into a gas without change in temperature, is known as rainstorm, is an example of evaporation, where water vapour
the specific latent heat of vaporization. forms as steam, well below the boiling point of the water.

Again, if we wish to find the thermal energy required to change There are several ways that a liquid can be made to evaporate
any amount of a substance from a liquid into a gas we use the more readily. These include;
relationship Q=mL, but in this case L=the specific latent heat of • an increase in temperature that increases the molecular
vaporization. energy of the liquid sufficient for the more energetic
molecules to escape from the liquid
The specific latent heat of vaporization for water is 2.26 MJ/kg/K. • reducing the pressure above the liquid in order to allow
less energetic molecules to escape as a gas,
Large amounts of thermal energy are required to change the • increase the surface area, thus providing more opportunity
state of a substance. for the more energetic molecules to escape
• by passing a gas over the surface of the liquid to assist
This energy together with cooling by evaporation is used within molecular escape
aircraft air-conditioning and refrigeration systems.

A liquid does not have to boil in order for it to change state, the
nearer the temperature is to the boiling point of the liquid, then
the quicker the liquid will turn into a gas.

At much lower temperatures the change may take place by a

process of evaporation.

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LATENT HEAT CALCULATIONS This may be re-written in the
The diagram opposite is a self-explanatory illustration of the heat form:
required at various stages when 2 g of ice at 6oC are completely
converted into steam at 100oC. 𝑺. 𝑳. 𝑯. = 𝒎 × 𝒍

The following data are used: 𝑆𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ×

ℎ𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑦 ×
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2 100 J/kg 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛
(c = 2.1 J/g ºK)

This may be re-written in the

Specific heat capacity of water = 4 200 J/kg form:
(c = 4.2 J/g ºK)

𝑺. 𝑯. 𝑪. = 𝒎 × 𝒄 × ∆𝑻
Specific latent heat of ice = 336 000 J/kg
(l = 336 J/g)

Specific latent heat of steam = 2 260 000 J/kg

(l = 2 260 J/g)

It can be seen that the following formulae were used to calculate

the specific latent heat and specific heat capacity:

𝑆𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 𝐻𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑙𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 ℎ𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑜𝑜

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THE REFRIGERATOR From the condensing coil the liquid is passed back into the
Cooling in a domestic refrigerator takes place when a volatile evaporator coil around the freezing box. In this manner a
liquid, Freon, evaporates inside a copper coil surrounding the continuous circulation of liquid and vapour is set up.
freezing box.
The rate of vaporisation and the consequent degree of cooling is
As fast as the vapour is formed, it is removed by an electric controlled by a thermostat switch (not shown in the diagram),
pump. Under the reduced pressure the liquid evaporates rapidly which switches the pump motor on and off at intervals.
and may even boil.
The thermostat is adjustable and is provided with a dial, which
At that point the coolant is considered to have reached may be set to give the desired low temperature inside the
saturation point. The necessary latent heat of vaporisation is cabinet.
provided at the expense of the liquids own internal energy.
Consequently the liquid cools. A different type of refrigerator is also in common use which,
instead of a pump employs a gas flame or electric heater to
The vapour, which has been pumped off passes into a second coil provide the energy necessary to maintain the circulation of liquid
(the condenser) outside the cabinet where it is compressed by and vapour.
the pump and condenses back to liquid.
The method of producing the circulation is somewhat more
Here latent heat is given out, and to enable this heat to be complex than that described above. Nevertheless the basic
dissipated quickly the condensing coil may be fitted with copper principle, namely, cooling by vaporisation under reduced
fins. Heat is removed by conduction into the fins and thence by pressure, remains the same.
convection and radiation to the surroundings.

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Figure 3 - illustration of a refrigeration system

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE, VOLUME AND TEMPERATURE During combustion when fuel is added to the air and burnt; this
increases the temperature and volume of the air, whilst the
During the working cycle of the turbine engine, the airflow or
pressure remains almost constant, since the engine operates
‘working fluid’ receives and gives up heat, so producing changes
on a constant pressure cycle.
in its pressure, volume and temperature.

During expansion, when work is taken from the gas stream

These changes as they occur are closely related, for they follow a
by the turbine assembly to drive the compressor; this decreases
common principle that is embodied in a combination of the Laws
the temperature and pressure, whilst the volume increases.
of Boyle and Charles.

Briefly, this means that the product of the pressure and the
volume of the air at the various stages in the working cycle is
proportional to the absolute temperature of the air at those
stages.

𝑃𝑉 ∝ 𝑇

There are three main conditions in the engine working cycle

during which these changes occur.

During compression, when work is done on the air, this

increases the pressure and temperature and decreases the
volume of air.

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BOYLE’S LAW However, the law is accurate enough to be useful in a number of

Boyle's Law is a principle that describes the relationship between practical applications. It is used, for example, in calculating the
the pressure and volume of a gas. volume and pressure of internal-combustion engines and steam
engines.
According to this law, the pressure exerted by a gas held at a
constant temperature varies inversely with the volume of the gas.

For example, if the volume is halved, the pressure is doubled;

and if the volume is doubled, the pressure is halved.

The reason for this effect is that a gas is made up of loosely

spaced molecules moving at random.

If a gas is compressed in a container, these molecules are pushed

together; thus, the gas occupies less volume.

The molecules, having less space in which to move, hit the walls
of the container more frequently and thus exert an increased
pressure.

Boyle's Law actually applies only to an ideal, theoretical gas.

When real gases are compressed at a constant temperature,
changes in the relationship between pressure and volume occur.

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The law was first stated in 1662 by Robert Boyle. In 1676, Edme
Mariotte of France independently stated the same law, and it is
sometimes called Mariotte's Law.

Stated as a formula, Boyle's Law reads:

𝑉1 𝑃2
=
𝑉2 𝑃1

Where:
V1 = the original volume
V2 = the new volume
P1 = the original pressure
P2 = the new pressure

Although this may be re-written as:

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2

Or:

𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜

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Figure 4 - Example of Boyles Law

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CHARLES’ LAW
Charles' Law describes the direct relationship of temperature and However, to move as they do, the molecules require kinetic
volume of a gas. energy, which is measured by temperature.

Assuming that pressure does not change, a doubling in absolute So, the volume and temperature are very closely related. If the
temperature of a gas causes a doubling of the volume of that temperature was not sufficient, the molecules would not be able
gas. to overcome the weak forces of attraction among them and would
not be able to fill the container.
A drop of absolute temperature sees a proportional drop in
volume. The volume of a gas increases by 1/273 of its volume at Charles' Law must be used with the Kelvin temperature scale.
0°C for every degree Celsius that the temperature rises. This scale is an absolute temperature scale. At 0 K, there is no
kinetic energy (Absolute Zero).
To explain why this happens, let's explore temperature and
volume in terms of gases. According to Charles' Law, there would also be no volume at that
temperature.
Temperature is an average of molecular motion – the movement
of the molecules within the gas. This means that, while all of the This condition cannot be fulfilled because all known gases will
gas molecules are moving around their container in different liquify (become a liquid)or solidify (become a solid) before
directions at different speeds, they will have an average amount reaching 0 K.
of energy that is the temperature of the gas.
The Kelvin temperature scale is Celcius minus 273.15 °.
The volume of the gas is the size of its container because the
molecules will move in a straight line until they impact something
(another molecule or the container).
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Therefore, zero Kelvin would be -273.15 ° and any Celcius
temperature can be converted by to Kelvin by adding 273.15
(273 is often used).

Stated as a formula, Charles’ Law reads:

𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Where:
V1 = the original volume
V2 = the new volume
T1 = the original temperature
T2 = the new temperature

Although this may be re-written as:

𝑉1
= 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜
𝑇1

Figure 5 - Application of Charles' Law

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THE COMBINED GAS LAW By combine both Charles’ and Boyle’s gas laws we obtain the
The combined gas law is the equation that describes the state of combined gas low:
a hypothetical ideal gas.
𝑃𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜
𝑇
It is a good approximation to the behavior of many gases under
many conditions, although it has several limitations.
Which may also be re-written as:

It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of

𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
Boyle's law and Charles's law. =
𝑇1 𝑇2

It can also be derived from kinetic theory, as was achieved

(apparently independently) by August Krönig in 1856 and Rudolf
Clausius in 1857.

The physical state of an amount of gas is determined by its

pressure, volume, and temperature.

The temperature used in the equation of state is an absolute

temperature:
• in the SI system of units, kelvin;
• in the Imperial system, degrees Rankine.

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THE CHARACTERISTIC GAS EQUATION The units for the characteristic gas constant is J/kgK.
The combined gas law, which you met earlier, stated that for a
perfect gas with unit mass: Note that when the above equation is used both absolute
pressure and absolute temperature must be used.
𝑃𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜
𝑇 The characteristic gas constant for a number of gases is given in
the table below:
This relationship is of course true for any fixed mass of gas and
so we can write that:
CHARACTERISTIC GAS
GAS
CONSTANT (J/KGK)
𝑃𝑉
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐶𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 Hydrogen 4124
𝑇

Helium 2077
Now for any perfect gas which obeys the ideal gas laws this
constant R is specific to that particular gas, i.e. R is the
Nitrogen 297

characteristic gas constant or specific gas constant for the Air 287
individual gas concerned.
Oxygen 260

Therefore, the characteristic gas equation may be written as: Argon 208

Carbon dioxide 189

𝑃𝑉
=𝑚 ×𝑅
𝑇

Or:

𝒑𝑽 = 𝒎𝑹𝑻
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The characteristic gas constant for air, from the above table, is
R=287 J/kgK.

This is related to the specific heat capacities for air in the

following way:

𝑹 = 𝒄𝒑 − 𝒄𝒗

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SATURATED VAPOUR PRESSURE

The process of evaporation in a closed container will proceed until
there are as many molecules returning to the liquid as there are
escaping.

At this point the vapour is said to be saturated, and the pressure

of that vapour (usually expressed in mmHg) is called the
saturated vapour pressure.

Since the molecular kinetic energy is greater at higher

temperature, more molecules can escape the surface and the
saturated vapour pressure is correspondingly higher.

If the liquid is open to the air, then the vapour pressure is seen
as a partial pressure along with the other constituents of the air.

The temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the

atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point.

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EVAPORATION AND BOILING BOILING POINT

The boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the
EVAPORATION saturated vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to the surrounding
Ordinary evaporation is a surface phenomenon - some molecules atmospheric pressure.
have enough kinetic energy to escape.
For water, the vapour pressure reaches the standard sea level
If the container is closed, an equilibrium is reached where an atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg at 100°C.
equal number of molecules return to the surface. The pressure of
this equilibrium is called the saturation vapor pressure. Since the vapour pressure increases with temperature, it follows
that for pressure greater than 760 mmHg (e.g., in a pressure
In order to evaporate, a mass of water must collect the large cooker), the boiling point is above 100°C and for pressure less
heat of vaporization, so evaporation is a potent cooling than 760 mmHg (e.g., at altitudes above sea level), the boiling
mechanism. point will be lower than 100°C.

Evaporation heat loss is a major climatic factor and is crucial in As long as a vessel of water is boiling at 760 mmHg, it will remain
the cooling of the human body. at 100°C until the phase change is complete.

Rapidly boiling water is not at a higher temperature than slowly

boiling water. The stability of the boiling point makes it a
convenient calibration temperature for temperature scales.

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EVAPORATION VS BOILING
Ordinary evaporation is a surface phenomenon - since the vapour
pressure is low and since the pressure inside the liquid is equal to
atmospheric pressure plus the liquid pressure, bubbles of water
vapour cannot form.

But at the boiling point, the saturated vapour pressure is equal to

atmospheric pressure, bubbles form, and the vaporization
becomes a volume phenomena.

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HUMIDITY
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air.

Water vapour is the gaseous state of water and is invisible.

Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog.

Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling

the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from
the skin.

This effect is calculated in a heat index table or humidex, used

during summer weather.

There are three main measurements of humidity:

• Absolute humidity
• Relative humidity
• Specific humidity

Figure 6 - illustration of water vapour in a pocket of air

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ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY It is expressed as a percentage or fraction.
Absolute humidity is the actual water content of the air expressed
as grams of water vapour per cubic meter volume of air (g/cm3). Relative humidity is frequently used in weather forecasts as it
affects how we 'feel' the weather.

It is calculated by dividing the mass of water vapour by the Human body temperature is inherently dependent on the air as it
volume occupied by the mixture. wicks moisture away from our skin. If relative humidity is high,
the amount of moisture that evaporates from our skin is limited
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜ℎ𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑟 so we feel warmer and stifled.
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛 𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟

Conversely, if relative humidity is low it can feel colder than it

Absolute humidity doesn't take into account temperature but
actually is as moisture is readily removed from our skin dropping
changes as temperature or pressure changes.
our temperature.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
This is commonly what is meant when the term 'humidity' is
used.

Relative humidity measures the actual water vapour content of

the air relative to how much water vapour could be held at the
current temperature – referred to as the dew point.

𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜

𝑅𝑛𝑛𝑙𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑣𝑛𝑛 𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟

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SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
Specific humidity measures the mass of water vapour in a unit
mass of dry air and is expressed as a ratio of grams of water
vapour per kg of air.

As long as the moisture content of the air remains the same, the
specific humidity does not change.

It is not affected by temperature or pressure changes.

Specific humidity is used in weather forecasting as it is a good

indicator of a moving air mass.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟

𝑆𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑟 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟

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MEASURING HUMIDITY HYGROMETER A HYGROMETER
There are various ways to measure humidity on different scales.

A hygrometer is used to measure air humidity on a local scale. It

consists of two thermometers with one dry and one moist bulb.

The humidity level is measured by how fast the water evaporates

from the wet bulb.

Relative humidity is then measured by comparing the readings

from both the wet and dry bulbs; the larger the difference, the
lower the relative humidity.

Also used to record relative humidity is a Stevenson screen which

can also record temperature and is used by meteorologists as
part of the weather forecasting process.

For monitoring humidity on a global scale, satellites are used and

can be important in future weather predictions.

Figure 7 - illustration of a hygrometer

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HEAT TRANSMISSION
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛 1 − 𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛2

ENERGY IN TRANSIT
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛 = ∆𝑉
The energy of a body can be increased either by a heat inflow or
by doing work on it.
So we now have a force applied to the piston F, moving the
piston through it’s stroke length l, producing a pressure P and a
The energy thereby transferred can go to not only increase the
change in volume ΔV.
bodily kinetic and potential energies as well as the internal
energy but also to do work as the body expands its boundaries
against the external constraining forces.

The terms heat and work can be applied to energy only while it is
in transit

Let us now consider a piston compression a gas.

A force F is applied to the face of the piston A, creating a

pressure P since:

𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑛𝑛 (𝐹)
𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (𝑃) =
𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴. (𝐴)

The force applied to the gas by the movement of the piston

Figure 8 - illustration of work done by compressing a fluid in a cylinder
causes the volume of the piston to decrease such that:
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But in the section on energy we learnt that: Plugging this into the work done equation we end up with:

𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑛𝑛 × 𝐷𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑛𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (𝑃) × 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴. (𝐴) × 𝑙 → 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛
= 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (𝑃) × 𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛 (𝑙)
Now we can see that the work done by the piston, on the gas
is given by: Hence:
𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (𝑃) × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛 (𝑉)
𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑛𝑛 × 𝐷𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑛𝑛𝑑 → 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹 × 𝑙
The work done on or by the gas is the energy added to or
By re-arranging the pressure equation we have: removed from the system, whilst the pressure P created changes
the volume ΔV. Thus
𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑛𝑛 (𝐹) = 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (𝑃) × 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴. (𝐴)

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 = 𝑷 × ∆𝑽
Substituting this into the work done equation we obtain:

𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹 × 𝑙 → 𝑊𝑊𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛 = 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (𝑃) × 𝐶. 𝑆. 𝐴. (𝐴) × 𝑙

We also know that:

𝐴𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑎 × 𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑜ℎ = 𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑛𝑛

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MODES OF HEAT TRANSMISSION It is of interest to note that, in general, the best thermal
A body may gain or lose energy as heat by one or more of three conductors are also the best electrical conductors.
distinct ways, namely, conduction, convection and radiation.
Liquids and gases are poor thermal conductors; this is
CONDUCTION easily demonstrated for water by the fact that water at the top of
In heat transfer by conduction the energy is passed from a test tube may be raised to boiling point whilst a piece of ice
particle to particle of a substance, the energy transfer being weighted with wire to make it sink remains un-melted at the
in the direction from the high to the low temperature regions. bottom of the tube.

If, for instance, one end of a metal rod is placed in a flame the Mercury, the only metal which is liquid at room temperatures, is a
temperature of the other end rises because of the energy good conductor of heat, a fact which is of importance in
conducted along the rod from the hot end. thermometry since it enables the whole of the mercury in a
thermometer bulb to quickly attain the temperature of the bulb.
The kinetic theory of matter explains this process as due to the
fact that the particles in the high temperature portions of a body
have greater agitational velocities than those in the low
temperature parts; these, more energetic particles, impinge on
their neighbours, thereby increasing the energy of the cooler
ones.

Metals are good thermal conductors although they exhibit

considerable differences of conductivity among themselves.
Figure 9 - illustration of heat movement by conduction

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CONVECTION By using a box having two glass chimneys and burning a candle
Convection is confined to liquids and gases. It is the process below one of them, the existence of an air convection current is
of heat transmission whereby fluids flow from one place to made evident by the fact that smoke from a burning rag is seen
another because of density differences resulting from to pass down the second chimney.
unequal temperatures.

If a few crystals of potassium permanganate are placed in a

beaker of water which is gently heated at the middle of its base,
currents of coloured liquid take the course shown by the arrows.

The heated water in the centre, being less dense than the colder
water at the sides, is forced upwards and because it cools at the
surface it returns down the sides.

This circulation is known as a convection current, the presence

of which is made evident by the colouring matter.

If this process, in which the heated fluid itself moves carrying its
energy with it, were allowed to continue, the temperature of the
whole of the water would ultimately be raised to boiling point.

Figure 10 - illustration of experiments to show convection

currents
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THERMAL RADIATION In so doing, the electric field disturbance generates a magnetic
Energy can be transferred as heat from one object to another by field which travels with the disturbance; these travelling electric
either conduction or convection only if there is a suitable material and magnetic field disturbances constitute and electromagnetic
connecting one to the other. wave.

The fact however that energy reaches us from the sun through According to the kinetic theory the atoms and molecules of all
millions of miles of empty space shows that there is a method of matter have continual agitational motion; the higher the
transmission which can occur without the presence of a temperature the greater the agitation.
material link.
Hence the component positive and negative charges of the atoms
In this case the energy is propagated as electro-magnetic are continually changing their velocities and are therefore sources
waves and this mode of energy transfer is called radiation. of electromagnetic waves.

It is believed that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero The name thermal radiation is given to the electromagnetic
emit electromagnetic waves generated by the agitational motion waves radiated by a piece of matter because of its temperature.
of the charged parts of their atoms and molecules.
These waves have a very wide range of wavelengths and
It can be shown that whenever an electric charge is accelerated frequencies which, for historical and other reasons, are classified
its electric field is disturbed and this disturbance travels outwards according to their wavelengths.
8
at a speed of 3 x 10 m/s (=186,000 miles/s) in a vacuum.
There is, however, no sharp boundary between differently named
types; the commonly accepted limits of the ranges are shown in
the table below.

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At room temperatures the rate of emission of energy per unit

area of a substance is very small and most of the energy is
emitted as low frequency waves.

For example, a piece of iron at room temperature emits about

0.002 watts/m2 mainly in the long wavelength infra red region.
At about 700oC the rate of emission is about 0.3 watts/m2 with
the most copiously emitted wavelength in the short wave length
infra red region.

VACUUM WAVELENGTH RANGE

There is also a significant amount of visible radiation in RADIATION FREQUENCY RANGE (HZ)
the wavelengths we perceive as red; the iron (M)

therefore appears “red hot”.

Gamma-rays greater than 3 x 1020 less than 10-12

At still higher temperatures there is an increased rate X-rays 3 x 1020 to 3 x 1017 10-12 to 10-9

of emission in the short wavelength visible radiation Ultra-violet 3 x 1017 to 7.5 x 1014 10-9 to 4 x 10-7
and the iron then appears “white hot”.
7.5 x 1014 (blue) to 4 x 1014 4 x 10-7 (blue) to 7.5 x 10-7
Visible
(red) (red)
Thermal radiation in the radio wavelength range is the
Infra-red 4 x 1014 to 3 x 1012 7.5 x 10-7 to 10-4
basis of radio-astronomy in which radio-telescopes
using receivers with large and elaborate aerial systems Radio less than 3 x 1012 greater than 10-4
collect these waves emanating from heavenly bodies
many of which are invisible to optical telescopes.

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In general, rough unpolished surfaces are found to be
better emitters of thermal radiation in the infra-red, visible and
ultra-violet regions than smooth
polished ones.

If, for instance, two identical

polished cans, one of which has its
exterior surface coated with lamp
black, are filled with equal
quantities of hot water at the same
temperature it will be found that
the water in the blackened can
cools more rapidly than the other.

This indicates that the blackened

surface emits radiation at a
greater rate than the polished
one.

Figure 11 - illustration of the electromagnetic spectrum

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EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
The bar is heated by a flame for a time. As B expands, the nut is
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE
continually tightened so that the pin P is still tightly held against
Temperature changes affect metals and other solids. The gaps
the frame at the other end. The flame is then removed and B
left between steel rails in railway lines laid in the open are
cools. At one stage the cast-iron pin breaks.
observed to narrow in summer.

Thus a large force is exerted when a metal is prevented from

This shows that the steel has expanded with temperature rise. In
contracting. A large force is also exerted when a metal is
winter the gaps widen. Steel thus contracts when its
prevented from expanding.
temperature falls.

The metals used for telegraph wires sag more in summer than
winter owing to expansion with temperature rise.

FORCE DUE TO EXPANSION

When metals are prevented from expanding or

contracting, very large forces are exerted.

This is demonstrated by a ‘bar-breaker’

experiment. A thick steel bar B has a cast-iron
pin P at one end and is tightened by a large nut
K against a metal frame.
Figure 12 - illustration of a bar breaker experiment apparatus

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CO-EFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION Hence we can obtain the equation for the increase in length due
To make allowances for the expansion of metals in engines, for to temperature rise as being:
example, due to temperature change, we need to know the
values of the linear expansivity of metals. 𝐼𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑠𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑙𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑜 (∆𝐿)
= 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑜 (𝐿0 ) × 𝐶𝑜𝑜 − 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑓 𝐿𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖 (𝛼)
× 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 (∆𝑇)
The co-efficient of linear expansion of a solid (also called linear
expansivity) has the symbol, α and is defined as:
Which may be written as:

“the increase in length per unit length of the solid when its
temperature changes by one degree” ∆𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 × 𝜶 × ∆𝑻

The unit of the co-efficient of linear expansion is ‘per oC’, or in SI

units ‘per ºK’.

The co-efficient of linear expansion, α is always an average or

mean figure for a wide range of temperature. The mean
coefficient is given by:

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑜

𝛼=
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑜 × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛

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Negative thermal expansion (NTE) is a physicochemical process
in which some materials contract upon heating rather than
expanding as most materials do.

Materials which undergo this unusual process have a range of

potential engineering, photonic, electronic, and structural
applications.

For example, if one were to mix a negative thermal expansion

material with a "normal" material which expands on heating, it
could be possible to make a zero expansion composite material,
such as Invar.

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EXAMPLES
1. If 1.5 m bar of steel increases by 0.3 cm when its
temperature rises by 100 ºC, what is its value of α?

2. What is the increase in length of a metal rod of length

2.5m if α = 0.000 02 per ºC and the temperature rise is 80
ºC?

3. What temp change will cause a 1 m bar to contract by

0.05cm if α = 0.000 02 / ºC?

Answers:
1. 20 x 10-6/ºC
2. 0.4 cm
3. 25 ºC drop

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VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION Where δ = the coefficient of volumetric expansion and is

As well as a change in length, materials will change in area or calculated by:
change in volume. When subjected to a change in temperature.
𝛿 = 3𝛼

This effect is again important when designers consider properties

of materials for aircraft or turbine engines. Where α is the co-efficient of linear expansion.

Aircraft materials will be subjected to large temperature changes The differing expansion rate of materials can be utilised when one

during aircraft operation. Again, all materials have different material needs to be a tight fit on the outside of another.

expansion rates and so great care must be taken when selecting

materials when large temperature changes are anticipated. We sometimes “Shrink Fit” materials onto other materials.

In the case of a turbine engine, many of the rotating masses are The classic example of this is fitting a steel rim to a wooden cart

moving inside parts of the engine and have very small internal wheel. Steel has a greater coefficient of expansion than wood.

clearances.
The steel rim is made very slightly smaller than the outside

Many different materials are used and so these clearances may diameter of the wooden wheel.

vary with temperature. In this case the change in volume is

shown by: To fit the rim, it is heated in a furnace and in doing so, it expands
slightly. It is then put onto the outside of the wheel and cooled

𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝑉1 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1) × 𝛿 with water. On cooling the rim shrinks and becomes a tight fit on
the wheel. Obviously care must be taken in producing the correct
size steel rim.

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FLUID EXPANSION A given mass of gas, then, has three variables: pressure,
volume and temperature.

LIQUID EXPANSION
In order to understand the laws relating to them, we need to
The effect of temperature rise is to cause an expansion in the
keep one of the variables constant and vary the other two. This is
liquid. However, the measurement of the expansion is always
discussed later.
complicated by the expansion of the container itself, which
depends on the particular material used for making the container.

Roughly, the cubic expansion of liquids is about 10 times

that of solids.

The volume of a solid or a liquid is only very slightly affected by

pressure change, and we therefore usually ignore the effect of
volume change due to pressure when studying the expansion of
solids and liquids.

EXPANSION OF GASES
The expansion of gases occurs in engines of all descriptions in
aeroplanes and cars.

