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CSE513 Tall Building Structures:

Structural Forms & Modelling Techniques
Dr. Guan LIN
Research Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, PolyU
Office: ZS965 (CEE)
Email: [email protected]
 Lecture Contents

• Structural Forms

• Modelling Techniques
– Approaches to analysis
– Common assumptions
– High-rise behavior
– Modelling for approximate analyses
– Modelling for accurate analyses
– Reduction techniques

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 Structural Forms

Based on material:

Steel frame Reinforced concrete (RC) structure

Steel-concrete composite structure Concrete-filled steel tubular column

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 Structural Forms
World Trade Centre

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 Structural Forms

Evolution of structural systems: (Xilin Lv, 2007)

1. Masonry (before 1885)
2. Structural steel frame (1889) 1. The engineers are
encouraged to open
3. Reinforced concrete frame (1903) their mind and to think
4. Steel frame+brace (in early 2000’s) through a series of
5. RC frame+ shear wall, prestressed RC conceptual designs by
structure (after 1945) applying existing
knowledge to new
6. Steel frame+RC core tube, SRC structure applications.
(around 1950)
7. Tubular systems, e.g. framed tube system, 2. Analysis is the
tube-in-tube, bundled tube, suspension system, relatively easy part.
eccentrically braced system etc. (1960~1970) 3. Design is the most
8. Mega structural systems, passive energy challenging part---it is
dissipation system etc. (since 1980) the conceptualization
9. Active structural control, hybrid structural of something that
never was.
control, truss+tube system (since 1980)
10. Multiple hybrid structure (since 2000)

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Structural Forms

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 Structural Forms
Rigid-Frame Structures

Rigid frame

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 Structural Forms

Braced-Frame Structures

Braced frame – showing different types of bracing

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 Structural Forms

Shear Wall Structures

Shear wall structure

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 Structural Forms

Coupled Shear Wall Structures

Assembly of coupled-shear walls

Coupled shear wall structure

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 Structural Forms

Coupled Shear Wall Structures

Height

Before
弯曲型
deformation
After
deformation
Deflection

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 Structural Forms

Wall-Frame Structures

Shear wall-frame interaction

Shear wall
Wall-
Frame

Frame

flexural- Shear- Interaction between Deflected

Wall-frame structure
dominant dominant wall and frame shape
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 Structural Forms

Tube Structures

Wall-tube Framed-tube Truss-tube

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 Structural Forms

Tube Structures

Tube-in-tube Tube-frame Frame-tube Multi-tube Bundled tube

Willis Tower, Chicago

Tube-in-tube Frame-tube
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 Structural Forms

Braced-Tube Structures

Steel-braced tube Concrete-braced tube Hancock tower, Chicago Axis apartments, Chicago

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 Structural Forms
Frame-Tube Structures (Shear lag phenomenon)

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 Structural Forms

Frame-Tube Structures (Shear lag phenomenon)

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 Structural Forms

Outrigger-Braced Structures
• Consisting of a main concrete core connected to
exterior columns by relatively stiff horizontal
members such as a one or two-story deep walls
commonly referred to as outriggers.
• The external moment is resisted not only by
bending of the core alone, but also by the axial
tension and compression of the exterior columns
connected to the outriggers.

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 Structural Forms

Suspended Structures
• Secondary structural systems are suspended (top end or bottom end) from primary
structures and through the suspension system the gravity loads and external lateral loads
are transferred.
• It is simple to design the secondary structural systems that carry the gravity loads only.
This system is also a measurement to improve the performance of the primary systems.

Suspended structure Sequence of construction

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 Structural Forms

Suspended Structures

Hanger

Core
Column
Sketch of structure
HSBC Main Building
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 Structural Forms
Brace
Space Structures
RC corner column
Curtain wall
Hong Kong Bank of China Building
Brace

Small steel columns Brace

No.3-19

No.44-70

No.2
Mega brace

No.38-43

No.1 No.20-37

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 Structural Forms

Hybrid Structures

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 Lecture Contents

• Structural Forms

• Modelling Techniques
– Approaches to analysis
– Common assumptions
– High-rise behavior
– Modelling for approximate analyses
– Modelling for accurate analyses
– Reduction techniques

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 Approaches to Analysis

• Modelling depends to some extent on the approach to analysis

• The analysis approach is related to the type and size of the structure and the
stages of design

Usually

Preliminary design stage: Final design stage:

Approximate rapid analysis More detailed and accurate analysis

Hybrid approach:
A simplified model of the total structure is
analyzed first, after which the results are used to
allow part by part detailed analysis of the structure

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 Abstraction of a Structural Model

Aim: to produce a model of a viable size for analysis.

• Include only the main structural elements: slabs, beams, girders,
columns, walls
• Ignore minor structural elements
• Ignore non-structural elements
• Further reduction in model size through representation of structural
assemblies by simpler analogous components.
To identify the main structural elements,
• The dominant modes of actions should be understood
• The roles of different members in a structure should be understood

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 Common Assumptions

• Material: linear elastic material behavior

• Participating components: only primary structural components
participate in overall structural behavior
• Floor slabs: acts as rigid diaphragms
• Negligible stiffnesses: e.g., transverse bending stiffness of slabs,
minor-axis stiffness of shear walls, the torsional stiffness of columns,
beams, and walls.
• Negligible deformations: e.g., shear and axial deformations of
beams, in-plane bending and shear deformations of slabs etc.

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 High-Rise Behavior

A tall building is essentially a vertical cantilever subjected to axial

loading by gravity and transverse loading by wind or earthquake.
• Gravity live loading → Slab → Wall, Column → Foundation;
• Horizontal loadings are more complex and the model for its analysis
is usually the dominant model.

