Index

A BEopt approaches. See Building energy

Absorption chillers, 485, 497 optimization (BEopt) approaches
Active TES systems, 176 Billing demand, 200
Actual mean vote model, 65 Biot numbers, 325
Actuators, 119 BLC. See Building load coefficient (BLC)
Adaptive coefficient, 63 Block pricing rates, electric utilities, 206
Adaptive predicted mean vote (aPMV), 62 Bottoming cycle cogeneration system, 423,
Advanced building energy efficiency systems 424
building loads, 48 Breathing walls, 76
design team members, 53 Brute force optimization approach, 318
dynamic insulation materials. See Dynamic Building and Construction Authority (BCA),
insulation materials (DIMs) 30
energy consumption end-uses, 48 Building energy efficiency codes (BEECs),
envelope systems, 46 24, 25
heating and cooling systems, 46, 56 accuracy, 28
implementation costs, 53 affordability, 28
integrated design approach, 54 beneficial impact, 28
LED integrated controls. See Light-emitting building rating systems, 29
diodes (LEDs) integrated controls development process, 27
lighting systems and appliances, 46 enforcement phase, 29
national energy policies, 47 implementation approach, 28
systems approach, 54 mandatory design requirements, 25
thermal comfort. See Thermal comfort performance-based approach, 26, 27
thermo-active foundations. See Thermo- phases and duration, 28
active foundations (TAF) prescriptive-based approach, 26
whole-building approach. See Whole- simplicity and flexibility, 28
building energy models Building energy optimization (BEopt)
Apartment building model, 96 approaches
aPMV. See Adaptive predicted mean vote brute force optimization approach, 318
(aPMV) energy efficiency measures, 318
Artificial neural networks, 129 genetic algorithm, 319
ASHRAE Standard 55, 63 GenOpt, 318
particle swarm optimization, 320
sequential search technique, 318
B zero energy buildings, 316, 317
Back-pressure turbines, 424 Building envelope systems
BACnet device, 135 comparative analysis, 147
Base bill, 212 cooling season analysis, 145
Baseload, 237, 238 dynamic insulation materials, 140
BCA. See Building and Construction Authority GA-based optimizer, 141
(BCA) heating season analysis, 144
BEECs. See Building energy efficiency codes optimization objective function, 140, 141
(BEECs) sensitivity analysis, 149, 150
Benchmarking tools, 35 swing season analysis, 142
Benefit-cost ratio (BCR) method, 264 thermal conductivity values, 141

611
612 Index

Building load coefficient (BLC), 326 engine-driven chillers, 497

Building Research Establishment’s multiple chillers, 498
Environmental Assessment Method Closed loop system, 119
(UK BREEAM), 29 Coal, 198
Building sector Code-required static insulation, 89
energy consumption, 10 Combined heat and power (CHP), 386, 484
energy efficiency policies Commercial microgrids, 223
barriers, 22 Commissioning, 37
benefits, 20 Community microgrids, 223
building energy codes. See Building Composite interest rate, 251
energy efficiency codes (BEECs) Comprehensive Assessment System for
employment creation impacts, 20, 21 Building Environmental Efficiency
energy subsidies levels, 23 (CASBEE), 30
holistic design approach, 30 Compression ignition, 425
standards and codes, 24 Concentrated solar power (CSP) plants
Buy-back rates, 211 comparative characteristics, 411
components, 406
concentration ratio, 411
C direct normal irradiation levels, 414, 415
Campus microgrids, 223 efficiency, 420
Capacitor banks, 234 installation costs, 411
Carbon-neutral residential communities, linear Fresnel reflectors, 410
Kuwait operation and maintenance costs, 413
building design specifications, 435 operation modes, 418
electricity production cost, 431 parabolic dish reflector, 409
fossil fuel production, 431 parabolic trough collector, 407
Gulf Cooperation Council region, 432 receiver and heat engine, 419
optimization analysis site selection for, 415
community size and design, 441 solar irradiance, 420
CSP plants, 445 solar power tower systems, 408
generation technologies, 438 solar radiation requirements, 414
grid electricity price, 441 thermal performance, 418, 419
PV installation costs, 444 working fluid temperature, 406
recommendations, 449 Condensing turbines, 423
renewable energy resources, 434 Constant-air-volume (CAV) control strategy,
renewable generation systems, 436 165
CASBEE. See Comprehensive Assessment Constant-proportion control, TES systems, 507
System for Building Environmental Containerized ice storage systems, 503
Efficiency (CASBEE) Control systems
Cash flows, 252 building envelope systems. See Building
CBL. See Customer baseline load (CBL) envelope systems
CDD. See Cooling degree days (CDD) closed loop system, 119
Central communications controller (CCC), 131 derivative control mode, 127
Central control unit (CCU), 131 elements, 118
Charrettes, 32 energy sources, 129
Chilled water heating coil control system, 120
storage systems, 502 HVAC systems. See Heating, ventilating,
utility rate, 221 and air conditioning (HVAC) systems
Chiller-priority control, TES systems, 507 intelligent control systems, 129
Chillers load anticipation, 118
absorption chillers, 485 load tracking, 118
electric chillers, 484 model-based controls, 136
energy performance analysis, 499 open loop system, 119
 Index 613

