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Module -2
Damage Assessment

2.1 Purpose of assessment

Damage takes place due to natural or man-made causes.Anticipated life of concrete structures
is 100 years. But due to various factors durability of concrete became a matter of serious
concern.Before choosing the repair method, it is necessary to understand the probable cause
of decay of concrete and its testing method to evaluate the degree of deterioration.Long
lasting and successful repairs can be done only after proper knowledge of the damage.The
causes and distress of existing structure should be known rather than just the symptoms.Data
collection and analysis at each stage will lead to methods and stages of repairs.

2.2 Rapid assessment

The objective is to quickly inspect and evaluate the concrete structure and determine if the
damaged structure is unsafe for habitation.

Two primary concerns need to be considered for assessment,

1. Structural Components
2. Non-Structural Components

If there are any visual signs of structural and/or non-structural damage, then the building area
needs to be isolated, secured and marked as unsafe.

2.2.1 Assessment of structural components

Typical failures would be found at the connections of the major structural elements, or
elementswill have inadequate vertical support (unsupported roof and decks that are cantilever
now).Indications would include cracking, spalling and complete loss of all or part of
structural element as shown in Fig.2.1.Settlement or shifting of damaged structure.

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Fig. 2.1: Damage of Structural Components

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2.2.2 Assessment of non-structural components

The rapid nonstructural assessment damage assessment would note the major failures within
the building structure including such items as structural debris, partitions, ceilings, glass,
piping, and electrical/mechanical equipment.Concrete fragments may be barely attached to
exposed reinforcement steel.

Rapid structural safety assessment should focus on those structural elements of greatest
importance to the remaining structure and the safety of rescue/recovery workers.

To perform rapid assessment the following equipment/ safety gear are required for
assessment team,

1. Portable NDT equipment

2. PPE kit - hardhat, steel-toed boots, gloves and respiratory protection
3. Flash light, notebook, pen, spray paint and camera.
4. The location of any structural and non-structural elements should be documented via
written descriptions and an associated sketch/photograph.

Rapid structural assessment should be performed in the following order,

1. Review the entire outside of the structure.

2. Enter the building only if necessary, to determine extent of damage.
3. Determine what degree of damage found in the structural and non-structural elements.
4. Secure all areas that need to be isolated and post unsafe signage.

2.3 Investigation of Damage

Investing of concrete structures is highly important and essential in order to,

1. Find out the cause of damage.

2. Assess the condition of the structure in its damaged state.
3. Formulate recommendations for repair and restoration.

The general procedure for an investigation includes,

1. Documentation of damage
2. Visual observation

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3. Measurements on geometrical parameters such as deflections and deformation

vertically and horizontally
4. Experiments for evaluating material properties and behavior, these includes type of
testing
5. Interpretation and analysis of test results
6. Analysis of the building’s damage state taking into account the test results obtained
during investigation
7. Formulation of repair measures
8. Post-repair evaluation.

2.3.1 Observation

The texture of a concrete may suggest the possibility of chemical attack by a general
softening, leaching of the matrix or in the case of sulphate attack, whitening of the concrete.
Rust stain often indicates corrosion of reinforcement. If cracked concrete is broken out, the
state of crack surface gives useful information.

General flaking of an exposed concrete surface suggests frost damage. In fire damaged
structures, the color of concrete gives an indication of the maximum temperature reached.

When concrete surface is cracked, the crack pattern can be informative. A mesh pattern
suggests drying shrinkage. Exudations from cracks may be the result of water passing
through the concrete and washing out calcium salts. Relatively straight cracks indicates
excessive tensile strain.

Cracks formed due to unidirectional bending will be widest in the zone of maximum tensile
stress and will be taper long the length.Cracks caused by direct tension will be of roughly
uniform width.

2.3.1 Questioning

Investigation of damaged structure includes gathering information of the structure by

questioning which includes the following,

1. Mix proportions
2. Source of materials
3. Cube test results
4. Weather conditions

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5. Design data/report
6. It is useful to collect all possible information from the people involved in the project.

2.3.2 Assessment Procedure

1. Visual inspection

2. Study of available documentation

3. Estimation of actual loads and environmental effects

4. Diagnosis

Assessment procedure for damage

Visual Inspection

Any damaged structure, extensive visual inspection is required followed by

documentation.Supporting photographs reveal all possible evidence of structural defects and
damage.

Study of available documentation

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Gives the information about history of construction, original quality, analysis and design
methods with assumptions made and the type of material used.Relevant details are not
available in many cases. Comparison of adjacent buildings also helps in proper diagnosis.