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 Mechanisms to Resist Horizontal Loadings

Moments, Shears, Torques

• Flexure of vertical components
• Axial action of vertical components acting as the chords of a vertical
truss
Vertical Shear Interaction between vertical components determines
the allocation of the external moment between the flexural and axial
actions of the vertical components
• Stiffer shear connection → more dominant axial actions → more
efficient structure
Horizontal Force Interaction between vertical components of
different deflection characteristics → redistribution of horizontal
loading between the vertical components: e.g. wall-frame system

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

1. Bents (e.g., shear walls and moment-resisting frames)

• Tall slender shear walls → equivalent columns
• Multi-bay rigid frame → single-bay frame or even single column
• Shear wall → wide column
• Closed section shear walls and non-twisting open section shear
walls → a single column located at the shear center of the section
• Open section shear walls with torsion → two columns

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

1. Bents (e.g., shear walls and moment-resisting frames)

• Tall slender shear walls → equivalent columns

Axially concentric shear wall and its Axially eccentric shear wall and its
equivalent column equivalent column

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

1. Bents (e.g., shear walls and moment-resisting frames)

• Multi-bay rigid frame → single-bay frame or even single column

Multi-bay rigid frame and its equivalent single-bay frame

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

1. Bents (e.g., shear walls and moment-resisting frames)

• Shear wall → wide column

Shear walls and frame joined by beams Equivalent wide-column model

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

1. Bents (e.g., shear walls and moment-resisting frames)

• Closed section shear walls and non-twisting open section shear walls → a single
column located at the shear center of the section
• Open section shear walls with torsion → two columns

Open section nonplanar shear wall assembly Closed section shear wall assembly

Note: https://www.quora.com/What-are-methods-to-calculate-shear-center
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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis
1. Bents (e.g., shear walls and moment-resisting frames)
• Closed section shear walls and non-twisting open section shear walls → a single
column located at the shear center of the section
• Open section shear walls with torsion → two columns

Equivalent two-column flexural-

Equivalent flexural column Equivalent flexural-torsional column
torsional-warping model

Note: https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-torsion-and-warping
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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

2. Slabs
In-Plane Effects:
→ horizontal-plane rigid frame
→ direct imposition of rigid
diaphragm assumption

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

3. Continuum Analysis
Coupled-shear walls

Coupled shear walls Equivalent continuum model

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 Modelling for Approximate Analysis

3. Continuum Analysis
Wall-frame structures

Wall-frame structure Equivalent continuum model

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 Modelling for Accurate Analysis

Modelling Three-Dimensional Frame and Structures

• Columns and beams are modeled by three-dimensional beam
elements with 6 DOF per each node;
• Often, shear deformations of beams and columns, and axial
deformations of beams are assumed to be negligible;
• Three-dimensional thin-walled plate structures are modelled by
shell or plane-stress elements.
P-Delta Effects
• Additional moment due to the lateral deformation and gravity
loading;
• The second order P-Delta effects can be accounted for in a first
order analysis using a fictitious column with a negative stiffness.

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 Modelling for Accurate Analysis

Three-dimensional finite element (FE) programs

Elements required:
• beam element
• truss element
Beam element
• quadrilateral membrane element
• quadrilateral plate element

Quadrilateral membrane element

Truss element Quadrilateral plate bending element

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 Modelling for Accurate Analysis

Modelling Plane frames

• Beam elements only
• Beam and truss elements for braced frames
• Note that truss elements give only axial forces.

Braced frame using truss and beam elements

Rigid frame using beam elements
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 Modelling for Accurate Analysis

Modelling 3D frames

Three-dimensional rigid-frame using beam elements

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 Reduction Techniques

Generally leads to no or only small loss in accuracy so that the results

are still good enough for a final design analysis
(a) Symmetry and Anti-Symmetry
• Only half the structure needs to be analyzed for a symmetric
structure under symmetric loads or antisymmetric loads
• Only one quarter of the structure needs to be analyzed for a doubly
symmetric structure subjected to horizontal loading along one of its
axes of symmetry

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 Reduction Techniques

• Only half the structure needs to be analyzed for a symmetric

structure under symmetric loads

Plan symmetric structure with symmetric loading Half-structure model

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 Reduction Techniques

• Only half the structure needs to be analyzed for a symmetric

structure under antisymmetric loads

Half-structure model
Anti-symmetrically behaving structure

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 Reduction Techniques

(b) Two-Dimensional Models of 3D Non-Twisting Structures

(1) Symmetric structure with parallel bents
• Assembling the bents in one plane and providing a horizontal
constraint between them at each storey level

Symmetric structure with parallel bents

Equivalent two-dimensional model
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 Reduction Techniques

(b) Two-Dimensional Models of 3D Non-Twisting Structures

(2) Symmetrical structure with connected orthogonal bents
• The bents are assumed to have negligible stiffness in the transverse
direction. Perpendicular bents act as “flanges” and parallel bents act
as “webs” in resisting bending.

Symmetric structure with orthogonal interacting bents

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 Reduction Techniques

(c) Lumping
• Combination of several of a structure’s similar, and similarly behaving,
components into an equivalent single component or assembly

Symmetric structure with

repetitive bents

Equivalent lumped model

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 Reduction Techniques

(d) Wide Column-Deep Beam Analogies

Equivalent wide- Equivalent uniform

Coupled shear walls
column model beam model

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 Reduction Techniques

(d) Wide Column-Deep Beam Analogies

Equivalent deep Equivalent uniform

Columns joined by deep beams
beam model column model

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 Reduction Techniques

(d) Wide Column-Deep Beam Analogies

Wide-column, deep Wide-column, deep Equivalent uniform

beam frame beam model member model

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