proportional control effect, 125 Demand ventilation controls, 166

proportional-plus-integral control, 127 Derivative control mode, 127
supervisory controllers. See Energy DES. See District energy systems (DES)
monitoring and control systems (EMCS) Deterministic engineering modeling methods,
transfer function analysis, 120 550
two-position control, 124 DHS. See District heating systems (DHS)
Cooling degree days (CDD), 82, 84 Digital data streams (DDS), 537
Cooling season analysis, 145 Dimming controls, 103
Cool roofs Dimming controls for daylighting systems, 154
colored cool roofing materials, 519 DIMs. See Dynamic insulation materials
dynamic, 524 (DIMs)
economic analysis, 530 Diode representation of solar cell, 397
energy savings potential Direct evaporative cooler, 329, 330
building insulation level, 526 Direct-fired absorption chillers, 497
building mass, 527 Direct normal irradiation (DNI) levels, 414,
climate, 529 415
roof reflectance, 528 Direct steam generation mode, CSP plants, 418
energy standards, 521 Discounted payback period (DPP), 265
mitigation techniques, 517 District cooling system (DCS)
negative radiative forcing, 518 absorption chillers, 497
properties, 519 components, 480
reflective coatings, 519 cooling demand, 482
selection guidelines and benefits, 534 cooling load profile, 481
static, 522 electrical chillers, 484
urban heat island effects, 517 free cooling, 485
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) underground piping systems, 513
program, 478 District energy systems (DES)
Corrected PMV model, 62 components, 479
Crude oil utility rate, 221 cost analysis, 488
CSP plants. See Concentrated solar power district cooling system. See District cooling
(CSP) plants system (DCS)
Custom budget approach, 27 district heating systems. See District heating
Customer baseline load (CBL), 212 systems (DHS)
economic benefits, 483
end-user systems for, 487
D energy efficiency, 482
Data transmission medium, 132 energy security and resiliency, 483
Day-type rates, 212 environmental benefits, 483
DCRs. See Dynamic cool roofs (DCRs) load requirements, 481
DCS. See District cooling system (DCS) piping distribution systems, 485
DDC systems, 130 single energy production facility, 482
DDS. See Digital data streams (DDS) District heating systems (DHS)
Deep renovation programs, 47 combined heat and power systems, 484
Demand shedding, 139 fossil fuel-fired boilers, 484
Demand-side management (DSM), 36 geothermal energy, 483
electric load profiles, 237 heat pumps, 484
incentive-based programs, 240 solar collectors, 484
load shifting, 239 underground piping systems, 514
peak clipping, 238 waste-generated thermal energy, 483
price-based incentives, 240 waste heat recovery systems, 484
strategic conservation, 240 DNI levels. See Direct normal irradiation
strategic load growth, 240 (DNI) levels
valley filling management, 239 DPP. See Discounted payback period (DPP)
614 Index