The pressure, volume and temperature of a gas may all change

appreciably when any one of these quantities is varied.

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ENTROPY A little of the energy in the Universe is lost every time an energy
All energy changes (such as from chemical to mechanical or from change occurs, as in the case of the electric motor. It has been
electrical to mechanical) result in a certain amount of energy predicted that eventually all the energy will have drained away
being ‘lost’ during the change, as though it had drained away into and become unusable.
a universal lake of unusable energy.
This will be the ‘end’ of the Universe - still a long way off yet -
This is known as increasing entropy since the energy ‘lost’ sometimes called the ‘heat death’ of the Universe because then
cannot be regained for further use. everything will be at the same temperature.

The entropy is a measure of the randomness or disorder As all energy derives ultimately from a flow of heat, without
within a closed system. temperature differences there can be no such flow, and thus no
more usable energy can be obtained.
For example, an electric motor, which converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy, actually delivers less energy than it
receives.

The ‘missing’ energy is used up in several ways; for example, in

overcoming the electrical resistance of the wiring of the motor
and in counteracting the friction of the bearings.

This energy is wasted in the form of heat and sound, and in

wearing away the bearings. It is, in fact, dissipated in such a
way that it can never be recovered.

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THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS The property of a working fluid is an observable quantity, such as

Thermodynamic systems may be defined as particular amounts of pressure, temperature, tc.
a thermodynamic substance, normally compressible fluids, such
as vapours and gases, which are surrounded by an identifiable The state of a working fluid when it is a gas, may be defined by
boundary. any two unique properties.

We are particularly interested in thermodynamic systems which For example, Boyle’s law defines the state of the fluid by
involving working fluids (rather than solids) because these fluids specifying the independent thermodynamic properties of volume
enable the system to do work or have work done upon it. and pressure.

Only transient energies in the form of heat (Q) and work (W), can When a working fluid is subject to a process, then the fluid will
cross the system boundaries, and as a result there will be a have started with one set of properties and ended with another,
change in the stored energy of the contained substance irrespective of how the process took place or what happened
(the working fluid). between the start and end states.

PROPERTIES OF THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS For example, if a fluid within a system has an initial pressure (p1)
The essential elements that go to make up a thermodynamic and temperature (T1) and is then compressed producing an
system are: increase in pressure (p2) and temperature (T2), then we say that
1. a working fluid, i.e. the matter which may or may not cross the fluid has undergone a process from state 1 to state 2.
the system boundaries, such as water, steam, air, etc.,
2. a heat source, We say that work is transferred in a thermodynamic system, if
3. a cold body to promote heat flow and enable heat energy there is movement of the system boundaries.
transfer,
4. the system boundaries, which may or may not be fixed.
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THE CLOSED SYSTEM
This type of system has a closed or fixed boundary containing a This movement causes the system to do work (force×distance),
fixed amount of vapour or gas, while an exchange of heat and on its surroundings. In this case the piston connecting rod drives
work may take place. a crank, to provide motive power.

The boundary of a closed system is not necessarily rigid, what Note that in a closed system there is also, no mass transfer of
makes the system closed is the fact that no mass transfer of the system fluid across the system.
system fluid takes place, while an interchange of heat and work
take place.

Consider the well known example of a closed system, that

of the cylinder and piston assembly of an internal Closed
combustion engine System
Boundary
The closed boundary is formed by the crown of the piston,
the cylinder walls and the cylinder head with the valves
closed.

The transient energy being in the form of combustible fuel

that creates a sudden pressure wave which forces the
piston down.

Therefore as the piston moves, the boundaries of the

Figure 13 - illustration of closed system
system move.

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THE OPEN SYSTEM
In this type of system there is an opening in the system boundary
to allow a mass transfer of fluid to take place while the transient
Gas or
energies of heat (Q) and work (W) are being interchanged. System Boundary
vapour IN
The energy diagram for such a system is shown.

Work out
A practical example of an open system is the gas turbine engine.

In this system there is a transfer of mass across the system Energy in

boundaries in the form of airflow, which possesses its own KE,
pressure energy and in some cases its own PE.

This energetic air passes through the open system and is subject
to an interchange of transient energies in the form of heat and Gas or
work.
vapour OUT

Figure 14 - illustration of a gas turbine engine energy diagram

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THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS In other words the total energy entering a system must be equal
In essence this law applies the principle of the conservation of to the total energy leaving the system.
energy to open and closed thermodynamic systems.
If the initial internal energy is U1, and the final internal energy is
It may be stated as: U2 so, the change in internal energy is shown as U2 −U1 or ΔU.

‘when a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net Expressing this as a formula we have:
heat energy transferred to the system from its surroundings is
equal to the net heat energy transferred from the system to its 𝑈1 + 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑈2 + 𝑊𝑊

surroundings’
Although this is usually written as:

A thermodynamic cycle is where the working fluid of the system

undergoes a series of processes and final returns to its initial 𝑸 – 𝑾 = 𝜟𝑼

state.

Energy entering
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS APPLIED TO A CLOSED SYSTEM
the system … The change in the
The principle of the conservation of energy (the first law of
such as fuel level of the internal
thermodynamics) applied to a closed system states:
energy of the system
Work done by
‘given a total amount of energy in a system and its surroundings
the system …
this total remains the same irrespective of the changes of form
such as
that may occur’
producing torque

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This equation is also known as the non-flow energy equation
(NFEE).

Heat and work energy transfer are given a sign convention.

Heat entering a system is positive, work leaving a system is

negative.

Another way of expressing the same thing is to say that; heat

supplied to the system, or done on the system, is positive and
work output or work done by the system is positive.

Naturally the inverse applies, i.e. heat done by the system or

leaving the system is negative and work done on the system or
entering the system is negative.

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FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS APPLIED TO AN OPEN SYSTEM Transient energy in + stored energy in = transient energy out +
Since the fluid is continuously flowing in and out of the system stored energy out
when heat and work transfers are taking place, we need to If we consider the equation:
consider all of the stored energy possessed by the fluid as it
moves through the system, such as: 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑈1 = 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑈2
• flow or pressure energy = pressure × volume = pV;
• Potential energy = m x g x z (notice here we use z The transient energies Q and W are still coming in and out of the
instead of h for height) system respectively. We must now alter the internal energy of

•
1
Kinetic energy = × 𝜌 × 𝑣 2 the system, U1 and U2, to reflect the 3 types of energy
2
mentioned opposite.
• Internal energy = U

Very simply put:

If we now apply the first law of thermodynamics to an open
1 2
system we have: 𝑈 = 𝑝𝑉 × 𝑚𝑔𝑧 × 𝜌𝑣 + 𝑈
2

Total energy in = Total energy out

But the total energy is now made up of:

The transient or changing energy within the working fluid
The energy stored within the working fluid – such as chemical
energy within fuel

The above formula now becomes:

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Replacing the internal energy, U, in the first law of
thermodynamics formula mentioned above gives us:

1 2 1
𝑄𝑄 + (𝑝1 𝑉1 × 𝑚𝑔𝑧1 × 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝑈1 ) = 𝑊𝑊 + (𝑝2 𝑉2 × 𝑚𝑔𝑧2 × 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝑈2 )
2 2

Tidying this equation up gives:

𝟏 𝟏
𝑸 − 𝑾 = (𝒑𝟐 𝑽𝟐 − 𝒑𝟏 𝑽𝟏 ) + ( 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝟐 − 𝒎𝒈𝒛𝟏 ) + � 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝝆𝒗𝟐𝟏 �
𝟐 𝟐
+ (𝑼𝟐 − 𝑼𝟏 )

This is the full equation for the first law of thermodynamics

applied to an open system and is called the steady flow energy
equation (SFEE).

When dealing with flow systems, where there is a mass transfer

of fluid, it is convenient to group the internal energy (U) and
pressure energy (pV) of the fluid together, when this is done
another property of the fluid called enthalpy is used for the
combination.

𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 (𝐻) = 𝐼𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈) + 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑝𝑉)

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THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES In practice, because of energy transfers, the fluid undergoing a

We will now look at one or two processes, which will be of help to process cannot be kept in equilibrium in its intermediate states
us when we discuss the thermodynamic cycles for the and a continuous path cannot be traced on a diagram of its
gas turbine engine. properties.

REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES Such real processes are called irreversible and they are usually

Before we consider any specific processes you will need to represented by a dashed line joining the end states

understand the concepts of reversibility and irreversibility.

In its simplest sense, a system is said to be reversible, when it

changes from one state to another and at any instant during this
process, an intermediate state point can be identified from any
two properties that change as a result of the process.

For reversibility, the fluid undergoing the process passes through

a series of equilibrium states.

The diagram shows a representation of a reversible process

where unique equilibrium pressure and volume states can be
identified at any time during the process.

Reversible processes are represented diagrammatically

by solid lines on a graph.

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REVERSIBLE IRREVERSIBLE

Process Process

P1 P1

PRESSURE
PRESSURE

P2 P2

V1 V2 V1 V2

VOLUME VOLUME

Figure 15 - illustration of thermodynamic reversible and irreversible processes

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CONSTANT VOLUME PROCESS This implies that for a constant volume process all the heat
The constant volume process for a perfect gas is considered to be supplied is used to increase the internal energy of the working
a reversible process. fluid.

Although you may not be aware of it, you have already met a Remember also, that the heat energy can also be calculated
constant volume process when we considered specific heat using the equation:
capacities.
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × 𝛥𝑜𝑜

This shows the working fluid being contained in a rigid vessel, so

the system boundaries are immovable and no work can be done
on or by the system.

So we make the assumption that a constant volume process,

implies that work W =0.

Adding this into the non-flow energy equation (NFEE),

𝑸 – 𝑾 = 𝜟𝑼

Where for a constant volume process, W =0, we end up with:

𝑸 = 𝜟𝑼

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CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS

The constant pressure process for a perfect gas is considered to
be a reversible process.

It can be seen that when the boundary of the system is rigid as in

the constant volume process, then pressure rises when heat is
supplied.

So for a constant pressure process the boundary must move

against an external resistance as heat is supplied and work is
done by the fluid on its surroundings.

PRESSURE
Now in the SFEE shown the amount of work energy transferred WORK
will be given by: DONE
P
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1)

which is simply the change in pressure & volume energy you met
when we defined enthalpy as: V1 V2

𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 (𝐻) = 𝐼𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈) + 𝑃𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑛 𝐸𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑝𝑉) VOLUME

Figure 16 - illustration of a constant pressure process

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ISOTHERMAL PROCESSES
An isothermal process is one in which the temperature remains
constant.

You may remember that the characteristic gas equation was

given as

𝑝 ×𝑉 =𝑚× 𝑅 × 𝑇

If during the process, the temperature T remains constant

(isothermal) then this equation becomes

𝑝 × 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜

because the mass is constant and R is a constant.

For an isothermal process, the area under the curve represents

the work energy transfer between state 1 and state 2.

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POLYTROPIC PROCESS
The most general way of expressing a thermodynamic process is
by means of the equation:

𝑝 × 𝑉 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜

This equation represents the general rule for a polytropic process

in which both heat and work energy may be transferred across CURVE =
the system boundary. 𝑝 × 𝑉𝑛

The area under the curve calculated by the equation

‘pVn=constant’ represents the work energy transfer between
P1

PRESSURE
state1 and state 2 of the process.
WORK
DONE
P2

V1 V2

VOLUME
Figure 17 - illustration of a Polytropic process

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REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS

In the special case of a reversible process where no heat energy
is transferred to or from the working fluid the process will be
reversible adiabatic.

This special process is often called an isentropic process; its

importance will be emphasized, when we consider engine
thermodynamic cycles.

During adiabatic compression and expansion the process follows

the curve given by

𝑝 × 𝑉 𝛶 = 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜

where for the reversible adiabatic case only, (γ ) replaces (n)

from the general polytropic case above, and

𝐶𝑝
𝛾 =
𝐶𝑣

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THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS The second law implies that there is a need for a heat source and
According to our previous definition for the first law, when a a means of rejection or absorption of heat from the system.
system undergoes a complete cycle, the net heat energy supplied
is equal to the net work done and this definition was based on the The heat rejector (the place where heat energy is lost) within the
principle of the conservation of energy. system is often referred to as the heat sink.

The second law of thermodynamics extends this idea. It tells us We know from the second law that for a complete cycle, the net
that although the net heat supplied is equal to the net work done, heat supplied is equal to the net work done.
the total or gross heat supplied must be greater than the net
work done. Using the symbols we describe this as:

This is because some heat must be rejected (lost) by the 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑜

system, during the cycle.

We also know from the second law that the total heat supplied

Thus in a heat engine such as the internal combustion engine, (heat in) has to be greater than the net work done, i.e.

the heat energy supplied by the fuel must be greater than the
work done by the crankshaft. 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑛 > 𝑊𝑊

During the cycle, heat energy is rejected or lost to the Now the thermal efficiency (η) of a heat engine is given by:

surroundings of the system through friction, bearing drag and

component wear, etc. 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 )
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝜼) =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒊𝒏 )

A heat engine is a system operating in a complete cycle and

This allows us to re-write the formula for thermal efficiency as:
developing network from a supply of heat.
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𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝜼) =
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑛

There are many examples of the heat engine, designed to

minimize thermal losses, predicted by the second law.
HEAT SOURCE
These include among others; the steam turbine, refrigeration
𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
pack and air-conditioning unit.

