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Influence on Serviceability and Durability

3.1 Effects due to climate

3.1.1 Freeze and thaw
The lack of durability of concrete on account of freezing and thawing action of frost is not of
great importance to Indian conditions. But it is of greatest considerations in most part of the
world.
The most severe climatic attack on concrete occurs, when concrete containing moisture is
subjected to cycle of freezing and thawing. The capillary pores in the cement paste are of
such a size that water in them will freeze, when the ambient temperature is below 0° C.
Freeze/thaw damage generally occurs in two forms. The first is common to open parking
decks and other horizontal surfaces that collect standing water.

Capillaries

Fig. 3.1: Capillaries (exaggerated) in Concrete

The second form of freeze/thaw damage is associated with water freezing in cracks. A larger
concentration of water can collect in a crack than in a naturally occurring surface pores.
The gel pores are so small that water in them does freeze at normal winter temperatures. As
water, when freezing expands by 9% of its volume, excess water in the capillaries has to
move. Since the cement paste is relatively impermeable high pressures are necessary to move
the excess water even over quite small distances. For normal strength concrete, it has been
found that movement of the order of 0.02–0.05 mm is sufficient to create pressures which
approach the tensile strength of the paste.
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Fig. 3.2: Pores and Capillary Swelling Causes Tension Crack

3.1.2 Effect of salts
If there are salts (2–4%
4% of surface water) on the surface of concrete during freeze–thaw
freeze loads
or if additional salts have intruded into the pore water, the deterioration is significantly
significan more
severe compared with normal concretes.
Salts increase the surface scaling of the structure, and the deterioration can proceed very
rapidly after only few freeze––thaw cycles.When
When there are salts dissolved into the pore water
of concrete, the concentration difference between pore water and external salt-free
salt water or
moisture draws more water into the pore system.
Similarly, salts increase the pore water tension in the internal damage mechanism of concrete.
3.1.3 Protection against freeze and thaw
t cycles
Concrete can be protected from freeze-thaw
freeze thaw damage by the entrainment of the
appropriatequantities of air distributed through the cement paste, with spacing between
bubbles of not morethan about 0.4mm. The air bubbles must remain partially empty, so that
they can accommodate theexcess water moved to them. This will generally be the case, since
the bubbles constitute thecoarsest pore system, and are therefore the first to, most moisture as
the concrete dries. Fullysaturated concrete, if permanently submerged, will not need
protection against freezing, butconcrete which has been saturated and is exposed to freezing
as for example in the tidal range, maynot be effectively protected by air entrainment.
For effective protection, an Air
A Entraining Agent(AEA) must be added to the mix, to entrain
theappropriate amount of air, and to induce a bubble system, with an appropriate spacing.
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When AEAis used, it is only the amount of air entrained which can be measured in the wet
concrete. Theamount of air required is between 4-8%, depending on the maximum size of
aggregate. Air isentrained during the mixing action, even when no AEA is added. The effect
of AEA is to stabilizethe air bubbles in the form desired.
More air is entrained with a larger dose of AEA but the effect is not linear and with most
agents
levels off larger doses. For mixes with higher slump, more air is entrained. It is difficult to
entrainair is very stiff mixes; the grading and nature of the particles in the fine aggregates
have a verymarked effect, on the amount of air entrained. It has been shown that the sand is
the most important single factor in air entrainment.It has been suggested that if concrete can
be so dense, that there are no inter-connected capillarypores, and then resistances to freeze-
thaw deterioration will exist without the need for airentrainment.The use of high cement
content and low w/c ratio will lead in this direction as will the introductionof silica flume, but
there is yet firm evidence to show that, it would be wise to dispense with airentrainment,if
freeze-thaw resistance is wanted.