DSM. See Demand-side management (DSM) Economic analysis

Dual-axis trackers, 399 basic criteria, 266
Duty cycling, 139 benefit-cost ratio method, 264
DX air conditioner and gas furnace, 58 boiler retrofit, 252
Dynamic cool roofs (DCRs), 524 cash flows, 252
Dynamic forward models, 70 compounding factors
Dynamic insulation materials (DIMs), 140 single payments, 253
breathing walls, 76 uniform gradient series payments, 257
climate impact uniform-series payments, 254
cooling degree days, 82, 84 cost of energy, 265
heating degree days, 82, 83 discounted payback period, 265
insulation levels, 84 energy productivity analysis. See Energy
economic analysis productivity (EP) analysis
annual energy cost savings, 85 inflation rate, 250
payback period, 87, 88 interest rate, 249
potential energy savings, 85 life-cycle cost analysis method
site energy cost savings, 86, 87 annual cash flow, 269
source energy savings, 86 burner–boiler system, 269
electrochromic widows, 76 cool roof coatings, 270
high thermal resistance materials and multiple annualized costs, 268
assemblies, 77 one single present value, 268
internal heat gains, 74 procedure, 268
low thermal conductivity values, 74 net present worth, 263
occupancy sensors, 76 parameters and concepts, 248
operating principle, 77, 78 rate of return, 264
phase-change materials, 76 simple payback period, 265
RC modeling approach systematic approach, 272
annual heating and cooling energy, 80, 95 tax rate, 251
cost function, 82 EEMs. See Energy efficiency measures (EEMs)
internal loads, 82 Effective temperature, 60
multilayer exterior wall, 80 EIA. See US Energy Information Agency (EIA)
3R2C thermal network model, 78 Electrical and lighting systems
single layer exterior wall, 79 daylighting controls
transient heat balance analysis, 79 conventional control strategies, 154
two-step R-value control strategy, 80 energy savings from, 153
recommendations, 89 for indoor space, 154
solar heat gain heat, 74 motor duty cycling controls, 151
space heating and cooling, 74 Electrical chillers, 484
static R-value, 74, 75 Electric chillers, 496
thermal insulation materials, 77 Electricity. See also Microgrids
window-opening behavior, 74 demand-side management
Dynamic inverse models, 68 electric load profiles, 237
Dynamic models, 66 incentive-based programs, 240
load shifting, 239
peak clipping, 238
E price-based incentives, 240
Earth tube, 57 strategic conservation, 240
air temperature variation, 333, 336 strategic load growth, 240
cooling effect variation, 336, 337 valley filling management, 239
ground surface temperature, 333 overall consumption and price, 192
soil surface temperature variation, 333, 334 power quality disturbances
ECMs. See Energy conservation measures codes and standards, 235
(ECMs) harmonic distortions, 230
 Index 615