The internal combustion engine is not strictly a heat engine

because the heat source is mixed directly with the working fluid.
HEAT ENGINE

𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑄𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑊𝑊𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

HEAT SINK

Figure 18 - illustration of a open system heat engine

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ENERGY CHANGES AND REVERSIBLE REACTIONS Some examples of exothermic reactions are:
There are 2 basic types of chemical reactions: • Combustion (burning)
• Exothermic reactions which transfer energy to the • Many oxidation reactions, for example rusting
surroundings. • Neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis
• Endothermic reactions which take in energy from the
surroundings. EXOTHERMIC REACTION
When a flame burns it transfers heat to its surroundings.
Reversible reactions are where the chemical products of a
reaction can react to remake the original reactants. Exothermic reactions can be used for everyday purposes. For
example, hand warmers and self-heating cans for drinks (such as
If the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse reaction is coffee) use exothermic reactions.
endothermic.
Exothermic reactions ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
These are reactions that take in energy from the surroundings.
When a chemical reaction occurs, energy is transferred to or from The energy is usually transferred as heat energy, causing the
the surroundings - and there is often a temperature change. reaction mixture and its surroundings to get colder.

Exothermic reactions transfer energy to the surroundings. The The temperature decrease can also be detected using a
energy is usually transferred as heat energy, causing the reaction thermometer.
mixture and its surroundings to become hotter.

The temperature increase can be detected using a thermometer.

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Some examples of endothermic reactions are: The backward reaction is exothermic - energy is transferred to
• Electrolysis the surroundings when it happens.
• The reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium carbonate
• The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate in a blast The reaction between anhydrous copper sulfate and water is
furnace reversible:

Endothermic reactions can be used for everyday purposes. For ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛 (𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛) ⇋ 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛 (𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛) + 𝑤𝑎𝑜𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑟
example, certain sports injury cold packs use endothermic
reactions. Water is driven off from hydrated copper sulfate when it is
heated, so the forward reaction is endothermic - energy must be
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS transferred from the surroundings for it to happen.
In reversible reactions, the reaction in one direction will be
exothermic and the reaction in the other direction will be The backward reaction is exothermic - energy is transferred to
endothermic. the surroundings when it happens.

The chemical decomposition of ammonium chloride is a reversible This is easily observed. When water is added to anhydrous copper
reaction: sulfate, enough heat is released to make the water bubble and
𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑛𝑛 ⇋ 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑎 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑛𝑛 boil.

Ammonium chloride decomposes when it is heated, so the

forward reaction is endothermic - energy must be transferred
from the surroundings for it to happen.

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INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE CYCLES

We will now consider the theoretical and practical cycles for the
internal combustion engine, which may be broadly divided into
two types as:
1. Those which make use of a series of non-flow processes to
convert heat energy into work energy, e.g. reciprocating
piston engines.
2. Those which make use of flow processes to convert heat
energy into work energy, e.g. gas turbine engines.

In both types of engine, it is assumed that the working fluid is

air.

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THE WORKING CYCLE OF THE GAS TURBINE This allows the use of lightweight, fabricated combustion
chambers and lower octane fuels, although the higher flame
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of
temperatures require special materials to ensure a long life for
the four-stroke piston engine.
combustion chamber components.

In the gas turbine engine combustion occurs at a constant

pressure, while in the piston engine it occurs at a constant
volume.

In both engines there is an induction, compression, combustion

and exhaust phase.

As already mentioned in the case of the piston engine we have a

non-flow process whereas in the gas turbine we have a
continuous flow process.

In the gas turbine engine the lack of reciprocating parts gives

smooth running and enables more energy to be released for a
given engine size.

With the gas turbine engine, combustion occurs at constant

pressure with an increase in volume; therefore, the peak Figure 19 - illustration of a gas turbine engine
pressures which occur in the piston engine are avoided.

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THE BRAYTON CYCLE OR CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE Additional cooling within the turbine helps maximize the gas entry
The working cycle upon which the gas turbine operates is known temperature to the turbine.
as the Brayton cycle.

This consists of the following processes:

• 1 – 2 Frictionless adiabatic compression where at point 1
atmospheric air is compressed along the line 1–2.
• 2 - 3 Frictionless constant pressure heating. Where heat is
added from the burnt fuel at constant pressure, thus
increasing volume.
• 3 – 4 Frictioness adiabatic expansion of the gases through 2 3

the turbine.
• 4 – 1 Frictionless constant pressure heat rejection, through
Practical
the jetpipe nozzle to atmosphere.
Cycle

PRESSURE
THRUST
To ensure maximum thermal efficiency we need the highest ENERGY
temperature of combustion (heat in) to give the greatest
PRODUCED 4
expansion of the gases.
5
1
There has to be a limit on the temperature of the combusted
gases as they enter the turbine, which is dictated by the turbine
materials. VOLUME
Figure 20 - illustration of the Brayton Cycle

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THE PRACTICAL BRAYTON CYCLE
Although it can be seen that the practical cycle follows fairly
closely to the ideal Brayton cycle, there are losses, which are
described below:
• The air is not pure, it contains other gases and water
vapour.
• Heat will be transferred to the materials of the compressor,
turbine and exhaust units, so it is not a pure adiabatic
process.
• Due to dynamic problems, such as turbulence and flame
stability in the combustion chamber, a constant
temperature and hence a constant pressure cannot be
maintained.
• A further pressure loss occurs as a result of the burnt air
causing an increase in volume and hence a decrease in its
density. These losses are indicated on the diagram by a
drop between points 2 and 3.
• Some pressure energy is lost by atomising the fuel in the
combustion chamber to ensure a more complete burning.
These losses are also indicated between points 2 and 3.
• The Brayton cycle assumes frictionless adiabatic operation
and this is not possible in practice.

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Intentionally Blank

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.4

Optics

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Intentionally Blank

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Refraction .................................................................... 14
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Refraction at Plane Surfaces ........................................ 14
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3
The laws of refraction ................................................. 15
Section 2.4 – Optics .......................................................... 5
Variation in the speed of light ...................................... 16
Light ................................................................................ 6
Some effects of refraction ........................................... 17
Path of light ................................................................... 6

Rays and beams of light .................................................. 7

Spherical mirrors .......................................................... 18
Shadows ....................................................................... 8
Curved mirrors .......................................................... 18
Nature of light ................................................................ 9
Common Terms ......................................................... 19

Rays and Curved Mirrors ............................................. 21

Reflection .....................................................................10
Parabolic Mirrors ........................................................ 23
Plane mirror ...............................................................10

Laws of reflection........................................................ 10
Lenses ......................................................................... 25
Looking into a plane mirror .......................................... 11
Types of lenses .......................................................... 25
How the eye sees an image in a plane mirror ................. 12
Common Terms ......................................................... 26
Parallax in pointer instruments ..................................... 13
Optical centre of a lens ............................................... 27

Focal length............................................................... 27

Principal foci .............................................................. 27

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Construction of ray diagrams .......................................... 28

Formation of Images by a diverging lens ....................... 28

Formation of images by a converging lens ..................... 29

Calculation of formed images ....................................... 31

Optical Fibres ...................................................................32

Total Internal Reflection ................................................. 32

Types of fibre optic cables .............................................. 35

Singlemode fibre optic cables ....................................... 35

Multimode fibre optic cable .......................................... 36

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SECTION 2.4 – OPTICS Physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which
includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and
cannot be accounted for in geometric optics.
properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the
construction of instruments that use or detect it.
Historically, the ray-based model of light was developed first,
followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic
Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and
theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that light waves
infrared light.
were in fact electromagnetic radiation.

Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of

Some phenomena depend on the fact that light has both wave-
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio
like and particle-like properties. Explanation of these effects
waves exhibit similar properties.
requires quantum mechanics. When considering light's particle-
like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles
Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical
called "photons". Quantum optics deals with the application of
electromagnetic description of light.
quantum mechanics to optical systems.

Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however,

Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related
often difficult to apply in practice.
disciplines including astronomy, various engineering fields,
photography, and medicine (particularly ophthalmology and
Practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most
optometry). Practical applications of optics are found in a variety
common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of
of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses,
rays that travel in straight lines and bend when they pass
telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fibre optics.
through or reflect from surfaces.

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LIGHT

PATH OF LIGHT
The sharp edges of shadows make us realise that light travels
in straight lines. We can also demonstrate this fact by a simple
experiment with three cardboard screens having small holes in
their centres.

These are set up so that the holes are in a straight line by

threading string through the holes and pulling it taut .

Light from a candle or lamp placed at A can then be received by

an eye at B. If, however, one of the screens is moved so that the
holes are no longer in a straight line the light is cut off.

Later on, however, it will be seen that light is a form of wave

motion and shows the same kind of behaviour as water waves, it
can also be shown that light can behave like a stream of particles

Figure 1 - illustration of light travelling in a straight line

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RAYS AND BEAMS OF LIGHT

Ordinarily, the term ray refers to a narrow stream of light
energy, e.g. that coming through a small hole in a screen, but
scientifically it has a more precise meaning.

A ray is the direction of the path taken by light

In diagrams rays are represented with arrows on them

A beam is a stream of light energy, and may be represented

by a number of rays which may be either diverging, converging
or parallel.

Figure 2 - illustration of a light ray diagram

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SHADOWS
We have already mentioned that the sharp edge of a shadow
indicates that light travels in straight lines.

When an obstacle is placed in the path of light coming from a

point source the shadow formed on a screen is uniformly dark.

The point of source of light used here has been made by putting
an electric lamp inside a tin with a small hole in it.

If an extended source is used the shadow is seen to be edged

with a border of partial shadow called penumbra to Figure 3 - illustration of shadow formation

distinguish it from total shadow or umbra.

The extended source shown in this diagram has been made by

putting a pearl electric lamp inside a tin with a large hole in it.

Points inside the umbra receive no light at all from the source.
The penumbra receives a certain amount of light from the source,
but not so much as it would receive if the obstacle were removed.

Figure 4 - illustration of umbra and penumbra

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NATURE OF LIGHT Atoms emit light at the high temperatures produced by chemical
Scientists have always been puzzled by the nature of light. In reaction in a flame, by the heating of thin tungsten wire in the
the seventeenth century there were two schools of thought ordinary electric lamp or by the bombardment of gas molecules
concerning it. by electrons in a discharge lamp tube.

Sir Isaac Newton regarded light as a stream of corpuscles or tiny The sun and sources as described above are said to be self-
particles travelling in straight lines. luminous, since they emit light of their own accord.

The Dutch physicist, Huygens, held that light consisted of waves The common objects around us are not self-luminous, but we are
in a substance called the ether, which he supposed filled the able to see them because they reflect light from the sun or
whole of space, including that between the atoms of matter, and other sources in all directions.
which could not be removed even from a vacuum
Mirrors and highly polished surfaces reflect light strongly, and we
As time went on and more became known about the behaviour of shall now deal with the laws governing the reflection.
light, Huygens’s wave theory came to be accepted as the better
one.

At the present day, however, we have reason to believe that light

consists of streams of tiny wave-like packets of energy called
photons, which travel at a speed of 3 x 108 m/s or 105 km/s.

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REFLECTION The image in a plane mirror is:

• The same size as the object
PLANE MIRROR • The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in
The diagram illustrates the terms we use the study of reflected front
light. • Laterally inverted (reversed)
• Virtual (it cannot be formed on a screen)
M M’ represents the surface of a plane mirror.

AO, called the incident ray is the direction in which the light
falls on to the reflecting surface.

O is the point of incidence and OB the reflected ray.

The angles i and r which the incident and reflected rays make
with ON, the normal or perpendicular to the reflecting surface
at the point of incidence, are called the angles of incidence
and reflection respectively.

LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the
point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

Figure 5 - illustration of reflection of light in a plane mirror

2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

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LOOKING INTO A PLANE MIRROR This effect is called lateral inversion: it is even more strikingly
We were, of course, already familiar with some of the above facts demonstrated when we look at the image of a printed page in a
from our every-day experience with mirrors. mirror.

Looking into a mirror, we see an image of the face situated

apparently behind the mirror.

If we now move backwards the image will recede so that it is

always the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in
front.

Unlike the images formed on a screen by a projector, which are

said to be real in the sense that they are formed by the actual
intersection of real rays, the image we see in the mirror cannot
be formed on a screen.

It is said to be virtual and is produced at the place where the

reflected rays appear to intersect when their directions are
produced backwards behind the mirror.

It is also to be noticed that the left ear of the image is formed

Figure 6 - illustration of lateral inversion
from our own right ear as object.

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HOW THE EYE SEES AN IMAGE IN A PLANE MIRROR

Consider the tip of the image of a candle flame in a plane mirror.