Estimation of actual loads and environmental effects

In majority of the cases, the loads acting on the structure will be different from the loads
assumed in the design.Cracking or any other damage may sometimes be attributed because of
these loads or load combinations were not considered in the analysis and
design.Environmental effects are likely to be different from those assumed or not considered
at the design stage. Effects of temperature changes, or a hostile atmosphere would impose
serviceability or durability problems.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of the causes of the damage is of prime importance and is difficult too. A proper
and reliable diagnosis can be made only by conducting a systematic investigation using
proven test methods and experienced personnel.

Cracking
Cracking will occur whenever the tensile strain, to which concrete is subjected, exceeds the
tensile strain capacity of the concrete. The tensile strain capacity of concrete varies with age
and with the rate of application of strain.
Classification of cracks
It may be classified in terms of their effects:
1. Those cracks which indicate immediate structural distress
2. Those cracks which may lead in the long run to a reduction of safety, through
corrosion ofsteel
3. Cracks which lead to malfunction of the structure, as evidenced by leakage, sound
transfer,damage to finishes and unsatisfactory operation of windows and doors
4. Cracks which are aesthetically unacceptable
Class I-Cracks leading to Structural Failure
Little difficulty arises in relation to this class. Those cracks that indicate that failure is near
andthat margin of safety are seriously reduced, may have formed in concrete, which was
expected bythe designer, to carry load in its un cracked condition. Such cracks are necessarily
wide, and maylead to the detachment of parts of the structure.

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Class II Cracks causing Corrosion

There is no unique relationship between crack width and the onset of corrosion. Part of the
difficulty arises from the nature of cracks themselves. For flexural members, many cracks
taper from a certain width at the surface of the concrete, the near zero width at the steel-
concrete interface. However, flexural cracks that are controlled by the overall depth of the
beam are not of the tapered shape, and it is likely that cracks due to temperature and
shrinkage are nearer to being parallel sided. It has been assumed for many years that, since
wider cracks would give easier access to aggressive substances, corrosion could be controlled
by controlling crack widths and that permissible widths should be a function of how
aggressive the environment was many complicated formulas for the calculation of crack
widths in flexural members have been devised with the object of controlling corrosion. But
extensive tests on beams in which the cracks are normal to the axis of the bars show evidence
of any relationship between corrosion damage and crack width. When cracks run along a bar,
much more of the bar is in an exposed position, and it might be expected that there would be
a closer relationship between crack width and corrosion in this situation. There is a little
evidence however, that cracks whether transverse to the bars or running along the bars, pose
any create risk of increased corrosion, if they are less than 0.3mm in width. Some cracks,
which are parallel to a bar, may have been caused by the corrosion of that bar. These cracks
will widen as corrosion proceeds, and will eventually lead to spalling and exposure of the
corroded bar. A crack of any width, which is judged to be brought about by corrosion, is an
indication of a deteriorating structure, and therefore no minimum width, below which the
crack is not significant, can be set. A crack that indicates the corrosion of the bar is actually
showing that the corrosion will continue, unless positive measures are taken. Merely filling
the crack will not achieve the result.
Class III-cracks affecting Function
The cracks in this class, which have the most serious consequences are those that allow liquid
retailingstructures to leak, or that occur in roofs or other structures, intended to be
waterproof. BS8007 prescribes limiting crack widths and details methods of predicting the
widths. The maximumdesign surface crack width, for direct tension and flexure or restrained
temperature and moistureeffects are:
Severe or very severe exposure-0.2mm
There are only limited test data available on what constitutes the limiting crack, for
preventing

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leakage. Flow through a parallel-sided smooth crack, can be calculated in terms of head,
crack
width, crack length and fluid viscosity. The difficulty with concrete is that the cracks are not
smooth or parallel-sided.
Class IV-cracks affecting appearance
For class 4cracks, it has been suggested that crack widths up to 0.3mm in width are
acceptable
aesthetically, but there are no good guidelines. Various attempts have been made to establish
whatconstitutes an acceptable crack on an aesthetic basis, but in the end, there is no rational
basis foraesthetic decisions. The aesthetic objection to cracks may be summarized as:
1. Cracks cause alarm about the safety of the structure
2. Cracks lower the visual acceptance of the structure (a) by modifying surface textures
anddamaging the visual effect intended by the designer and (b) by giving an
appearance ofcheapness or bad building.
Other types of cracks due to:
1. Delayed curing
2. Formwork movement
3. Excess vibration
4. Sub grade settlement
5. Finishing
6. Early frost damage
7. Unsound materials
8. Long-term drying shrinkage

2.4 Testing System of Hardened Concrete

Testing System of Hardened Concrete can be divided into three categories,

1. Destructive method – to assess the quality of concrete with complete disturbance of

concrete (loaded up to failure).
2. Non-destructive method – to asses the quality of concrete in its damaged state without
any disturbance of surrounding concrete.
3. Semi-destructive method (Partially destructive method) – to asses the quality of
concrete in its damaged state with partial disturbance of surrounding concrete.