interruptions, 228 administrative procedures, 19

mitigation options, 232 building sector
transients, 228 barriers, 22
voltage fluctuations, 230 benefits, 20
voltage sags, 227 building energy codes. See Building
voltage swells, 228 energy efficiency codes (BEECs)
voltage unbalances, 230 employment creation impacts, 20, 21
US electricity generation, 194 energy subsidies levels, 23
utility cost holistic design approach, 30
administrative costs, 199 standards and codes, 24
billing demand, 200 criteria, 19
block pricing rates, 206 electricity accessibility, 20
customer types, 200 Energy efficient cities design
fuel cost adjustment, 204 carbon emissions, 471
fuel costs, 199 cooling systems. See Chillers
generation plant, 199 cool roofs. See Cool roofs
innovative rates, 209 data collection systems, 536
monthly billing structure, 202 densely populated Asian cities, 471
power factor clause, 201, 202 district energy systems
ratchet clause, 203 components, 479, 480
rate structures, 200 cost analysis, 488
real-time pricing rates, 211 district cooling system, 484
riders and discounts, 200 district heating systems, 483
seasonal pricing rates, 206 economic benefits, 483
service level, 205 end-user systems for, 487
transmission/distribution systems, 199 energy efficiency, 482
utility deregulation impact, 194 energy security and resiliency, 483
Electrochromic (EC) coatings, 525 environmental benefits, 483
Electrochromic widows, 76 load requirements, 481
Electronic thermal anemometry, 165 piping distribution systems, 485
Electronic-to-pneumatic (E/P) transducers, 130 single energy production facility, 482
EMCS. See Energy monitoring and control electricity consumption, 472
systems (EMCS) European cities, 471
End-use rates, 210 fossil fuel-fired boilers
Energy building stock modeling energy performance analysis, 492
bottom–up methods fire-tube boilers, 491
deterministic engineering modeling water-tube boilers, 491
methods, 550 individual building design, 474
statistical modeling methods, 550 smart grids, 537
stochastic engineering modeling methods, sustainability, 475, 477
552 sustainability rating systems, 475
top–down approaches, 548 sustainable urban transport, 476
Energy conservation measures (ECMs), 576, thermal energy storage systems.
577 See Thermal energy storage
Energy consumption (TES) systems
building sector, 10 underground piping systems
energy productivity trends, 14 district cooling system, 513
final energy consumption, 6 district heating system, 514
primary energy supply, 2 insulation materials, 512, 516
Energy efficiency measures (EEMs), 55, 355 steady-state analysis, 510
characteristics, 363 thermal resistance, 511
incremental costs, 364 urban heat island effects, 474
Energy efficiency policies US cities, 472, 473
616 Index

Energy intensive buildings monthly utility bills, 207, 208

commissioning and retro-commissioning, residential general service, 219
37, 38 nuclear power, 190
demand-side management, 36 petroleum products, 197
energy auditing, 39, 40 Energy Star Home Performance program, 553
energy performance contracting, 36 Energy use intensity (EUI), 34, 279, 282
measurement and verification analysis, 38 Engine-driven chillers, 497
utility data analysis, 39 EPC. See Energy performance contracting (EPC)
Energy monitoring and control systems ePMV. See Extended predicted mean vote
(EMCS) (ePMV)
building envelope systems, 140 Error transfer function, 124
central communications controller, 131 EUI. See Energy use intensity (EUI)
central control unit, 131 Eutectic salts, 503
communication protocol, 135 Evaporative coolers, 329
components and configuration, 132 Expanded and extruded polystyrene (XPS), 77
data transmission medium, 132 Expert controls, 129
demand shedding, 139 Extended predicted mean vote (ePMV), 64
design considerations, 133 External melt ice-on-coil storage systems, 503
duty cycling, 139 Extraction turbines, 424
field interface devices, 131
functions, 140
functions of, 132 F
multiplexer, 132 Fanger’s predicted mean value, 61
partial space conditioning, 140 Feedback control system, 119
size categories, 131 Feedforward control system, 119
Energy performance contracting (EPC), 36 Field interface devices (FIDs), 131
Energy productivity (EP) analysis Fill factor (FF), 399
building energy efficiency, 276 Financial incentive rates, 210
change in value added, 291 Fire-tube boilers, 491
economic indicators, 275 Fixed budget approach, 26
economy-wide, 274 Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)
energy efficiency interventions controllers, 195
change in EP, 283 Forward models, 138
energy use savings and change, 284 Fossil fuel-fired boilers
threshold of energy consumption, 284 energy performance analysis, 492
total final consumption, 283 fire-tube boilers, 491
framework, 273 water-tube boilers, 491
improved designs for villas, 290 Fossil fuels, 5
macroeconomic analysis, 274, 278 Fuel-based generation systems
microeconomic analysis, 285 conventional cogeneration systems
total primary energy supply, 274 bottoming cycle, 423
uncertainty analysis, 293 gas turbines, 426
Energy productivity analysis approach, 602 generator, 423
Energy purchase rates, 211 heat recovery system, 423
Energy resources prime mover, 423
annual US energy consumption, 191 reciprocating engines, 425
coal, 198 steam turbines, 423
consumer price estimates, 191, 192 topping cycle, 423
electricity. See Electricity distributed generation technologies
natural gas characteristics, 427, 429
annual US consumption, 195, 196, 199 energy input/output, 430
average retail prices, 196 fuel cell, 428
commercial general service, 220 overall thermodynamic efficiency, 428
 Index 617