We know now that the position of the image I can be constructed

by drawing a line through O perpendicular to the mirror at M and
making OM = IM. MIRROR
(M)
On looking into the mirror the eye sees I apparently by the cone
of rays IE1 and IE2 which enter the eye pupil. OBJECT (O) IMAGE (I)

The light rays IA and IB of this cone obviously does not exist -
there is no light behind the mirror.

The real light rays AE1 and BE2 results from light from O
travelling down the cone OAB and reflected from the mirror at
AB in accordance with the laws of reflection.
E1 Point A
The complete real cone of rays OABE1E2 is called the “pencil” of
light by which the eye sees the image I.

E2 Point B

Figure 7 - illustration of image formation in a mirror

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PARALLAX IN POINTER INSTRUMENTS

Electrical and other instruments which have a pointer moving
above a scale are liable to parallax errors if the eye is not
vertically above the pointer when taking a reading.

Good-class instruments have a plane mirror on the

scale.

Parallax error is avoided if the eye is positioned so

that, when taking a reading, the pointer exactly covers
its own image in the mirror.

If the eye is not vertically above the pointer when the

reading is taken, the presence of a virtual image acts
as an warning that the eye is not in the correct
position to take the reading.

Figure 8 - illustration of parallax error

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REFRACTION It is important to remember that, when a ray passes from one

medium to a more optically dense medium, the ray bends
REFRACTION AT PLANE SURFACES towards the normal.
A pond or a swimming bath both appear much shallower than
they actually are; a straight stick appears bent when partly Conversely, a ray passing from glass or water into air is bent
immersed in water; and the landscape “shimmers” on a hot away from the normal.
summer’s day.

These and many similar effects are caused by refraction or the

change in direction of light when it passes from one medium to
another.

The terms used in connection with refraction are illustrated in Fig.

92, which represents the passage of a ray of light from air to
glass.

The angle of incidence, i is the angle between the incident

ray and the normal at the point of incidence.

The angle of refraction, r is the angle between the refracted

ray and the normal.

Figure 9 - illustration of refraction of light

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THE LAWS OF REFRACTION Where n2 and n1 are the refractive indices of the 2
Although many scientists worked on the problem, the laws materials that the light ray is passing through.
governing the refraction of light when it passes from one
substance to another resisted discovery for centuries. This relationship is known as Snell’s law and the constant is
known as the refractive index:
It was not until 1621 that Willebrord Snell, Professor of
Mathematics at Leyden University, discovered the exact sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 (𝒏)𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
sin 𝜃𝑟
relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction.

Where the refractive index (n) is a constant for light passing from
The laws of refraction are now stated as follows:
one medium to another.
1. The incident and refracted rays are on opposite sides of the
normal at the point of incidence and all three are in the
This index is a measure of the bending power of particular
same plane.
materials, when compared with light travelling through a vacuum
(or air) and we are able to give these materials a specific
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
refractive index.
the angle of refraction is a constant for a given pair of
media (also known as Snell’s law).

This may be written as:

𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒊 𝒏𝟐
=
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒓 𝒏𝟏

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VARIATION IN THE SPEED OF LIGHT At the boundary between the media, the wave's velocity is
The speed of light varies as it travels from medium to medium. altered, usually causing a change in direction. Its wavelength
increases or decreases but its frequency remains constant.
The refractive index gives us the ratio of this speed change.

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝒏 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

The above relationship implies that the greater the refractive

index of the medium or the more the light is bent through the
medium then the lower the speed of light.

So, for example light passing from a vacuum through glass with
n=1.6, will have an approximate velocity of:

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝒏 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

3 × 108
1.6 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

3 × 108
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
1.6
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 1.875 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

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SOME EFFECTS OF REFRACTION To avoid confusion in this and similar ray diagrams one should
The apparent upward bending of a stick when placed in water is always be careful to use the accepted convention of drawing real
shown. rays, real images and objects in full lines and virtual rays and
images in dotted lines.
Rays of light from the end of B of the stick pass from water to
air, and are bent away from the normal since they are In addition, an arrow should be placed on a ray to show the
passing to a less optically dense medium. direction in which the light travels.

Entering the eye, the rays appear to be coming from a point C

above B.

Point A
C is thus the image of B as a result of
refraction.
Point C

OBJECT
The same reasoning applies to any point on
the immersed portion of the stick AB, so
Air (N1)
that the observer sees an image apparently
in the position AC.
Air/Water Boundary

IMAGE
Water(N2)
Point B

Figure 10 - illustration of light refraction of an image placed in water

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SPHERICAL MIRRORS

CURVED MIRRORS
Curved mirrors have a large number of scientific and practical
uses.

The Mount Palomar telescope in America for example works by

reflection of light from a giant concave mirror.

Mirrors with a parabolic shape are used in searchlights and in car

headlamps to produce powerful parallel beams of light.

Convex mirrors are often used on cars for observing traffic

behind; shaving mirrors are concave. See Fig. 95 (i) (ii)

Figure 11 - illustration of concave and convex mirrors

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COMMON TERMS
Concave and convex mirrors are made by depositing vaporised
aluminium on a glass surface which is part of a sphere, like a
watch-glass. The common terms used in connection with curved
mirrors shown.

Term Description

Aperture width of the mirror (AB)

Pole centre of the mirror (P)

Centre or centre of the sphere of which the mirror is

Curvature part (C)

Principal Axis centre line of the mirror (PC)

Radius of
distance PC
Curvature

Focal Length distance PF

The action of a mirror depends considerably on the magnitude of

its radius of curvature or focal length.

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Radius Centre
of Curvature (R)

Mirror Centre of
Curvature (C)

Principal Axis Focal point of

(P) VIRTUAL image (F)

Pole(P) Mirror Centre of

Curvature (C) Radius Centre
CONVEX Mirror of Curvature (R)
Figure 13 - nomenclature for a CONVEX mirror Focal point of
REAL image (F)

Principal Axis Pole(P)

(P)

Focal length (f)

CONCAVE Mirror
Figure 12 - nomenclature for a CONCAVE mirror

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RAYS AND CURVED MIRRORS They show the paths of the light rays are the same so that the
The effect of concave and convex mirrors on rays can be studied light rays are reversible.
with the aid of the ray-box.
This is an illustration of a general law called the Principle of
Rays parallel and close to the principal axis CP converge to Reversibility of Light.
point F on the principal axis; this point is therefore called the
principal focus on the mirror.

By contrast, rays parallel and close to the principal axis diverge

from the reflecting surface of a convex mirror.

They appear to diverge from a point F on the principal axis

behind the mirror.

The principal focus of a concave mirror is a real focus, that is,

reflected rays actually pass through it.

The principal force of a convex mirror is a virtual focus -

reflected rays do not actually pass through it.

If the ray-box is made to produce a beam converging to the

principal focus F, then for both the concave and convex surfaces,
a parallel beam is reflected back.

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Focal point of Mirror Centre of

REAL image (F) Curvature (C)

Principal Axis
(P)

CONCAVE Mirror

Mirror Centre
of Curvature (C)

Principal Axis
(P)
Focal point of
VIRTUAL image (F)

CONVEX Mirror
Figure 14 - illustration of converging and diverging light rays for convex and concave mirrors

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PARABOLIC MIRRORS On this account the concave spherical mirror is not used in
So far we have used a narrow parallel beam of light close to searchlights or the headlamps of cars.
the principal axis in studying reflection from mirrors.
Parabolic mirrors are used - a ‘parabola’ is a curve similar in
From a concave mirror, all the reflected rays then pass through shape to the curved path of a ball thrown forward into the air.
one definite point, the principal focus F.
As shown a parabolic mirror has the suitable property of
If, however, a wide parallel beam covering the whole of the reflecting parallel rays from all parts of its surface when a
aperture is incident on the mirror, experiment showing that the small lamp is placed at its focus.
reflected rays well away from the axis are brought to a focus at
different points such as F1. This produces a parallel beam of constant intensity.

The parallel beam thus produces a blurred focus, and this is Parabolic mirrors are also used behind the straight filaments in
called spherical aberration. electric fires. The filaments are placed at the focus of the mirror.

From the principle of the reversibility of light, it follows that part The heat or infra-red rays are reflected in the same way as visible
of the light from a small lamp placed at the principal focus F will light and emerge as a parallel beam which travels a long way
be reflected not as a parallel beam from the outer parts of from the fir.
the mirror, but as a divergent beam.

Since the reflected light energy now spreads out from the mirror,
it becomes weaker as the distance increases.

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Secondary focal point

of REAL image (F1)

Focal point of
REAL image (F)

Principal Axis
(P)

Spherical Mirror

Light rays at edge of mirror bent

into line with focal point

Focal point of
REAL image (F)

Principal Axis
(P)

Parabolic Mirror
Figure 15 - illustration of spherical and parabolic mirrors

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LENSES

TYPES OF LENSES
Magnifying glasses or lenses have been in use for centuries and
were well known to the Greeks and medieval Arabs. Lenses of
many different types play an important part in our own everyday
life.
Convex lenses

Apart from the benefit of spectacles which enable millions of

people to read in comfort, our lives would be vastly changed if we
had no cameras, projectors, microscopes or telescopes, all of
which function by means of lenses.

Not all lenses can be used as magnifying glasses. There are

some, used in opera glasses and in spectacles for short-sighted
persons, which always give a diminished erect virtual image.

These are referred to as concave or diverging lenses, while

magnifying glasses are called convex or converging lenses.

The two types can be readily distinguished from one another;

Concave lenses
converging lenses are thickest in the middle while
Figure 16 - illustration of types of lenses
diverging lenses are thinnest in the middle.

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COMMON TERMS
The principal axis of a lens is the line joining the centres of
curvature of its surface.

The principal focus, F is that point on the principal axis to

which all rays originally parallel and close to the axis
converge, or from which they diverge, after passing through
the lens.

In the case of a diverging lens the ray will spread out after
passing through the lens, as if diverging from a focus behind
the lens.

The principal focus is thus real for a converging lens and

virtual for a diverging lens.

When we were discussing spherical mirrors it was explained that

a true point focus is obtained only for rays which are very close
to the axis. The same holds true for lenses.

Figure 17 - illustration of principal focus

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OPTICAL CENTRE OF A LENS PRINCIPAL FOCI

The central portion of a lens may be regarded as a small part of a A lens has two principal foci. Since light may pass through a lens
parallel-sided slab, so that rays passing through it are not in either direction, there will be two principal foci equidistant from
deviated but only slightly displaced parallel to their original the optical centre, one on either side of the lens.
direction.
These are denoted by the symbols F and F’.
When the lens is thin this displacement is sufficiently small to be
ignored, so that in all our diagrams rays going through the Apart from their use in locating the principal axis of a lens, the
centre of the lens are drawn straight. centres of curvature of the faces of a lens are not of particular
importance in elementary work.
The centre of the lens is thus called the optical centre.
We shall see later that two points on the axis which are important
FOCAL LENGTH are the points 2F and 2F’.
The focal length of a lens is the distance between the optical
centre and the principal focus. As their names indicate, these are situated respectively at a
distance of twice the focal length from the optical centre on either
The focal length f is calculated by the following formula: side of the lens.

𝒓
𝒇=
𝟐

Where r is the radius of curvature of the mirror/lens.

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CONSTRUCTION OF RAY DIAGRAMS

Three particular classes of ray are used in geometrical
constructions to locate the image formed by a converging lens:

1. Rays parallel to the principal axis which after

refraction through the lens and are bent towards the
principal focus.

2. Rays through the principal focus emerge parallel to

the principal axis after refraction through the lens.
Point A
3. Rays through the optical centre remain un-deviated.
Point B
Two of these rays will be sufficient to locate an image, and
which particular pair is chosen is merely a matter of
convenience.

FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A DIVERGING LENS Object (O) Image (I)

For all positions of the object, the image is virtual, erect and
smaller than the object, and is situated between the object and
Focal point of REAL
the lens
image (F)
Lens
Figure 18 - illustration of image in a diverging lense

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FORMATION OF IMAGES BY A CONVERGING LENS In this case the image is inverted, and so the slide must be put in
The following are a series of diagrams to show the type of image the projector upside down.
formed as the object is moved progressively along the principal
axis, starting at a point between the lens and the principal focus. The bottom right hand diagram shows the action of a simple
camera lens in producing a small real inverted image on a
As is usual in optical diagrams, the object is represented by a sensitive plate or film.
vertical arrow OA standing on the principal axis, and IB
represents the image.

The top left hand diagram illustrates the use of a lens as a

magnifying glass.

It will be noticed that the image formed is erect, virtual and

magnified and on the same side of the lens as the object.

Used in this way, a magnifying glass is sometimes called a simple

microscope to distinguish it from the compound microscope,
which is a more powerful instrument consisting of two or more
lenses mounted in a brass tube.

It shows how a lens is used as a projection lens for the purpose

of throwing a magnified real image of a slide or film on a screen.

