Unit 3 Quality

and quality
control
Quality , sample acceptance, sampling
plan
 Quality
• Quality is the totality of features and
characteristics of a product or service that
bear on its ability to satisfy given needs.
Quantity control
• Quality control is defined as the
process of setting standards and
testing to make sure something,
like a product or service, is done
correctly.
 Improvement of quality

Reduction of scrap and rework

Objectives Efficient use of men and machine

of quality Decreased inspection cost

control Reduction in cost per unit

To prevent the poor-quality product reaching to customer

Reduction in customer complaint

 Acceptance sampling is a statistical measure used in quality
control. It allows a company to determine the quality of a
batch of products by selecting a specified number for
testing. The quality of this designated sample will be viewed
as the quality level for the entire group of products.
Acceptance
sampling For example, suppose you're receiving 10,000 coffee mugs.
You will inspect 28 of them. If there are 0, 1, or 2 defective
coffee mugs, you can accept the delivery of the shipment.
But if the sample contains more than 2 defectives, you'll
reject the lot.
 The purpose of acceptance sampling is to reduce the
likelihood that defective parts will be included in a final
product. By using this method, companies can ensure that
only high-quality products are sold to consumers which makes
them more likely to make repeat purchases.

Purpose Acceptance sampling allows companies to determine if their

product meets their standards before they begin mass
production or distribution. If it does not meet their standards,
they can reject that batch and start anew instead of continuing
down the path towards producing something less than
satisfactory quality-wise.
History of acceptance sampling
• Acceptance sampling was first developed by Walter A. Shewhart, an engineer at
Bell Laboratories in New Jersey. The idea was that if a worker made one bad
product every 100 times, he would be fired, so he would make sure to make 99 good
products in order to keep his job. This is called “100% inspection.”
• You can imagine how difficult this would be if you’re creating thousands or even
millions of products. So instead, they came up with an alternative method: accept
samples of items being made and reject those that don’t meet your standards.
• This is where acceptance sampling comes in and allows you to test each item
before you accept it into your inventory for sale or use by consumers
 Sampling
plan
• Sampling plan is detailed outline of measurements
to be taken. A sampling plan is a detailed outline of
which measurements will be taken at what times, on
which material, in what manner, and by whom.
It is of two types
1.Attribute sampling
• Simple sampling
• Multiple sampling
• Double sampling
• Sequential sampling
2.Variable sampling
Attribute Sampling
• It is the method of measuring quality that consists of noting the presence or
absence of some characteristics(attribute) in each of the units under consideration
• It checks whether the items are defective or not
• It is mostly of yes or no answer

Variable sampling
In this data is in variable form and the result is rated on a continuous scale that
degree of conformity
It is about checking how much, how good, how bad
Single Sampling plan
• A sampling plan in which a decision about the acceptance or rejection of a lot is
based on a single sample that has been inspected is known as a single sampling
plan.
• For example, suppose a buyer purchases cricket balls in lots of 500 from a company
manufacturing cricket balls. To check the quality of the lots, the buyer draws a
random sample of size 20 from each lot and takes a decision about accepting or
rejecting of the lot on the basis of the information provided by this sample. Since the
buyer takes the decision about the lot on the basis of a single sample, this sampling
plan is a single sampling plan.
 Steps in single sampling
• Step 1: We draw a random sample of size n from the lot received from the supplier or the final assembly.
• Step 2: We inspect each and every unit of the sample and classify it as defective or non -defective. At the
end of the inspection, we count the number of defective units found in the sample. Suppose the number o
defective units found in the sample is d.
• Step 3: We compare the number of defective units (d) found in the sample with the stated acceptance
number (c).
• Step 4: We take the decision of acceptance or rejection of the lot on the basis of the sample as follows:
• Under acceptance sampling plan If the number of defective units (d) in the sample is less than or equal to
the stated acceptance number (c), i.e., if d ≤ c, we accept the lot and if d > c, we reject the lot.
• Under rectifying sampling plan If d ≤ c, we accept the lot and replace all defective units found in the
sample by non-defective units and if d > c, we accept the lot after inspecting the entire lot and replacing
all defective units in the lot by non-defective units.
Single sampling plan with respective OC curve
A sampling inspection scheme in which a decision to accept or reject an inspection lot is based on the inspection of a
single sample.