PURPA efficiency, 430 ASHRAE Standard, 162

small and modular generators, 427 comparative analysis, 162, 163
technical and the economic feasibility, 428 economizer systems, 162
packaged cogeneration systems, 426 validity, 165
Fuel cost adjustment, 204 VAV systems, 162, 165
Fuel oil utility rate, 221 pneumatic device, 129, 130
Full storage, TES systems, 506 radiant slab heating systems, 167
Future cost (FC), 250 self-generated energy, 130
Fuzzy controls, 129 sensors used for, 119
thermal storage
neural network controls, 181
G passive and active TES systems, 176
Gas-fired boilers, 491
precooling, 174
Gas turbines, 426
Heat pumps, 484
Genetic algorithm (GA), 319
Heat recovery factor, 324
GenOpt, 318
Holistic design approach
Geothermal energy, 483
computer-aided drafting, 30
G-function methodology, 93
conventional design process, 30, 31
Global solar radiation resources, 402
electrical engineer, 31
Government agencies, 29
geotechnical/civil engineer, 31
Green Building Tool (GBTool), 30
integrated design process, 32
Green Globes, 30
interior designer, 31
Green Mark Rating, 30
landscape designer, 31
Grid-connected photovoltaic systems, 350
mechanical engineer, 31
Gross domestic product (GDP), 3, 4
shell and material requirements, 30
Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs), 90
HOMER simulations, 455, 456
Household energy productivity, 286, 287
H HVAC systems. See Heating, ventilating, and
Harmonic distortions, 230 air conditioning (HVAC) systems
Harmonic filters, 233 Hybrid power systems
Harmonic mitigation transformers, 234 designing phases, 389
Heating coil control system, 120 economic and environmental benefits, 389
Heating degree days (HDD), 82, 83 Hybrid system mode, CSP plants, 418
Heating season analysis, 144 Hybrid ventilation, 322
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning Hydraulic systems, 130
(HVAC) systems
building recovery time
daily average reduction, 161, 162 I
initial zone temperature, 161 Ice harvesters, 503
outdoor ambient temperatures, 160 Ice storage systems, 503
weighting function, 161 IDP. See Integrated design procedure (IDP)
cooling/heating central plant optimization Incentive-based programs, 240
multiple boilers controls, 174 Incremental energy charge, 212
multiple chillers, 173 Index-type rates, 213
single chiller control improvement, 172 Indirect/direct evaporative cooler, 330, 332
DDC systems, 130 Indirect evaporative cooler, 329, 331
demand ventilation controls, 166 Indirect-fired absorption chillers, 497
electric devices, 129 Indoor environmental quality (IEQ), occupant
electronic devices, 129 productivity
hydraulic systems, 130 economic advantages, 577
indoor temperature, 158 indoor air quality, 582
intelligent control environments, 129 indoor thermal comfort, 578
outdoor air intake controls work productivity and maintenance cost, 578
618 Index