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Object between lens and F1 … the image is:

• Located behind object
• Virtual
• Erect
• Larger than object
Object at F2 … the image is:
F2
F2 F1 F1 F2 • Located at F2
• Real
F2 F1 F1 • Inverted
• Same size as object

Object at F1 … the image is:

• Located beyond at infinity as light rays
are horizontal
F2 F1 F1 F2 Object beyond F2 … the image is:
F2
• Located between F1 and F2
• Real
F2 F1 F1 • Inverted
• Smaller than object
Object between F1 and F2 … the image is:
• Located beyond F2
• Real
F2 F1 F1 F2
• Inverted
• Larger than object

Figure 19 - illustration of images produced by convex lens

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CALCULATION OF FORMED IMAGES You should try to memorize these relationships, so that you place
As mentioned earlier there is an alternative method of working the correct values into the formula and correctly interpret your
out the position, magnitude and nature of an image formed from results.
a curved mirror, and that is by calculation.
We also need to calculate the height of the image. In order to
If the object distance from the mirror is u, the image distance v, achieve this, we may use the following relationship:
and the focal length is f, then they may be linked mathematically
by the equation: 𝒉𝒊 𝒗
=
𝒉𝒐 𝒖

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ =
𝒖 𝒗 𝒇 where u and v have their usual meaning and hi =height of image
and ho =height of object.
Any units may be used for the lengths u, v and f, providing the
same type of unit are used in each case.

Note that the above equation can be used for concave and
convex mirrors.

If the mirror is concave then the distance f is always treated as

positive and if the mirror is convex f is negative.

Also if v works out to be positive the image is real and if v

works out to be negative the image is imaginary.

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OPTICAL FIBRES
Thus now we have:

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2
Consider a light ray entering a piece of glass from air. =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 𝑛1

Using Snell’s Law mentioned in earlier in this section it is possible

to calculate an angle such that the ratio of the refractive indices
n1 and n2, produces a maximum angle at which the incidence ray
may hit the boundary between the 2 materials.

This is referred to as the critical angle.

From Snell’s law we have:

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2
=
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑛1

We know that for the refracted ray to pass into

the second material, the angle of incidence
must be greater than 90º - this means we want
Total Internal
the refracted ray to travel into the medium – Refraction
Refraction
not along the boundary between the 2
materials. Figure 20 - illustration of critical angle and total internal reflection

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So now we can re-arrange to find the maximum incidence angle 𝒏𝟐

𝜽𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝑺𝒊𝒏 −𝟏 � �
(critical angle). Note, since we are now finding the critical angle, 𝒏𝟏
sin i is renamed sin θCritical.
As can be seen from fig x-a, the angle of incidence is less
Since: than θCritical thus the light is refracted as it passes through the
𝑆𝑖𝑛 90º = 1 material boundary.

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑛2 When the angle of incidence is equal to θCritical, the light ray
= → =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 90 𝑛1 1 𝑛1
being refracted at 90º - or along the material boundary.

Re-arranging gives us:

When the angle of incidence is greater than θCritical, the light
is completely reflected back into the first material.
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑛2
×1= ×1
1 𝑛1
It is this phenomena is classed as Total Internal Reflection.
𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝑛1 Nowadays total internal reflection is also applied in a very
useful device known as optical fibres, following an idea due
Therefore, by finding the inverse Sin of 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 we are able to originally to Baird, the founder of television in 1927.
calculate θCritical.

𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 −1 (𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 −1 � �
𝑛1

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Optical fibres consist of many tens of thousands of long fine fibre, and bet trapped inside the core until it eventual exit the
strands of high-quality glass coated with glass of lower refractive fibre at the other end.
index.
One of the main considerations when working with optical fibres
The strands may be 1/2000 cm in diameter and the refractive is that of a minimum bend radius. This is the smallest radius
indices of the respective glasses about 1.7 and 1.5. that the fibre can be bent around without damaging it.

In order for the light beam to enter into the fibre, it must strike If the fibre is bent round too small an angle then it will cause the
the surface of one end of the fibre at below the critical angle light to refract out of the fibre core and into the cladding.
– for most fibres this is about 60º.

If this angle were to be rotated around the circumference of the

axis it would be seen that it would describe the shape of a cone –
for light to enter the fibre it must enter through
this cone.

This is referred to as the cone of acceptance.

Due to the trigonometrical maths involved –

which is outside the scope of this module, as
long as a light ray enters the fibre within the
cone of acceptance it will experience total
internal reflection whilst inside the core of the
Figure 21 - illustration of cone of acceptance in fibre optics

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TYPES OF FIBRE OPTIC CABLES The size of the core is only a few times the wavelength of light
Fibre types can be: transmitted. It is commonly used with laser sources for high
• Single mode or single path speed, long distance links.
• Multi mode or multi path

Modes describe the distribution or paths of light energy across

the fibre. Light rays can travel through the wire as long as they
hit the core-cladding interface at an angle less than that of the
critical angle.

SINGLEMODE FIBRE OPTIC CABLES

This describes a fibre with a small core that only allows one path
for light to propagate.

To carry multiple beams of light single mode fibres ensure the

light uses the same path, but different frequencies of light are
used. This means that they are distributed in space in the same
way to give a single ray of light.

Singlemode is also called transverse mode since, although the

light is running parallel with the fibre, the electromagnetic
vibrations occur perpendicular (transverse) to the length of the
fibre.

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MULTIMODE FIBRE OPTIC CABLE There are 2 basic types of multimode fibre:
This describes a fibre with a core diameter much larger than the • Stepped index
wavelength of light transmitted. This allows many paths for the • Graded index
light to propagate through the fibre.
The names of these fibres refer to the change in refractive index
It also gives multi-mode fibre a higher "light-gathering" capacity throughout the fibre.
than singlemode fibre.
A stepped index multimode fibre has a clear change in refractive
Each mode, or ray, is transmitted at a slightly different index from the core of the fibre to the cladding of the fibre.
frequency, which means that the channels can be split and
multiple signals can be sent at the same time. This sharp change in index can lead to attenuation of the light as
it suddenly changes direction as it is reflected back into the core
The larger core size simplifies connections and allows the use of of the fibre, and can lead to a small leakage of the incident light
lower-cost electronics such as light-emitting diodes. ray into the cladding.

Commonly used with LED sources for lower speed, short distance A graded index multimode fibre has an index that gradually
links, such as within a building or on a campus. changes from the centre of the core of the fibre to the cladding.
This gradual change in index causes the light bouncing down the
Multimode fibre has the disadvantage that since all the light is no fibre to curve more gradually as it hits the cladding.
longer travelling directly down the centre of the fibre, the path of
the light bouncing down the outside of the fibre will be longer, This curving of the light rays down the fibre minuses the leakage
and hence the signal will have to travel further – this will lead to of light rays out of the core and into the cladding and hence
a loss or attenuation of the signal. minimises the attenuation of the signal.

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Refractive Index

Figure 22 - illustration of different modes of fibre optic cable

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Intentionally Blank

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MODULE 2

Physics

SECTION 2.5

Wave and Sound Motion

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Wavefronts .................................................................. 24
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Transverse waves ...................................................... 24
Table of Contents ................................................................. 3
Longitudinal Waves.................................................... 25
Section 2.5 - Wave Motion and Sound .................................... 5

Waves ............................................................................. 5 Light Waves .................................................................... 28

Simple Harmonic Motion .................................................. 7 Radio waves ................................................................. 32
Linear and angular vibrations ....................................... 7
Example ...................................................................10
Sound Waves .................................................................. 34
Circular motion and SHM ................................................ 11

Vibrations .....................................................................13
Waves in Strings and Liquids ............................................. 35
Resonant Vibrations ................................................... 13
Damping ...................................................................14 Waves in strings ........................................................... 35

Surface Liquid Waves .................................................... 35

Wave Motion....................................................................17
Refraction of Waves ...................................................... 36
Energy Dissipation ......................................................... 17 Diffraction of waves ...................................................... 37
Velocity of a wave ......................................................... 19 Reflection of Waves ....................................................... 38
Example: ..................................................................20 Symmetrical reflection ............................................... 38
Reducing reflection .................................................... 38
Wave intensity - Inverse Square Law ............................... 21

Phase Difference ........................................................... 23

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Wave Interference ............................................................ 39

Nodes and anti-nodes .................................................... 39

Stationary Waves .......................................................... 41

Shockwaves.....................................................................46

Normal Shock Wave ....................................................... 48

Oblique Shock Wave ...................................................... 48

Doppler Effect ..................................................................49

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By ‘environment’ here we mean the adjacent parts, either

SECTION 2.5 - WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
internally or on the surface, of a solid, liquid or gas.
Waves exist in many different forms.

When the applied force is removed, the environment pushes the

The light we see is electromagnetic radiation from the sun
particle back towards its original position.
traveling in waves. Radio and television signals are transmitted
through the air from transmitters as electromagnetic waves.
In returning, the particle gathers speed until, when it reaches the
equilibrium position where no forces act, it overshoots it and
The ripples from a stone dropped in a pond and the tides lapping
distorts the environment on the other side.
the beach are all forms of wave motion.

This action is repeated back and forth giving rise to a common

WAVES
event in nature - periodic motion.
Most matter is neither held absolutely rigidly in position, nor is it
completely free to move. Each particle is restrained by its
environment and a force of one kind or another is capable of
moving it.

A force sufficiently strong will entirely overcome the restraining

influences and completely tear the particle away from its
environment.

A weak force, on the other hand, will merely distort the

surroundings until their resistance counteracts the applied force.

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Such motion repeats itself in successive equal intervals of time,

that is the time taken by the particle to cover each swing of the
vibration is always the same.

The greatest distance from the equilibrium position reached by

the particle is called the amplitude a.

An applied force produces a displacement which gives rise to a

resisting force. When the force is removed,
vibration occurs about the equilibrium position.

Figure 1 - illustration of wave motion

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SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION The time taken for the particle to perform a complete cycle,
starting and ending with the same velocity and position, is the
LINEAR AND ANGULAR VIBRATIONS period of the motion, T.
Frequently, the resisting force exerted on a particle is directly
proportional to the displacement of the particle from its Note that the period is unaffected by the amplitude.
equilibrium position.
If the amplitude of the motion is increased, the average velocity
We call this particularly simple kind of vibration which results in is also increased and the period remains constant. The mass on
such cases simple harmonic motion (SHM). the spring is an example of a linear vibration.

The vertical oscillations of a mass on a spiral spring is an example The number of vibrations per unit time, the frequency f is equal
of this type of motion. to the reciprocal of the period.
𝟏
𝒇=
The acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force acting on 𝑻
it and is directed towards the equilibrium position.

If y is the displacement from the equilibrium position and k is the

spring constant, ie., the force exerted when the spring is
extended by unit length.

When y = 0 the acceleration is zero and the velocity is greatest.

When y = a the acceleration is a maximum and the particle is

instantaneously at rest.

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The following diagram also shows examples of angular Hence the equation for y becomes:
vibrations which may also be simple harmonic motion.
𝟐𝝅𝒕
𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
The variation with time of the position of a particle vibrating with 𝑻
simple harmonic motion is the same shape as the graph of sin θ
againstθ. We use this equation to predict the position of an object vibrating
with SHM at any time after it has passed through the equilibrium
Starting with the equation y = sin θ we can modify it to make it position.
describe the motion of the particle.

Now y = sin θ has a maximum value of 1, therefore, to give y a

maximum value equal to the amplitude of the vibration, a, we
write

𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 θ

If we compare Fig. 2 with Fig. 4 we see that at θ = 360o

corresponds to the period T.

Any other value of θ will correspond to a lapse of time t such that

2𝜋 × 𝑡
𝜃= 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝑇

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Figure 4 - illustration of an angular

Figure 2 - illustration of a linear vibration vibration

𝒚𝒚 = 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽

-1

360º
2π Radians
Figure 3 - illustration of displacement plotted against angle

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EXAMPLE

1. What is the displacement of a particle vibrating with SHM

of period 0.5s and of amplitude 8 cm at an instant 0.1s
after passing through the zero displacement position?

Answer

2. 7.6 cm

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CIRCULAR MOTION AND SHM

The motion of a particle in a circle is related to SHM in a very
simple way, which gives some insight into both types of motion.

A radius OP of a circle rotating steadily about the centre O, and

describes equal angles in equal intervals of time.

The number of degrees or radians moved per second is the

angular velocity ω.

𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝜽𝜽 𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝝎= = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 � �
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝒕 𝑠

After a time t has elapsed, θ will have the value ω x t.

The projection y of radius OP on a vertical straight line is given

by:

𝑦 = 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ = 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑡

But the radius OP is equal to the amplitude, therefore:

𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ω𝒕 Figure 5 - illustration of simple harmonic motion

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We now have 2 equations for simple harmonic motion. The first Again removing terms that are common to both sides of the
being: equation gives:
2𝜋𝑡
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin
𝑇 2𝜋𝑡
= 𝜔𝑡
𝑇
And the second being:
𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑡 𝟐𝝅
= 𝝎
𝑻
By comparing both of these equations we obtain:

𝑦=𝑦 We therefore conclude that point Q performs SHM of period T =

2π/ω and of amplitude a equal to the radius of the circular
2𝜋𝑡 motion.
𝑎 sin = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑡
𝑇

Or more over, the rotational speed of the oscillating system (ω –

If we now cancel those terms that are common on both sides, we
radians/second) is given by the number of radians in one
are left with:
complete revolution (2π) divided by the time taken to complete 1
revolution (T).
2𝜋𝑡
𝑎 sin = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ω𝑡
𝑇

2𝜋𝑡
= 𝜔𝑡
𝑇

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VIBRATIONS Minor resonances can occur when the forced frequency, n, is a

simple fraction or multiple of the natural frequency no, e.g.
RESONANT VIBRATIONS n = 2no or n =½no, etc.
A particle that is free to vibrate will assume a natural
frequency of vibration, which will depend on the mass of the These are called harmonic frequencies.
particle and the elasticity of the medium.