3.2 Effects due to temperature

Concrete like all materials change volume when subjected to temperature increases the
volume of concrete; conversely, a decrease in temperature reduces the volume of concrete.
The thermal co-efficient of concrete is approximately 9x10-6 mm/mm/°C.
Temperature gradients exist in many structures. The temperature on the surface of a deck slab
exposed to direct sunlight may reach 45-50°C, while the underside of the deck may be only
25-30°C. This causes the top surface to have a tendency to expand more than the bottom
surface.This results in upward movement of during heating and a downward movement
during cooling.Expansion joints can be provided at regular intervals to accommodate the
strain due to temperature stress.
Temperatures of concrete, other than special refractory concrete, have to be kept
below300°C. Heat may affect concrete as result of:
1. The removal of evaporable water
2. The removable of combined water
3. Alteration of cement paste
4. Disruption from disparity of expansion and resulting thermal stress

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5. Alteration of aggregate
6. Change of the bond between aggregate and paste

3.3 Effects due to chemicals

Chemical degradation is usually the result of attack on the cement matrix.Portland cement is
alkaline, so it will react with acids in the presence of moistureand, in consequence, the matrix
may become weakened and its constituents maybe leached out.
Damage due to chemical attack can be classified by following main categories:
1. Damage caused by acidic reactions
2. Damage caused by aggregate reactions – for example, by alkali–silicareaction (ASR)
3. Damage due to sulphate attack.
3.3.1 Damage caused by acidic reactions
Acids react with calcium hydroxide, which is formed in the course ofcement hydration. The
products of acidic reactions are highly soluble andcan be easily removed by leaching.Acidic
reactions occur in the cement paste matrix, but they affect theaggregate integrity, the process
leading to the damage of concrete. Dependingon the type of coarse aggregate, two different
mechanisms of aggregatedamage can be distinguished:
Granite aggregate – gradual dissolution of the cement paste matrix results in disintegration
of the aggregate particles.
Dolomite or limestone aggregate – the acidic reaction in the cement paste matrix uncovers
the aggregate surface, dissolves the aggregate material – the process significantly increases
the contact of the acid with concrete, and therefore the rate of the dissolution of concrete in
structures increases by many times. In cases when concentrated acids leak, the process of
dissolution occurs very rapidly – acids simply dissolve structures. Fig. 3.3 illustrates the
dissolution of the concrete structure of the port chemical terminal as a result of the acidic
leakage.
3.3.2. Damage caused by aggregate reactions
Certain aggregates, such as reactive forms of silica, react with potassium, sodium and
calcium hydroxide from the cement and form a gel around the aggregates.When the gel
around the aggregate is exposed to moisture, it expands creating forces that cause tension

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cracks.Unconfined concrete undergoing Alkali-Aggregates Reactions (AAR) exhibits sings

of surface cracks. Once cracking has formed, more moisture penetrates the concrete,
accelerating the AAR and allowing freeze-thaw damage. The following Fig. 3.4 shows the
process of AAR

Fig. 3.3: Dissolution of the Concrete Structure of a Chemical Wharf in the sea port as a
Result of the Acidic Leakage

Reactive siliceous minerals in the aggregate react withalkaline hydroxides originating usually
from cement. Alkali–silicate gel isformed in the voids and cracks of the aggregate or on the
surface of theaggregate. The gel absorbs water and swells in large volume (5–20%) if water
is available in concrete and the environment. Internal pressures are generatedinto the concrete
and eventually cracking can destroy the concrete structuretotally. On the surface, cracks form
a map-like pattern and sometimes pop-outscan be observed.
The severity ofthe swelling of the gel depends on the amount of reactive material, particle
size, alkali content in the pore water, and the moisture contentin the concrete.
To hinder the alkali–silica reaction, the maximum relative humidity in theinterior of concrete
should not exceed 80–85%. The cement type should haveas low a content of alkali oxide as
possible. The equivalent Na2O contentin the cement should not exceed 0.60. Also,
application of pozzolanic secondary cementitious binders hasbeen shown to diminish the
deleterious expansion caused by the alkali–silicatereaction.

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(a)
Reactive Silica
or Silicate in
the aggregate
react with
alkali in the
cement Y
e
a
r
s

(b)
A gel forms on the
aggregate surface
when sufficient
moisture is Y
present e
a
r
s

(c)
When gel is exposed to
moisture, swelling takes
place. Swelling of gel
causes surrounding
concrete to grow, Y
causing tension and
e
compressive stresses.
a
r
s

(d)
Fig. 3.4: Process of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction

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3.3.3. Damage due to SulphateAttack