Industrial microgrids, 223 energy auditing, 39, 40

Inflation rate, 250 energy performance contracting, 36
Innovative rates measurement and verification analysis, 38
end-use rates, 210 utility data analysis, 39
energy purchase rates, 211 energy productivity-based analysis, 602–604
financial incentive rates, 210 energy retrofit programs, 605
nonfirm rates, 211 foundational strategies, 33
real-time-pricing rates, 210 housing energy consumption, GCC region,
specialty rates, 210 584
time-of-use rates, 209 individual energy efficiency strategies, 586
Input data module, 136 mandatory strategies, 36
Integrated building automation system (IBAS), nonenergy benefits
117 real estate asset value, 599
Integrated design procedure (IDP), 32, 54 work productivity, 598
Intelligent control systems, 129 occupant productivity
data collection systems, 536 indoor air quality, 582
smart grids, 537 indoor thermal comfort, 578
Interest rate, 249 work productivity and maintenance cost,
Intermediate load, 237, 238 578
Internal melt ice-on-soil storage systems, 503 residential buildings. See US residential
Inverse models, 138 buildings
Isolated operation, 224 retrofit programs, 589
roof-PV installation program, 603, 604
US commercial reference building models
K building type and floor area, 575
KSU two-node model, 62
energy conservation measures, 576, 577
renderings for, 576
L research studies and policy assessments, 558
Laplace transform function, 121 voluntary strategies, 35
Large-scale building retrofit program Latent energy storage, 502
annual electrical consumption and peal Leadership in Energy and Environmental
demand, 294, 295 Design (LEED), 29
cost-effectiveness analysis, 302 Levelized cost of energy (LCOE), 265
economic and environmental benefits, 300, Life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis
301 annual cash flow, 269
energy efficiency programs, 297 burner–boiler system, 269
energy productivity analysis, 304 cool roof coatings
energy retrofit programs, 298, 299 annual cooling electricity savings, 270
EP analysis approach, 296 NPW analysis, 271
implementation considerations, 300 relative energy use savings, 270
job creation and market potential, 304 simulation-based analysis, 270
Omani construction stakeholders, 295 multiple annualized costs, 268
Large-scale energy efficiency programs office building designs, 365
energy building stock modeling one single present value, 268
deterministic engineering modeling procedure, 268
methods, 550 Life-cycle net zero energy (LC-NZE), 315
statistical modeling methods, 550 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) integrated controls
stochastic engineering modeling methods, advantages, 99
552 daylighting controls, 100
top–down approaches, 548 dimming controls, 103
energy intensive buildings field study analysis, 107, 108
commissioning and retro-commissioning, fixtures, 99
37, 38 iso-illuminance distribution, 100, 101
demand-side management, 36 lighting controllers, 99
 Index 619