If a force fluctuating at a frequency other than the natural

frequency is applied, its frequency will be imposed on the
particle.

The amplitude of the particle will not be large, however,

because it is not able to store much energy at frequencies other
than its natural frequency. The incident energy is dissipated as
random vibration, i.e, heat.

Should the forced frequency coincide with the natural

frequency, the particle increases its amplitude and stores
the energy.

This situation is called resonance.

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DAMPING Movement in either direction is resisted by the viscous forces as

There are two ways of driving a vehicle over an unmade or the liquid passes from one side of a piston to the other through a
washboard road surface - either fast or very slow. restricted aperture, called the transfer channel.

At a certain intermediate speed the frequency of the road Instruments with moving pointers, such as balances and electrical
irregularities is near to the natural frequency of the springing or meters, are damped to curtail oscillation about the final rest
the steering, and the vibration builds up and makes control position.
difficult.

Even on apparently smooth roads, a recurring irregularity of the

surface has been known to shatter car windscreens, a
phenomenon sometimes attributed to poltergeists by people who
do not realise the effects of vibration.

This tendency to resonate can be reduced by providing a means

of absorbing the undesirable energy of vibration.

In motor vehicles, shock absorbers or hydraulic dampers absorb

the energy of the suspension.

Limited resistance to vertical motion is provided as the liquid

passes through the transfer channel.

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The damping may be provided by viscous, frictional, electrical or It is important to provide just the right degree of damping, so
magnetic forces. that the system returns to the equilibrium position in the
shortest possible time without oscillation.
ζ (Zeta) is a constant called the damping ratio.
The condition is called critical damping.
The value of the damping ratio ζ determines the behaviour of the
system. A damped harmonic oscillator can be:

Overdamped (ζ > 1): The system returns (exponentially

decays) to equilibrium without
oscillating.

Larger values of the damping

ratio ζ return to equilibrium more
quickly.

Critically damped (ζ = 1): The system returns to

equilibrium as quickly as possible
without oscillating.

This is often desired for the

damping of systems such as
doors.

Underdamped (0 < ζ < 1): The system oscillates (at

reduced frequency compared to
the undamped case) with the
amplitude gradually decreasing to
zero.

Undamped (ζ = 0): The system oscillates at its

natural resonant frequency (ωo).

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Under damped Critically Over damped

oscillation damped oscillation
oscillation
Normal
oscillation
AMPLITUDE

ωt
Figure 6 - illustration of types of damping

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WAVE MOTION reduces because of the internal friction.

If the energy that causes the disturbance carries on producing

ENERGY DISSIPATION
recurrent complete vibrations, then a continuous periodic wave is
The energy supplied at a point of disturbance such as we have
generated.
described, is transmitted to adjacent particles by the forces
between the particles.

If there is little internal friction or damping, the energy travels

away from the point in the form of a pulse.

If the pulse is confined to one direction, like a ripple along a

piece of rope, each particle in its path will, in turn, assume the
movement of the original particle.

A single pulse travels away from a source of energy.

The pulse shown is only half a complete cycle and, in an elastic

material, the amplitude remains constant.

If the internal friction is considerable, the kinetic energy of the

pulse will be converted to heat in a short distance.

Figure 7 - illustration of a wave traveling

The shape is preserved as before but the amplitude gradually

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We can form an accurate picture of such a wave by plotting the

position, at one instant in time, of each particle in its path.

The distance between the wave crests or between

corresponding points on the curve is the wavelength.

As the wave profile moves, it alters the position of each particle

on its path.

The curve is the same shape as a sine curve, i.e., the graph of y
= sin θ.

If the curve, y = sin θ has a maximum value of a, we can say

that

𝒚𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 θ

Figure 8 - illustration of a wave and its related measurements

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VELOCITY OF A WAVE

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
= × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

But we know that the number of waves per second is referred to

as the frequency, therefore we can substitute this into the
equation:

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

Or:

𝒗=𝒇 × 𝝀

Note: This formula applies to all waves including

sound and light waves

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EXAMPLE:

1. One end of a rope is vibrated at 8 Hz and the waves

generated measure 600 mm from crest to crest. How fast
do they travel and what is the period of the vibration of
any part of the rope?

Answer:

1. 4.8 m/s, 0.125s

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WAVE INTENSITY - INVERSE SQUARE LAW where S is the power of the acoustic source.
As one moves further from a source of spherical waves, the
amplitude of the sound at your location gets less. This is because As you move further from the source, r increases and the
of the ways in which, in travelling over the distance between the intensity of the wave decreases.
source and you, the intensity I of the wave decreases.
From the above equation, the intensity decreases as an "inverse-
The intensity I is the power S in the wave divided by the area A square law" with distance r, that is like 1/r2.
over which it is spread:
The sound-pressure amplitude of a travelling simple spherical
𝑆 wave is proportional to the square-root of its intensity. Therefore,
𝐼 =
𝐴 in a spherical travelling wave, acoustic amplitude is proportional
to 1/r.
Assume that none of the sound wave power is absorbed (i.e.
converted to heat) as it propagates from the source to you.

If you are at a distance r from the source, the area of the

imaginary sphere over which the spherical wave is spread is

𝐴 = 4 × 𝜋 × 𝑟2

Substituting this into the previous equation gives

𝑺
𝑰 =
𝟒 × 𝝅 × 𝒓𝟐 Figure 9 - illustration of wave intensity

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Example: The intensity of waves at a distance of 20 m from

their source is 25 W/m2.

What is the intensity at a distance of 50 m and how do the

amplitudes of the waves compare at the two places?

Answer: 4 W/m2

Note: The amplitudes are in the inverse ratio of the distances

from the source

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PHASE DIFFERENCE
The angle, which is the subject of the sine in the wave equation,
is called the phase of the wave at the point.

The phase determines at what stage a particle is in its SHM cycle.

The phase varies at different instants in time and at different
positions on the wave, i.e., when x or t varies.

Particles which have an integral multiple of 360o or 2π phase

differences are said to be in phase while those which are an odd Figure 11 - illustration of 180º phase change

multiple of 180o or π difference of phase are out of phase.

The diagram shows the phase relationship between 2 waves. It

can be clearly seen that wave A starts half a wave length after
wave B.

Since half a wave length is equal to a rotation of 180º, we can

say that wave A is 180º out of phase with wave B.

In this instance we can also say that wave B leads wave A or

wave A lags wave by 180º.

Figure 10 - illustration of a 90º phase change

The phase difference can be anywhere between 0.00 1º and
180º. The next diagram shows 2 waves 90º out of phase.
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WAVEFRONTS
The 2 basic types of waves
• Longitudinal
• Transverse

TRANSVERSE WAVES
In a transverse wave the wave front is displaced at 90º to
the direction of travel of the wave

These waves cannot move if there is no medium or material

for them to travel through.

A good example of a transverse wave is a water wave produced

by dropping a pebble in the sea.

Figure 12 - illustration of a transverse wave

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LONGITUDINAL WAVES
Equally important are longitudinal waves, in which the particles
vibrate in the same direction as the wave travels.

As in the case of the transverse wave, each particle on the path

of a longitudinal wave performs SHM about its average position
as the wave moves through it.

Although both types of wave may pass through the

same material, their velocities are generally different
because of the different physical properties of the
materials which are involved in propagating them.

A longitudinal pulse and a longitudinal wave are shown

travelling along a spiral spring. Individual coils move
back and forth about their undisturbed positions.

Figure 13 - illustration of a longitudinal wave

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When the appropriate constants are inserted in the wave

equation which has already been given, it will describe both
transverse and longitudinal waves equally well.

Evenly spaced particles are displaced as the wave passes through

them to the positions shown.

When we plot this displacement as originate against the

horizontal equilibrium position of the particles, we obtain the
familiar sinusoidal graph.

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AMPLITUDE OF COMPRESSION
Maximum
compression

DISPLACEMENT

Normal
compression

Maximum
expansion

DISPLACEMENT

COMPRESSION COMPRESSION COMPRESSION

RAREFRACTION RAREFRACTION
Figure 14 - illustration of longitudinal wave drawn as sine wave

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LIGHT WAVES the other direction, reaching the same maximum in a similar way
to the motion of a particle performing SHM.
We are familiar with the way in which light energy travels from a
In fact, electromagnetic waves may be produced by a vibrating
source to arrive eventually at some other point which it
charged particle, such as an electron, which creates a varying
illuminates. What is happening in the region through which the
electric field.
light is passing?

Light waves are transverse waves because the fluctuation is

Were it possible to stop such a light wave and take minute
across the wave perpendicular to the direction of travel.
measurements along its path, we would detect two influences, a
fluctuating electric field at right angles to the direction of
the beam and a fluctuating magnetic field at right
angles both to the beam and the electric field. (Fig.
15)

Note that the electric and magnetic fields have the same
wavelength and they keep in phase.

The energy of the light is stored in these two fluctuating

fields, the pattern of which is preserved as it travels along.

If one could read an electrometer and a magnetometer as

the light passed through them, they would give readings
first in one direction, reaching a maximum, and then in

Figure 15 - illustration of an electromagnetic wave

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As mentioned earlier, light waves are a sub set of a much more 1. They all travel in straight lines at the speed of light (3×108
extensive range of waves known as the electromagnetic m/s) through a vacuum or free space.
spectrum. 2. They are all transverse waves, where the oscillations are
produced by changing electrical and magnetic fields.
The electromagnetic waves within the have differing wavelengths, 3. They all exhibit, reflection, refraction, interference,
frequencies and vary tremendously in the amount of energy they diffraction and polarization.
are able to transmit. 4. The intensity of all waves emitted from a point source in a
vacuum, is inversely proportional to the square of the
You will note that the waves with the smallest wavelength and distance from the source, i.e. I ∝1/r2.
highest frequency have the highest energy or intensity. 5. They obey the equation c=f λ where c=the speed of light.

For example, penetrating radioactive gamma rays have

wavelengths less than 10−10 m and frequencies in the range 1019–
1021 Hz.

While at the other end of the spectrum, we range from

microwaves with wavelengths around 1mm to radio waves with
frequencies in the range 106–105 m and wavelengths around 1–
10 km.

Even though the waves in the electromagnetic spectrum may

have vastly different frequencies and thus energy levels, they all
have the following common characteristics: Figure 16 - illustration of electromagnetic spectrum

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Figure 17 - detailed illustration of the electromagnetic spectrum

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We have talked about electromagnetic waves having different

energy levels but not really explained the source of this energy.

Electromagnetic waves are emitted when electrically charged

particles (at the atomic level) change their energy.

This occurs when electrons orbiting the nucleus of an atom jump

to a lower energy level releasing electromagnetic radiation
(waves) from the atom, during the process.

From our study of heat we also know that the electrons and
nuclei of atoms constantly oscillate, their KE is constantly
changing, and these atoms release electromagnetic radiation in
accord with these changes.

The greater the jump or the more rapid the oscillation, the higher
the frequency and the more intense is the resulting
electromagnetic wave energy.

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RADIO WAVES • Via sky waves which leave the transmitting aerial at an
It should be emphasized right from the outset, that radio waves angle and are reflected back down to the earth’s surface
must not be confused with sound waves, which follow. via charged particles in the ionosphere.
• As space waves, which take a straight-line path and
Radio waves belong to the series of waves within the effectively use the height of the aerial to hit the earth at a
electromagnetic spectrum and have the characteristics identified distance related to the curvature of the earth’s surface.
above.

They are transverse progressive waves that are able to travel

through free space.

Sound waves are longitudinal progressive waves that require a

medium, such as air, to pass through.

They may be produced by making electrons oscillate in an aerial

or antenna and can be used to transmit sound and picture
information over long distances.

• The electromagnetic information from a transmitting aerial

(source) can reach the receiving aerial by three different
routes: Via ground waves which travel along the ground
following the curvatures of the terrain.
Figure 18 - illustration of radio wave propagation

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The skip distance is the point from the transmitter where the This is why your television reception and FM (frequency
first sky wave can be reached. modulated) radio reception is particularly sensitive to the
distance from the transmitter, the higher the transmitter, the
The area which cannot receive either the ground-wave or first greater the range of transmission by space waves.
sky-wave reflection is called the dead space or silent zone.
Microwaves with frequencies above 3000MHz are used for radar,
It should be appreciated that the transmitter usually sends out its radio astronomy and satellite communications.
energy in the form of a wide beam therefore the sky-wave
reflection, covers a large area, not just a single point.