Sulphate attack is initiated when water-soluble sulphates (SO24-), originatingfrom ground or
from seawater, penetrate into concrete pore water and reactwith aluminates or calcium
hydroxide in cement paste. Reaction productsexpands which causes crack propagation and
decreases the strengthof concrete.
Four reaction mechanisms are responsible for sulphate damage in concrete.
1. Sulphate ions can react with calcium hydroxide forming gypsum (CaSO4·H2O).
2. Aluminates from cement can react with sulphates forming trisulphate (ettringite
3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·31H2O). The increase in volume of the solid phases in these
reactions is 124 and 227%, respectively.
3. The third sulphate deterioration mechanism is attributed to sulphate absorption into
silicates or to a reaction with C–S–H. This reaction takes place at low temperatures.
4. The fourth mechanism does not need an outside source of sulphates to cause
expansion and cracking into concrete. The deterioration mechanism can be termed
inner sulphate attack caused by excessive heat treatment in concretes produced by
Portland cement. When the temperature rises to 70–100 °C during hydration,
ettringite transforms into monosulphate (3CaO·Al2O3·CaSO4·12H2O) and sulphate.
At lower temperatures, monosulphate becomes metastable and, if there is sufficient
water available in hardened concrete or if the water content in the concrete
subsequently increases, ettringite can again be formed. This reaction is accompanied
by expansion in the concrete structure and subsequent cracking. This reaction can
happen after a period of a couple years and, therefore, it is sometimes called delayed
ettringite formation. This deterioration mechanism has been observed in façade
precast units, concrete railway sleepers, and basementslabs.
The severity of sulphate corrosion expansion caused by outside sulphate attack is different
depending on the salt composition. The severity increases in the order calcium sulphate,
sodium sulphate, and magnesium sulphate. The severity of the attack increases also when the
moisture content in concrete increases. Sulphate attack can be mitigated by minimizing the
C3A content of the cement by applying sulphate resisting cements. Sulphate resisting
cements have a C3A content below 3% or blast furnace slag content in the binder exceeds
70%. The other mitigation method is to reduce the Ca(OH)2 content in concrete by applying
blended cements in which the pozzolanic reaction decreases the calcium hydroxide amount.

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3.4 Wear and Erosion

3.4.1 Mechanical abrasion, erosion, and cavitation
Mechanical abrasion of concrete surfaces can be because of sliding of different materials
onthe surface, rolling of steel wheels, scraping motion of a machine, or percussion
generated,for example, by studded tires of vehicles. In dams, off-shore structures, or
industrial processes the action of abrasive materials carried by water, some other liquid, or ice
leads to erosion of the concrete surface.Cavitation deterioration is caused by flowing water
when the pressure in water changes abruptly
Concrete compressive strength should exceed 35–40 MPa. Cement content should not exceed
350 kg/m3 because normal good-quality aggregates have much better abrasion and erosion
resistance compared with binder pasteExtended curing always has a beneficial effect on the
durability properties of these concrete structuresSteel fibres and polymer concretes can be
advantageous in structures prone to cavitation.

3.5 Design and Construction Errors

The design and construction errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of concrete.
Instead, they enhance the adverse impacts of other mechanisms. Few of the design and
construction errors are listed as below,
1. Adding water to concrete
2. Improper alignment of formwork
3. Premature removal of formwork
4. Improper consolidation
5. Improper curing
6. Improper location of reinforcing steel
7. Settling of concrete
8. Settling of subgrade
9. Vibration o freshly placed concrete
10. Improper finishing of flat work
3.5.1. Adding water to concrete
Water is usually added to concrete in two cases,
First case is to increase the slump and workability. As the w/c increases, the strength and
durability decreases
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Second case, water is commonly added during finishing the surface. This practice leads to
scaling, crazing and dusting of concrete.
3.5.2 Improper alignment of formwork
Improper alignment of formwork will lead to discontinuities on the surface of the concrete
which will be more critical in areas that are subjected to high velocity flow of water, where
cavitation erosion may be induced.
3.5.3Premature removal of formwork
If formworks or shutters are removed too early, the concrete may become overstressed and
cracks. In extreme cases there may be major failures.
3.5.4 Improper consolidation
Less consolidation of concrete may result in bugholes, honeycombing and cold joints.
Over consolidation leads to bleeding and segregation of concrete
3.5.5 Improper curing
Unless concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature, it will
not develop the characteristics that are expected and necessary to provide durability. Such
improperly cured concrete will have various types of cracking and surface disintegration.
3.5.6 Improper location of reinforcing steel
When the reinforcing bars are not placed as per the design/drawings, use of less or higher
diameter bars than specified leads to cracks/failure of structure.
3.5.7 Settling of concrete
During the period between placing and initial setting of concrete, the heavier components of
the concrete will settle under the influence of gravity. This situation may be aggravated by
the use of highly fluid concrete.
3.5.8 Settling of subgrade
If there is any settlement of the subgrade during the period after the concrete begins to
become rigid but before it gains enough strength to support its own weight, cracking may also
occur.
3.5.9 Vibration of freshly placed concrete
Most construction sites are subjected to vibrations from various sources, such as blasting, pile
driving and from the operation of construction equipment. Freshly placed concrete is
vulnerable to weakening of its properties if subjected to forces which disrupt the concrete
matrix during setting.