modified daylighting factors, 101, 102 definition, 285

ON/OFF electrical lighting control, 102 energy affordability, 286
recommendations, 105 household energy productivity, 286, 287
two-stepped control, 102 individual building system, 287
working area close to windows, 104 for small retail store, 288, 289
working area perpendicular to the window Microgrids
wall, 105 benefits of, 222
Linear differential functions, 121 components and structure, 222
Linear Fresnel mirror-based CSP distributed generation resources, 221
system, 410 electrical loads, 221
Low-energy systems main grid interconnection
breathing wall systems advantages, 223
building load coefficient, 326 challenges, 226
building thermal load reduction, 325 directly through switchgear, 224
efficiency of breathing walls, 326, 327 modes of operation, 224
heat recovery efficiency, 326 power electronic interfaces, 226
heat recovery factor, 324, 325 standards, 226
simplified house model, 324, 327 static switches, 224
thermal load, 323, 324 types, 223
earth tubes, 333 Military base microgrids, 223
evaporative coolers, 329 Minimum energy performance standards
heating and cooling system, 341 (MEPS), 24
natural ventilation Mixing layer theory, 322
hybrid ventilation, 322 Model-based controls (MPCs)
mechanical space conditioning, 321 applications, 136
mixing layer theory, 322 building energy systems models, 138
pulsation theory, 322 constraints, 136
Sick Building Syndrome, 321 external and internal disturbances, 136
single-sided ventilation, 323 implementation, 136, 138
thermal comfort range, 321 optimization cost function, 136
volume flow rate, 323 optimization techniques, 139
radiant cooling systems, 339 predictor models, 138
radiant heating systems, 336 real-time predictive optimal model-based
control, 136, 137
simulation environment, 136, 137
M Motor duty cycling controls, 151
Macroeconomic energy productivity analysis Multifamily residential building, 96
annual variation, 279, 280 Multiplexer, 132
building sector, 279, 282 Multipulse rectifiers, 232
energy efficiency interventions, 283 M&V analysis. See Measurement and
energy-intensive sectors, 278 verification (M&V) analysis
energy use intensity, 279, 282
GCC countries, 278, 279
GDP and TPEC, 278 N
sectorial EP values, 278 National Energy Modeling System (NEMS),
Mass flowrate, 391, 392 549
Maximum adoption scenario, ECM, 577 Natural gas
Maximum power output, 404 annual US consumption, 195, 196
Mean radiant temperature, 60 average retail prices, 196
Measurement and verification (M&V) analysis, utility rate
38 commercial general service, 220
MEPS. See Minimum energy performance monthly utility bills, 207, 208
standards (MEPS) residential general service, 219
Microeconomic energy productivity Natural ventilation, 57
620 Index

Near-optimal analysis methodology optimization analysis, 455

sequential search process, 353 optimization design approach, 452
validation, 355 renewable energy sources, 451
Negative radiative forcing, 518 transmission system, 451
NEMS. See National Energy Modeling System wind–diesel–battery hybrid system
(NEMS) CO2 emissions reduction, 458, 459
Net present worth (NPW), 263 mountain village simulation results, 456
Net-zero energy buildings, 50 recommendations, 460
Neural network controls, 181 Outdoor air intake controls
New predicted mean vote (nPMV) model, 64 ASHRAE Standard, 162
Noncondensing turbines, 424 comparative analysis, 162, 163
Nonenergy benefits (NEBs), 276, 277 economizer systems, 162
Nonfirm rates, 211 validity, 165
nPMV model. See New predicted mean vote VAV systems, 162, 165
(nPMV) model
Nuclear power, 190
P
Packaged cogeneration systems, 426
O Parabolic dish reflector, 409
Occupancy sensors, 76 Parabolic trough collector (PTC), 407
Office building designs Parallel operation, 224
for Albuquerque, 375 Partial space conditioning, 140
basic features, 359, 360 Partial storage, TES systems, 507
for Boulder, 376 Particle swarm optimization (PSO), 320
3-D rendering, 361 Passive solar heating systems, 344
energy efficiency measures, 362, 363, 371 Passive TES systems, 176
France, 358 Payback period, 87, 88
internal loads, 360 Payment factors
life-cycle cost analysis, 365 single payments, 253
for Marseille, 373 uniform gradient series payments, 257
optimization analysis approach, 366 uniform-series payments, 254
for Paris, 367, 370 PCMs. See Phase-change materials (PCMs)
performance metrics for, 371 Peak clipping, 238
representative climatic zones, 359 Peak load, 237, 238
RT 2012 requirements, 377, 378 Peclet number, 324
for Seattle, 368, 369 Petroleum products, 197
sensitivity analysis, 374 Phase-change materials (PCMs), 76
for Strasbourg, 374 Photovoltaic solar cell
temperature settings, 360 characteristics, 398
United States, 358 concentrated
ventilation rates, 360 basic characteristics, 406
ZNE building, 358 concentration levels, 402
Oil-fired boilers, 491 efficiency, 404
ON/OFF electrical lighting control, 102 Fresnel lens, 403
Open circuit voltage, 398, 403 maximum power output, 404
Open loop system, 119 open circuit voltage, 403
Operative temperature, 60 optimal concentration ratio, 405
Optimal controls, TES systems, 507 short-circuit current, 403
Optimal hybrid distributed generation systems, current–voltage curve, 397, 398
Alaska diode representation, 397
electrical and thermal loads, 453 dual-axis trackers, 399
electricity and fuel prices, 454 electric power, 399
 Index 621