2.4.1 Destructive method

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Load test is most commonly used. It is usually used for following reasons,

i. There are still doubts about the satisfactory performance of the structure under load
after survey and local testing
ii. It is difficult or impossible to determine adequate information about the structure and
its materials
iii. Verification of structural analysis in cases where the complexity of the structural form
does not lend itself or rigorous analysis.

iv. To determine the load carrying capacity of cracked beams and compare it with
original design strength before any remedial measures are suggested.

The selection of specific members or portion of a structure to be tested will depend upon the
relative importance of strength and expected load effect at various locations. Selection of
member may often be assisted by non-destructive methods coupled with visual inspection to
locate the weakest zone or elements.

Following aspects has to be considered for testing program,

The structure should be subjected to a load equal to full dead load of the structure plus 1.25
times the imposed load for a period of 24hrs. and then the imposed load shall be removed.
The deflection due to imposed load only shall be recorded. If within 24hrs. of removal of the
imposed load the structure does not recover at least 75% of the deflection under
superimposed load, the test may be repeated after a lapse of 72hrs. If the recovery is less than
80%, the structure shall be deemed to be unacceptable.

If the maximum deflection in mm, shown during 24hrs. under load is less than 40l2/D, where
1 is the effective span in m; and D, the overall depth of the section in mm, it is not necessary
for the recovery to be measured.

Members Other Than Flexural Members

Members other than flexural members should be preferably investigated by analysis.

2.4.2 Non-Destructive method

Non-destructive tests are used to obtain estimation of the properties of concrete in the
structure.Nondestructive tests provide alternatives to core tests for estimating the strength of
concrete in a structure, or can supplement the data obtained from a limited number of

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cores.These methods are based on measuring a concrete property that bears some relationship
to strength. The accuracy of these methods, in part, is determined by the degree of correlation
between strength and the physical quality measured by the non-destructive tests.

Non-destructive tests are less time consuming and relatively inexpensive, can be used for the
following purposes,

1. Test on actual structures

2. Test at several locations
3. Test at various stages
4. Assess the quality control of actual structures
5. Assess the uniformity of the concrete
6. Assess the materials used and workmanship with specification
7. Assess the poor construction practices
8. Assessment of the extent of cracks, voids, honeycombs
9. Confirmation of suspected distress due to poor design
10. Assessment of practical durability
11. Integrity testing of piles
12. Monitoring progressive changes in structure.

Commonly used Non-Destructive methods are,

1. Surface hardness method

2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Method (UPV)
3. Resonant Frequency Method
4. Dynamic or Vibration Method
5. Pulse Attenuation Method
6. Pulse Echo Method
7. Radioactive Method
8. Nuclear Methods
9. Magnetic Methods
10. Electro Magnetic Methods
11. Electrical Methods
12. Acoustic Emission Technique
13. Radar Technique
14. Radiography Methods.

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Surface Hardness Test

The surface hardness method consists of impacting the concrete surface in a standard
manner.Activating a mass by a given energy and measuring the indentation or rebound
achieve this.The most commonly and widely used instrument is Rebound Hammer (IS
13311( Part 2 ) : 1992)

There are several hammers having varying impact energy from 0.07kg m to 3kg m.The high
impact energy hammers are used for mass concrete, road pavements and airport runways.The
low impact energy hammers(0.07 to 0.09 kg m) are used for small and low strength materials.

For testing, smooth, clean and dry surface is to be selected. If loosely adhering scale is
present, this should be rubbed off with a grinding wheel or stone. Rough surfaces resulting
from incomplete compaction, loss of grout, spalled or tooled surfaces do not give reliable
results and should be avoided.The point of impact should be at least 20 mm away from any
edge or shape discontinuity.

For taking a measurement, the rebound hammer should be held at right angles to the surface
of the concrete member. The test can-thus be conducted horizontally on vertical surfaces or
vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces. If the situation demands, the
rebound hammer can be held at intermediate angles also, but in each case, the rebound
number will be different for the same concrete.

Around each point of observation, six readings(10 readings are preffered) of rebound indices
are taken and average of these readings after deleting outliers as per IS 8900 : 1978 becomes
the rebound index for the point of observation.Each reading should not differ by more than 7
units.If more than 2 readings differ from the average by 7 units, than the entire set of readings
are taken afresh.The rebound values reflect the concrete quality up to a depth of 50mm in the
member.Strength prediction can be made to an accuracy of ±25%.