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3.5.10 Improper finishing of flat work

Adding water to the surface finish, taking too long /too early to finish the surface will lead to
uneven surface finish
Design errors include the following,
1. Inadequate structural design
2. Poor design details
3. Abrupt changes in section
4. Insufficient reinforcement
5. Inadequate provision for deflection
6. Neglect of creep effect
7. Rigid joints between precast units
8. Inadequate join spacing in slabs

3.6 Corrosion of steel reinforcement

Corrosion of steel reinforcement can be initiated by two different mechanisms.

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Fig. 3.5 Process of Corrosion

If there are no chlorides, corrosion can be initiated when the carbonation has reached the steel
bars. When the alkalinity has decreased to the value of pH 9, the protective passivity oxide
layer is broken and corrosion begins if water and oxygen are available on the surface of the
reinforcement as shown in Fig. 3.5.In low sub-zero temperatures, the corrosion rate is slower
compared with the situation when the temperature is high (+20–40 °C) as shown in Fig. 3.6.

Fig. 3.6 Rate of Corrosion

The protective oxide layer can also be broken, if there is chloride content in pore water.Also,
in chloride-initiated corrosion, water and oxygen must be available near the reinforcement
surface.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process.A moist concrete act as electrolyte, steel provides the
anode and cathode.Electrical current flows between cathode and anode, and results in
increase in metal volume as the iron (Fe) is oxidized into Iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)2) and
Iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (Fe(OH)3) and precipitates as FeO OH(rust colour)
3.6.1 Corrosion promoters:
1. Oxygen
2. Water
3. Stray electrical currents
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4. Uneven chemical environment around reinforcement

5. Environments that lower the pH(alkalinity)
6. Chlorides
3.6.2 Corrosion induced cracking and spalling is dependent on following
variables,
1. Concrete tensile strength
2. Quality of concrete cover over the reinforcing bar
3. Bond or condition of the interface between the rebar and surrounding concrete.
4. Diameter of the reinforcing bar
5. Percentage of corrosion by weight of reinforcing bar
6. Cover-to-bar diameter ratio (C/D) of 7, concrete cracking starts when
corrosionreaches 4%, whereas, with (C/D) of 3, only 1% of corrosion is enough to
crack the concrete.
3.6.3 Reduction in structural capacity
In flexural members, steel more than 1.5% corrosion, the ultimate load capacity begins to
fall,and at 4.5% corrosion, the ultimate load reduces by 12%.In compression members,
Loss of section
cracking and spalling of concrete reduces the effective cross section of concrete, thereby
reducing the ultimate compressive load capacity.

Fig. 3.7. Loss of Cross-Section of Steel Due to Corrosion

3.6.4 Chloride Penetration
Chlorides can be introduced into concrete by coming in contact with environments containing
chlorides, such as sea water or de-icing salts.Penetration starts at surface, then moves
inwards. Penetration takes time, depending upon:
1. Amount of chlorides coming in contact with concrete.
2. The permeability of the concrete.
3. The amount of moisture present.
Concentration of chlorides in contact with steel will cause corrosion when moisture and
oxygen are present as shown in Fig. 3.8.
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Chlorides Moisture and

penetrate oxygen
into
concrete
with the
help of
surface Y
moisture e
a
r
When chlorides penetrate to
s
reinforcing steel, corrosion
begins
Delamination/Spal
l

Y
e
a
r
s

Fig. 3.8 Penetration of Chlorides of into Concrete

As rust layer builds, tensile forces generated by expansion of the oxide cause the concrete to
crack and delaminate.Spalling or delamination occurs if gravity forces or traffic wheel loads
act on the loose concrete.When cracking and delamination progress, accelerated corrosion
takes place because of easy access of corrosive salts, oxygen and moisture.
Cracks and construction joints in concrete permit corrosive chemicals such as de-icing salts
to enter the concrete and access embedded reinforcing steel as shown in Fig. 3.9.