• Step 1: We draw a random sample of size n from the lot received from the supplier or the final assembly.
• Step 2: We inspect each and every unit of the sample and classify it as defective or non-defective. At the end
of the inspection, we count the number of defective units found in the sample. Suppose the number of
defective units found in the sample is D.
• Step 3: We compare the number of defective units (D) found in the sample with the stated acceptance number
(c).
• Step 4: We take the decision of acceptance or rejection of the lot on the basis of the sample as follows:
• Under acceptance sampling plan If the number of defective units (d) in the sample is less than or equal to
the stated acceptance number (c), i.e., if D ≤ c, we accept the lot and if D > c, we reject the lot.
• Under rectifying sampling plan If D ≤ c, we accept the lot and replace all defective units found in the sample
by non-defective units and if D> c, we accept the lot after inspecting the entire lot and replacing all defective
units in the lot by non-defective units.
Double sampling plan
A sampling inspection scheme in which a decision to accept or reject an inspection lot is based on the inspection of a
two samples.

• Step 1: We draw a random sample of size n1 from the lot received from the supplier or the final assembly.
• Step 2: We inspect each and every unit of the sample and classify it as defective or non-defective. At the end
of the inspection, we count the number of defective units found in the sample. Suppose the number of
defective units found in the sample is D1.
 • Step 3: We compare the number of defective units (D1) found in the sample with the stated acceptance
number (c1) and also with the ending acceptance number c2
• Step 4: We take the decision of acceptance or rejection of the lot on the basis of the sample as follows:
• During the end of first step(for random samples n1)

If D1less than or equal to c1 = accept the lot(replace only the defective units)

C1<D1<C2 follow the flow chart as second sampling random selection

D1 > c2 reject the 100 percent for reinspection

For second random selection(for random samples n2) (compare D2 and C2)

If D1+D2 less than or equal to c2 means -accept

D1+D2 greater than c2 means reject 100 percent for reinspection as in the flow diagram
Multiple sampling plan with respective OC curve
A sampling inspection scheme in which a decision to accept or reject an inspection lot is based on the inspection of
more than two samples.
 • Step 1: We draw a random sample of size n1 from the lot received from the supplier or the final assembly.
• Step 2: We inspect each and every unit of the sample and classify it as defective or non-defective. At the end
of the inspection, we count the number of defective units found in the sample. Suppose the number of
defective units found in the sample is D1.
• Step 3: We compare the number of defective units (D1) found in the sample with the stated acceptance
number (c1) and also with the ending acceptance number c3
• Step 4: We take the decision of acceptance or rejection of the lot on the basis of the sample as follows:

During the end of first step

If D1less than or equal to c1 = accept the lot(replace only the defective units)

C1<D1<C3 follow the flow chart as second sampling random selection

D1 > c3 reject the 100 percent for reinspection

Here c3 is fixed because of ending acceptance number is fixed as c3

For second random selection(compare D2 and C2)

If D2 less than or equal to c3 = accept the lot(replace only the defective units)

C2<D2<C3 follow the flow chart as second sampling random selection

D2 > c3 reject the 100 percent for reinspection

Here c3 is fixed because of ending acceptance number is fixed as c3

For third step

If D1+D2+ D3 less than or equal to c3 means -accept

D1+D2+D3 greater than c3 means reject 100 percent for reinspection as in the flow diagram
In case of Operating curve here n is defined as acceptance number in this case the acceptance number is tripled so
the curve is little bit forwarded than the double sampling plan because of three times verification .
Process control and
variability
Jawahar kumar
Assistant professor
MBA department
Excel engineering college
Process control
• It is defined as a way to monitor and measure the performance of a
process and make adjustments when necessary. It is a way to ensure
that a process is in control.
Objectives of process control
1. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances,
2. Optimizing the performance,
3. Increasing the productivity,
4. Cost effective.
5. Improve process effectiveness
Control Process Steps

ESTABLISH MEASURE ACTUAL COMPARE RESULTS TAKE NECESSARY

OBJECTIVES AND PERFORMANCE. WITH OBJECTIVES ACTION.
STANDARDS. AND STANDARDS.

4
Establish objectives and
standards.

• The control process begins with

planning and the establishment of
performance objectives.
• Performance objectives are
defined and the standards for
measuring them are set

5
Measure actual performance

• Measurements must be accurate

enough to spot deviations or
variances between what really
occurs and what is most desired.
• Without measurement, effective
control is not possible.

6
Comparing Results with Objectives and
Standards

The comparison of actual performance with Ways of making such comparisons include:
desired performance establishes the need for
action.
Historical / Relative / Engineering
Benchmarking

7
Take necessary action

Taking any action necessary to correct or improve Management-by-Exception focuses managerial

things. attention on substantial differences between
actual and desired performance
Management-by Exception can save the managers time, energy, and
other resources, and concentrates efforts on areas showing the
greatest need.
There are two types of exceptions:
•Problems - below standard
•Opportunities - above standard

8
Variability
• Process variability is the variation that occurs during the
manufacturing process and occurs in all manufacturing
processes. The goal of a company is to reduce this variability
Causes of
Variability
increase costs, to increase customer
lead times and to reduce delivery
reliability.
 Some variabilities in
process
• Special causes may include using the wrong
material, altering equipment settings or
alignment, or even an increase in measurement
error by using a damaged gauge. Accidents,
errors, mistakes, drift, wear, inattention, etc. all may
lead to a change in the otherwise stable results of a
process.
Seven quality control tools
Check sheet.