The main factors that affect the readings are,

1. Type of cement
2. Type of aggregate
3. Surface condition/texture and moisture content of concrete
4. Curing and age of concrete
5. Stress state and temperature
6. Carbonation of Concrete Surface

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The application of surface hardness measurements can be used for,

1. Checking the uniformity of concrete

2. Comparing a given concrete with a specified requirement
3. Approximate estimation of strength by using laboratory calibrated graphs
4. Abrasion resistance classification.

The following table indicates the quality of concrete based on rebound number,

Average Rebound Number Quality of Concrete

>40 Very good hard layer

30 – 40 Good layer
20 – 30 Fair
<20 Poor concrete
0 Delaminated

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) test (IS 13311 Part-1)

The first report of the measurement of the velocity appeared in USA in the mid of 1940s.It
was found that velocity depends upon the elastic property and geometry of the material.With
advancements in technology, UPV has become widely accepted around the world.

Three types of waves are generated by an impulse applied to a solid mass.

1. Longitudinal waves (Compression)

2. Shear (Transverse)
3. Surface (Rayleigh)

Longitudinal waves are faster and provide more useful information than other methods.

The compression wave velocity is given by,

E
V = √k
⍴

Where,V = Compression wave velocity

k =[((1−))/(1+)(1−2) ]

Ed = dynamic modulus of elasticity

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⍴ = mass density

γ = dynamic Poisson’s ratio

Test Procedure

The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse is influenced by properties of concrete, which determine

its elastic stiffness and mechanical strength.Thus, the variation in pulse velocity values reflect
a corresponding variation in the state of concrete under test.In order to evaluate strength of
concrete, calibration charts should be established based on lab tests.

Calibration chart is influenced by type of cement, cement content, admixtures, type & size of
aggregate, curing conditions and age of concrete.Test consists of transmitting longitudinal
vibrations produced by an electro acoustical transducer from one side of the concrete,
receiving the signal from other side, and measuring the transit time (T).The path length (L) of
the pulse is measured and velocity (V) is calculated as V=L/T

The measuring equipment consists of an electrical pulse generator, a pair of transducers, an

amplifier and an electronic timing device.Measuring the time interval elapsing between the
onset of a pulse generated at the transmitting transducer and the onset of its arrival at the
receiving transducer.Transducers of 50 to 60 kHz are found to be useful for most of the
applications in concrete testing.

The pulse velocity measurements may be used to establish:

1. The homogeneity of the concrete

2. The presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
3. Changes in the structure of the concrete which occurs with time
4. The quality of the concrete in relation to standard requirements
5. The quality of one element of concrete in relation to another
6. The values of elastic moduli of concrete.

There are three possible ways of measuring pulse velocity,

1. Direct transmission
2. Indirect transmission
3. Semi-direct transmission

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(1) (2) (3)

The direct transmission is preferred since the maximum energy of the pulse is being directed
at the receiving transducer and gives the maximum sensitivity.

The indirect transmission is the least sensitive and for a given path length, produces a signal
which has only about 2% or 3% of that produced by direct transmission.Indirect transmission
is used when only one face of the concrete is accessible, when the depth of the surface crack
is to be determined or when the quality of the surface concrete relative to the overall quality
is of interest.

The semi direct transmission arrangement has a sensitivity intermediate between those of the
other two arrangements.In this method, there is uncertainty regarding path length. It is
generally found to be sufficiently accurate, if the length is measured from center of
transducer faces.

Some of the factors that influence pulse velocity measurements are,

1. Surface condition
2. Moisture content
3. Temperature of concrete
4. Path length
5. Shape and size of specimen
6. Reinforcement

The following table indicates the quality of concrete based on UPV values,

UPV value km/sec (V) Concrete quality

>4 Very good

3.5 – 4 Good
3 – 3.5 Poor
2.5 – 3 Very poor
2 – 2.5 Very poor & low integrity

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<2 Large voids suspected

Rebar locator

A rugged field instrument for finding the location depth and size of reinforcement bars in
place. It has following features:

1. Single unit construction no physical strain for the operator and no probe cord to snag
or break
2. Post-mounted sensor with meter mounted separately for convenient viewing by
operator in stand-up position
3. Pin point accuracy for precise Rebar location from direct reading, stable analogue
meter
4. Detection up to 250mm of cover with easy-to-read calibrated meter
5. Light operating weight- less than 1.6kg
6. Up to 8hrs. continuous use between battery charge.
Directions and orientations of rebars: The exact position and orientation of rebars can be
measured quickly and accurately. Rebar-free areas can be identified for taking core samples,
grinding, resurfacing or insertion of new machinery mountings.

Measurement of concrete cover: The amount of concrete cover over the reinforcement bars is
an important parameter on bridge decks, highways, columns and slabs. Concrete covers can
be determined with an accuracy of ±3mm.

The instrument can locate any ferrous base material such as pipe, flues, wire and sheets
embedded in concrete up to a depth of 250mm.

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