Cracks or
Construction Surface
Induced
Joint Chlorides

Y
e
a
r
s

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Fig. 3.9 Penetration of Chlorides through Construction Joints

Corrosion may take place even in alkaline environment if chlorides are present. Chlorides are
not consumed in the corrosion process, but instead act as catalysts to the process and remain
in the concrete.
3.6.5 Methods of corrosion protection
3.6.5.1 Corrosion resistant coatings
Corrosion-resistant coating is applied on metal parts for the purpose of preventing corrosion.
This type of coating can be made from substances such as zinc or iron and can be applied as a
base layer, primer or topcoat through various techniques. It is commonly used to give
corrosion protection to structures like pipelines and concrete bars.
Corrosion-resistant coatings can help prevent degradation brought on by oxidation, moisture,
exposure to chemicals and more. They provide extra protection to metal parts and function as
a barrier to prevent contact between corrosive materials and chemical compounds.
3.6.5.2 CathodicProtection
Cathodic protection is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making
it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. A simple method of protection connects the metal to
be protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial
metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal.
Protecting bars from corrosion can be accomplished by reversing the electrical current flow
which causes the corrosion process. Anodes are installed on or near the concrete surface and
electrically connected to reinforcing bars. Electrical current is pumped into the circuit,
protecting the bars. Impressed current must be balanced with the environment on a continual
basis in order to provide protection. Constant monitoring and adjustment are required.
3.6.5.3 Encapsulation/Epoxy Coating
Insulating the bar from electrical currents in the concrete can be accomplished by
encapsulating the bar with epoxy. Bars are shot blasted and heated, and powered epoxy resin
is sprayed. With filed application of epoxy, it difficult to achieve 100% coverage of exposed
bars.
Encapsulation works well when all bars in the affected member are protected. However,
when bars are partially coated with in the damaged area only, electrical currents can become
concentrated in the unprotected bars and accelerated corrosion may be a problem.

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3.7 Effects of cover thickness

In reinforced concrete structures, sufficient cover of concrete has to be provided to
avoidexposure of reinforcement to aggressive environmental conditions and consequent
rusting and deterioration of the cross-sectional area in the structural elements. The most
common construction defect, particularly in buildings, is lack of adequate thickness of cover.
Following are the effects due to lack of thickness and subsequent cracking in concrete.
Effect of Cover Thickness
1.Insufficient cover thickness will cause ingress of acids, chlorides sulphates etc. which will
cause deterioration effects on concrete.
2.Lesser thickness of concrete cover will undergo early decaying and may spall off from the
concrete surface after the extent of decay has reached its limit.
3.Thermal insulation to the concrete element decreases with the lack of thickness to the
concrete cover.
4.The reinforcement gets exposed to the atmosphere at early ages of concrete when sufficient
cover thickness has not provided.
5.As the reinforcement comes in direct contact with the atmosphere due to insufficient cover,
rate of corrosion of the reinforcement increases.
6.However, the thicker concrete cover higher than the nominal cover will also increases the
depth of the flexural tension zone which may lead to larger crack width.
Effect of Cracking
1.Resistant to slipping of reinforcement from the concrete will decrease due to the formation
of cracks especially at the interfacial region between the reinforcement and the concrete.
2.Cracking in concrete leads to excessive accumulation of rain water into the concrete and
causes corrosion of the embedded reinforcement.
3.Internal cracks in the concrete will affect the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete.
4.Internal cracks will also reduce load carrying capacity which in turn reduces the
compressive strength of the concrete.
5.Internal Cracks formed in the concrete will acts as passage for movement of carbon
dioxide, acids, chlorides and sulphates causing degradation of the concrete.

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6.Repeated freezing and thawing on the concrete will cause alternative swelling and
contraction of the concrete due to the action of volume changes in the accumulated water
through the cracks.
7.Pre-existing cracks in the concrete may propagate and increase the damage to the concrete
elements if they are not prevented at the earlier stages.

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