Fishbone diagram (cause and effect diagram, or Ishikawa

diagram)
Histogram.

Pareto chart.

Control chart.

Scatter diagram.

Process flow chart

Check sheet
• A check sheet can be metrics,
structured table or form for collecting
data and analyzing them. When the
information collected is quantitative in
nature, the check sheet can also be
called as tally sheet.
• The very purpose of checklist is to list
down the important checkpoints or
events in a tabular/metrics format
and keep on updating or marking the
status on their occurrence which helps
in understanding the progress, defect
patterns and even causes for defects.
 Fishbone diagram (cause and effect diagram,
or Ishikawa diagram
• Cause–and–effect diagram introduced by Kaoru Ishikawa helps in
identifying the various causes (or factors) leading to an effect (or problem)
and also helps in deriving meaningful relationship between them.
• The very purpose of this diagram is to identify all root causes behind a
problem.
• Once a quality related problem is defined, the factors leading to the causal
of the problem are identified. We further keep identifying the sub factors
leading to the causal of identified factors till we are able to identify the root
cause of the problem. As a result we get a diagram with branches and sub
branches of causal factors resembling to a fish bone diagram.
• In manufacturing industry, to identify the source of variation the causes are
usually grouped into below major categories:
• People
• Methods
• Machines
• Material
• Measurements
• Environment
 Histogram
• Histogram introduced by Karl
Pearson is a bar graph representing the
frequency distribution on each bars.
• The very purpose of Histogram is to study
the density of data in any given
distribution and understand the factors or
data that repeat more often.
• Histogram helps in prioritizing factors and
identify which are the areas that needs
utmost attention immediately.
Pareto chart
• Pareto chart revolves around the concept of
80-20 rule which underlines that in any
process, 80% of problem or failure is just
caused by 20% of few major factors which are
often referred as Vital Few, whereas
remaining 20% of problem or failure is caused
by 80% of many minor factors which are also
referred as Trivial Many.
• The very purpose of Pareto Chart is to
highlight the most important factors that is
the reason for major cause of problem or
failure.
• Pareto chart is having bars graphs and line
graphs where individual factors are
represented by a bar graph in descending
order of their impact and the cumulative total
is shown by a line graph.
• Pareto charts help experts in following ways:
• Distinguish between vital few and trivial
many.
• Displays relative importance of causes of a
problem.
• Helps to focus on causes that will have the
greatest impact when solved.
Control chart
• The very purpose of control chart is to determine if
the process is stable and capable within current
conditions.
• In Control Chart, data are plotted against time in X-
axis. Control chart will always have a central line
(average or mean), an upper line for the upper control
limit and a lower line for the lower control limit.
These lines are determined from historical data.
• By comparing current data to these lines, experts can
draw conclusions about whether the process variation
is consistent (in control, affected by common causes
of variation) or is unpredictable (out of control,
affected by special causes of variation). It helps in
differentiating common causes from special cause of
variation.
• Control chart helps in predicting process
performance, understand the various production
patterns and study how a process changes or shifts
from normally specified control limits over a period
of time.
Scatter diagram
• Scatter diagram is a powerful tool to
draw the distribution of information in
two dimensions, which helps to detect
and analyze a pattern relationships
between two quality and compliance
variables (as an independent variable
and a dependent variable), and
understanding if there is a relationship
between them, so what kind of the
relationship is (Weak or strong and
positive or negative). The shape of the
scatter diagram often shows the
degree and direction of relationship
between two variables, and the
correlation may reveale the causes of a
problem
Process Flow
chart
• Flowchart presents a diagrammatic
picture that indicats a series of
symbols to describe the sequence of
steps exist in an operation or
process. On the other hand, a
flowchart visualize a picture including
the inputs, activities, decision points,
and outputs for using and
understanding easily concerning the
overall objective through process.
Control charts-
benefits
• Predict process out of control and out
of specification limits
• Distinguish between specific,
identifiable causes of variation
• Can be used for statistical process
control
• Improved worker morale because of
the satisfaction they get from seeing
the results of their work
Control charts and its types

Control Chart

• The very purpose of control chart is to determine if the process is stable and capable within current conditions.
• In Control Chart, data are plotted against time in X-axis. Control chart will always have a central line (average
or mean), an upper line for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit. These lines are
determined from historical data.
• By comparing current data to these lines, experts can draw conclusions about whether the process variation
is consistent (in control, affected by common causes of variation) or is unpredictable (out of control, affected
by special causes of variation). It helps in differentiating common causes from special cause of variation.
• Control chart helps in predicting process performance, understand the various production patterns and study
how a process changes or shifts from normally specified control limits over a period.