By virtue of their wavelength, long and medium waves will

diffract as ground waves around hilly terrain, so that a signal can
be picked up on these wavelengths, even if hills exist between
the transmitter and receiver.

Long (30–300 kHz) and medium (300 kHz–3 MHz) frequency

waves may also be transmitted as sky waves so that very long
distance reception is possible.

Very high frequency (VHF 30–300 MHz) and ultra high frequency
(UHF 300–3000 MHz) waves have shorter wavelengths and are
not reflected by the ionosphere and so normally require a straight
path between the transmitter and receiver.

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SOUND WAVES An increase in temperature would reduce the air density

and hence the speed of sound would fall.
Encouraged perhaps by the answer to the question ‘what is light?’
let us pose the question ‘what is sound?’
Since the speed of sound (c) varies with temperature, the
following formula is used to calculate the approximate speed of
If we were to employ the same tactics and take suitable
sound at different temperatures:
instruments between source and receiver while the wave is frozen
in time, what would we find there?
𝜽𝜽
𝑪𝒂𝒊𝒓 = 𝟑𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 + �𝟏 + 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
The instruments would show that the pressure along the wave 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

changes regularly, alternating from a little above average

to a little below average The particles in the path of the wave move from their equilibrium
position first in the direction of the wave and then in the reverse
The compressions (particles pressed together) and direction.
rarefactions (particles moved apart) move through the material
with the velocity of the wave. This type of to and fro movement along the direction of travel
makes sound a longitudinal wave.
For a sound wave in air this is about 350 m/s, i.e., 1250 km/h
depending on the temperature of the air.

The denser the medium then the faster the sound wave will
travel through it.

Compared to travel in air, sound waves travel about five times

faster in water and about twenty times faster in steel.
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WAVES IN STRINGS AND LIQUIDS A wave on a liquid combines both longitudinal and transverse
vibrations, which give each particle on its path a cyclic motion.
WAVES IN STRINGS
When a stretched string is pulled to one side, the tension tends to
The waves can be analysed into simple sinusoidal variations such
return it to its equilibrium position.
as we have dealt with in this chapter.

The higher the tension, the quicker the string is restored to this
The principal restoring force acting on particles in a sea wave is
position when it is released and the faster the resulting wave
the force of gravity, whereas for ripples the surface tension plays
travels along the string, since the wave length is shorter.
a greater part.

The mass of the string tends to retard its return and so slows
down the wave.

Hence we can say that the speed of a wave along a string is:
• increased when the tension in the string is higher
• decreased if the mass of the string is greater

SURFACE LIQUID WAVES

Liquid surface waves can be quite complex, like sea waves
generated by a storm centre in the great oceans, or they can be
more regular like the waves on a still pond when a stone is
dropped into it. Figure 19 - illustration of wave travel in a liquid

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REFRACTION OF WAVES This phenomenon is called refraction.

A change in medium or a change in conditions may cause a wave
to slow down as, for example, when rays of light strike the It may occur sharply as, for example, when light waves enter a
surface of a block of glass, or when sea waves meet a shelving glass block, or it may occur gradually as is the case for sea waves
beach. approaching a shelving beach.

This slowing-down has the effect of shortening the The velocity of the waves reduces as the depth increases, and the
wavelength, that is, the distance between the crests of the waves are bent around to face the shore.
waves, although the frequency of the waves remains the same.
Maximum
Normal Axis
expansion
This is shown for normal incidence in the diagram, which also NORMAL
shows what happens when the wavefronts meet the surface OBLIQUE REFRACTION
obliquely. REFRACTION

One end of each wavefront, the end which touches the obstacle
first, slows up before the other end, and the whole wavefront is
made to swing round.

The retardation of the wave causes deviation towards the

normal at the surface.

Conversely, if the waves travel faster in the second medium

they deviate away from the normal.
Figure 20 - illustration of normal and oblique refraction

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DIFFRACTION OF WAVES
When two plates, with a very narrow gap between them are
placed in the path of progressive water waves , the waves that
pass through them spread out in all directions and produce
circular wave fronts.
HOLE A LOT GREATER HOLE GREATER THAN HOLE SMALLER THAN
THAT WAVE LENGTH WAVE LENGTH WAVE LENGTH
This effect is known as diffraction or bending of
waves as they pass through very narrow gaps.

If the gap between the plates is made much

wider than the wavelength of the waves passing
through it, then the diffraction effect becomes
insignificant.

Negligible Increased Total

Diffraction Diffraction Diffraction

Figure 21 - illustration of wave diffraction

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REFLECTION OF WAVES

SYMMETRICAL REFLECTION
When a wave meets the surface separating two materials in
which its velocity is different, some of the energy of the wave is
reflected.

The reflected wave has the same velocity, frequency, and

wavelength as the incident wave, and the two waves are
symmetrical with the surface.

REDUCING REFLECTION
The greater the change in conditions at a surface, the greater is
the fraction of incident energy reflected.

Where we require a wave to cross a boundary with minimum

reflection, we try to reduce the abruptness of the change.

For example, the abrupt change between air and glass in a fibre
optic system, is reduced by putting a coating on a lens.

Figure 22 - illustration of reflected wave

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WAVE INTERFERENCE

NODES AND ANTI-NODES

Two wave trains will pass through the same region and each will
emerge on the other side quite unaffected by the other.

Where they actually over-lap however, they do interact or

interfere with each other.

In practice, if we wish to detect and examine the interference,

the two wave trains must be simply related and have the same
frequency and amplitude, but we can appreciate the principle of
interference by considering the interaction of single pulses
travelling along a string of particles.

Two crests travelling in opposite directions produce coincidence of

two troughs would also produce maximum amplitude – referred
to as constructive interference.

Where a crest and a trough coincide, they cancel each other and
result in a point of zero displacement – referred to as
destructive interference.

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CONSTRUCTIVE
interference
causing an increase
DESTRUCTIVE
in wave amplitude
interference
causing an increase
in wave amplitude

TIME
Figure 23 - illustration of constructive and destructive interference

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STATIONARY WAVES
Whenever two waves of equal frequency and amplitude cross
each other through the same space, then at every stage in their
motion, the waves add up to zero at certain fixed points, the
nodes, situated half a wavelength apart.

Because of these fixed nodes we call the resulting wave a

standing or stationary wave.

The amplitude is not constant along the wave but varies from
zero at the nodes to a maximum at the antinodes midway
between the nodes.

All the points between two successive nodes are in phase

and each anti-node is exactly out of phase with its neighbour.

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NODE Anti-node
Destructive Constructive
interference interference

STANDING WAVE
NODE Anti-node
Destructive Constructive
interference interference

1 wavelength
(λ)
Figure 24 - illustration of standing wave including nodes and anti-nodes

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The complexity of the interference pattern from two sources of

continuous waves may be appreciated from the diagram.

The coincidence of two crests or two troughs produces a

maximum amplitude or anti-node.

Where crest and trough coincide, a minimum amplitude or node

is produced.

The nodes and antinodes are not points but lines which remain
fixed as the waves move outwards.

A pattern of hyperbolic lines for the nodes and anti-nodes

emerges.

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Figure 25 - illustration of node and antinode interference

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A rather dramatic example of transverse standing waves was the

destruction of the Tacoma Suspension Bridge, USA
in 1940.

The centre span of 850 m was slung between towers

130 m high, which were anchored by cables to
blocks containing 15,000 m3 of concrete.

Even during construction it was found to have a

tendency to vibrate and an effort was made to
reduce it.

When completed it resonated to a standing wave

with eight or nine nodes at a frequency of 36 or 38
vibrations/minute.

When it was completed, it lasted just four months

and seven days, before one mildly windy day the
amplitude of the standing wave rose to several
metres, exceeding the elastic limit of its construction
members, and the bridge broke up.

Figure 26 - illustration of destruction cause by standing wave created in Tacoma Suspension

bridge

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SHOCKWAVES The bow wave of a ship travelling faster than water waves is
another example of a shock wave.
Just as an object has a natural frequency of vibration, so in each
medium a wave has a natural velocity of propagation.
We often express supersonic velocities in units of the speed of
sound, called mach numbers – this is calculated using the
It is in some cases possible for a body to move through the
formula:
medium at a higher speed than waves.

Bullets, shells and projectiles travel much faster than sound even 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒐𝒅𝒚𝒚
𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 =
manned aircraft can maintain supersonic velocities. 𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅

Ships often exceed the velocity of water waves but, in contrast, Since the speed of sound varies with atmospheric conditions, so

no object can ever travel faster than light waves in a vacuum. does the speed indicated by a certain mach number.

When a body exceeds the speed of waves in a medium, no wave The mach number of a missile can be deduced from the shape of

travels ahead of it to produce a mild disturbance. its shock wave.

The air is undisturbed until the body itself arrives. As the mach no. increases, the angle of the shock wave
decreases i.e. the shock wave becomes narrower with

The sudden disturbance that the object produces is called a increasing speed.

shock wave and this travels away from the leading edge of the
object at the wave velocity.

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Missile velocity Missile velocity

(v) (v)

Shockwave
Angle (θ) Shockwave
Angle (θ)

S
Figure 27 - illustration in decrease of shockwave angle with increase in forward velocity

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NORMAL SHOCK WAVE OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVE

When a shock wave appears at a point of Mach 1 air flow it is If a shock wave makes contact with a sharp edge it will bend
described as being normal if it appears at right angles to direction backwards forming a wave that is at an angle to the airflow
of the air flow causing it. causing it, the airflow will decelerate through the wave, but
remains above Mach 1 on exit – this is referred to as an oblique
Air passing through a normal shock wave will be Mach 1 or above shockwave.
on entry but instantly decelerates to below Mach 1 on exit.

As the shock wave is only about one ten thousandth of an inch Oblique Shockwave

thick, the change of energy from kinetic to pressure and heat

energy is quite dramatic to take place in such a small area.
Airspeed > Mach 1.0 Airspeed > Mach 1.0

At a higher Mach number this can lead to severe turbulence and

an increase in air temperature behind the wave.
Air velocity reduced with a small rise in pressure
Normal Shockwave
Figure 29 - Oblique shockwave

Airspeed > Mach 1.0 Airspeed > Mach 0.7

Kinetic energy transformed to an increase in

pressure and temperature

Figure 28 - Normal shockwave

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DOPPLER EFFECT The change in observed frequency is known as the Doppler

shift.
You may have heard the Doppler effect at some time, although
perhaps without realising it.

The Doppler effect is the drop in the observed frequency of a

source of sound as it passes and recedes from the
observer.

It is most evident when trains blowing their whistles are observed

from the platform of a station through which they pass at speed.

An observer can hardly fail to be aware of the changes in the

notes of the engines of a car or motor cycle as they pass. The
effect is caused by a shortening of the wavelength of the
sound in front of the moving source and a lengthening of
the wavelength behind it.

The Doppler effect is also apparent to a moving observer who is

passing a stationary source.

This effect is due to the change of the relative velocity of the

sound waves as they appear to the observer, the observed
frequency being proportional to the relative velocity.
Figure 30 - illustration of the Doppler Effect

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The Doppler effect also applies to light waves, producing, for fR = receiver frequency
example, a change in the colour of the light emitted from
receding stars. The change in wavelength is towards longer The Doppler shift or Doppler frequency is given by:
wavelengths, that is, the red end of the spectrum, and this ‘red
shift’ is used to estimate the speed at which the stars are 𝒇𝑫 = 𝒇𝑹 − 𝒇𝑻
receding from us. The effect is also used with radar waves to
estimate the velocity of aircraft over the ground and in police If the movement between Tx and Rx is towards each other fR
speed traps increases and fD is positive

It is worth noting that it is only the frequency at the receiver that If it is away from each other fR decreases and fD becomes
changes while the frequency of transmission and the speed of the negative
waves remain constant.

The apparent change in frequency is solely due to the relative

motion between the transmitter, Tx and the receiver, Rx.

The Doppler shift or frequency is the difference in transmitted

and received frequencies.

Let: c = speed of the waves

v = relative velocity between Tx and Rx
fD = Doppler shift
fT = transmitter frequency
λ = wavelength of fT

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There are two factors that will cause an increase in the Doppler
shift. The Doppler frequency will increase whenever: 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
=
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔

1. relative velocity increases

Since: In other words, the ratio of the frequencies equals the ratio of the
𝑣 = 𝑓 ×𝜆 speeds.

If the relative velocity vR increases so fD must increase. 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚 × 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
=
2. transmitter frequency increases 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
Again using the formula for the Doppler Frequency:

So, for example if the transmitter frequency= 100MHz and the

𝑣
𝑓𝐷 =
𝜆 relative velocity between the transmitter and receiver is 3600
km/h (1000 m/s), then:
And since:
𝑐
𝜆= 𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚
𝑓𝑇
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚 × 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
=
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔
We can substitute in and obtain:

100 000 × 1 000

𝒇𝑫 𝒗 𝐷𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
3 × 108
=
𝒇𝑻 𝒄
𝑫𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟑 𝑯𝒛
This may be re-written as:

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Intentionally Blank

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