It is mainly classified into two types

Variable control charts
Variable control charts are the chats which has plot continuous measurement process data, such as length or pressure
in a time ordered sequence
It is classified as
Xbar chart(average)
R chart(Range)

Attribute control charts

Attribute control charts plot count data such as no of defects or defective units
It is classified as

1.Defective
P chart

2.Defects
U chart
 C chart

Xbar chart(average)
The X-bar chart shows how the mean or average changes over time and. It is also used to monitor the effects of
process improvement theories.
the X-bar chart is a type of control chart that is used to monitor the arithmetic means of successive samples of
constant size, n. This type of control chart is used for characteristics that can be measured on a continuous scale,
such as weight, temperature, thickness etc.

For example, one might take a sample of 5 shafts from production every hour, measure the diameter of each, and
then plot, for each sample, the average(mean) of the five diameter values are mentioned on the chart

R chart(Range)

R chart shows how the range of the subgroups changes over time, An R-chart is a type of control chart used to
monitor the process variability (as the range) when measuring small subgroups (n ≤ 10) at regular intervals from a
process.

Each point on the chart represents the value of a subgroup range.

Note that the center line in this control chart varies when the subgroup sizes are unequal(variability)

You can use X-bar and R charts for any process with a subgroup size greater than one. Typically, it is used when
the subgroup size falls between two and ten, and

X-bar and s charts are used with subgroups of eleven or more

Defective means the failing of the entire product/service to meet the required criterion. We call a product/service
defective because it shows one or

P chart

A p-chart is used to record the proportion of defective units in a sample

It is also called percent defective chart
Example: No of eggs which is broken(not usable-defective) in a samples

Defect means not meeting a specific requirement or the specification, or failing to achieve a specific customer. A
product could have multiple defects. Some of these defects might not even be noticeable by the client. These
defects do not functionally affect the performance of the product, still these are defects because it does not meet the
specification requirement of the producer.

U chart
u chart is one of the quality control charts to monitor the number of defects per unit
Example: Average no of cracks in a egg(unit)

C chart
A c-chart is used to record the number of defects in a sample.
Example: No of eggs which is cracked(may be usable-defects) in a samples

Computer quality control

The use of the computers for quality control of the product is called as the computer aided quality control or CAQC.
The two major parts of quality control are inspection and testing, which are traditionally performed manually with the
help of gages, measuring devices and the testing apparatus. The two major parts of computer aided quality control
are computer aided inspection (CAI) and computer aided testing (CAT). CAI and CAT are performed by using the
latest computer automation and sensor technology. CAI and CAT are the standalone systems and without them the
full potential of CAQC cannot be achieved.

Block diagram for CAI(inspection)

Block diagram for CAT(Testing)

1) 100% testing and inspection: In the traditional manual process the testing and inspection is done by the
sampling process out of the hundreds and thousands of products or parts manufactured by the company since it is
not feasible to check each and every product. With CAI and CAT hundred percent inspection and testing can be
accomplished without much difficulty. With 100% inspection the company does not have to depend on statistical
quality control method in which it is assumed that anything less than 100% of quality is acceptable. With computer
controlled inspection, it is not necessary for the quality control department to settle for less than perfection.

2) Inspection integrated with manufacturing process: In the traditional process there is separate quality control
department where the manufactured product is taken for the inspection and testing. In CAQC the inspection process
is integrated with the manufacturing process and it is located along the production line. Thus as soon as the product
is manufactured it is tested immediately by the computerized process without moving it to some other location. This
helps in reducing the overall time required for manufacturing the product.

3) Use of non-contact sensors: In the traditional process the product or the part to be inspected is handled
manually since it has to be positioned properly for inspection on the desk or suitable location. In CAQC non-contact
sensors are used for the inspection purpose and they inspect the product without coming in contact with the product.
The non-contact sensors operated by the computer are kept along the production line and they can check the
product very quickly in the fraction of seconds. In future with further advancements in the technology, the robots
would be used to carry-out the inspection process thus further automating and speeding the process

4) Computerized feedback control system: The data collected by the non-contact sensors is sent as the feedback
to the computerized control systems. These systems would carry out the analysis of the data including statistical trend
analysis. This helps in identifying the problem going on in the manufacturing line and find appropriate solution to it.
For instance, the results from non-contact sensors may indicate that the parts manufactured are not within the
acceptable tolerance limits. This would help the production or quality control personnel to find out the precise location
of the problem and its exact cause. The corrective action taken quickly saves lots of time and money due to reduced
wastages and also improves the quality of the product.