equivalent current, 397 R

fill factor, 399 Radiant cooling systems, 339
global solar radiation resources, 402 Radiant heating systems, 167, 336
maximum power, 399 Radiative floors, 58
monthly electricity generated, 399–401 Radiative walls, 57, 342
open circuit voltage, 398 with cooling tower, 58
short-circuit current, 398 with evaporative cooler, 58
single-axis trackers, 399 Ratchet clause, 203
Photovoltaic/thermal collectors, 352 Rate of return (ROR), 264
Physics-based models, 138 3R2C thermal network model, 78
Pierce two-node model, 61 Real-time pricing (RTP) rates, 210
Piping distribution systems, 485 base bill and incremental energy
Pitot-tube array, 165 charge, 212
PMV. See Predicted mean value (PMV) case study, 213
Pneumatic device, 129 cost savings, 213
Points system, 27 day-type rates, 212
Power coefficient, 394 hourly energy cost, 217, 218
Power Cost Equalization (PCE) program, 454 index-type rates, 213
Power factor clause, 201, 202 total energy charge rates, 212
Power quality disturbances Reciprocating internal combustion engines,
codes and standards, 235 425
harmonic distortions, 230 Remote microgrids, 223
interruptions, 228 Renewable energy systems
mitigation options grid-connected photovoltaic systems, 350
capacitor banks, 234 passive solar heating systems, 344
harmonic filters, 233 photovoltaic/thermal collectors, 352
harmonic mitigation transformers, 234 solar combi-systems, 349
multipulse rectifiers, 232 solar domestic hot water systems, 348
uninterruptible power supply, 235 solar thermal collectors, 345
voltage compensators, 234 Renewable generation systems
transients, 228 CSP plants. See Concentrated solar power
voltage fluctuations, 230 (CSP) plants
voltage sags, 227 photovoltaic solar cell. See Photovoltaic
voltage swells, 228 solar cell
voltage unbalances, 230 wind turbines. See Wind turbines
Precooling control strategy Residential Energy Consumption Survey
energy savings potential, 175, 177 (RECS), 553
long-term simulation analysis, 175 Retro-commissioning, 37
storage capabilities, 174 Roll-over operation, 224
typical indoor air temperature set points, Rule-based expert systems, 129
174, 175
Predicted mean value (PMV), 61
Present cost (PC), 250 S
Price-based incentives, 240 SCRs. See Static cool roofs (SCRs)
Private agencies, 29 Seasonal pricing rates, 206
Proportional control effect, 125 Self-certification to owners, 29
Proportional-plus-integral control, 127 Self-generated energy, 130
Proportional-plus-integral-plus derivative Sensible energy storage, 502
(PID) control, 127 Sequential search technique, 318
Prototypical multifamily residential building, 96 Service level utility cost, 205
PTC. See Parabolic trough collector (PTC) Short-circuit current, 398
Pulsation theory, 322 Short-term weather forecast models, 138
622 Index

Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), 321 capacity factors for, 386, 388
Simple payback period (SPP), 265 capital and O&M cost estimates, 386, 387
Single-axis trackers, 399 LCOE values, 386, 388
Single chiller control improvement, 172 Sustainable energy for all (SE4All) initiative,
Single payment compound-amount factor 386
(SPCA), 253 Sustainable urban transport, 476
Single payment present worth (SPPW) factor, Swing season analysis, 142
254, 255 Systems approach, 54
Single payments, 253
Site energy cost savings, 86, 87
Smart grids, 537 T
advantages, 538 TAF. See Thermo-active foundations (TAF)
digital data streams, 537 Tax rate, 251
electrical grids, 538 Technical potential adoption scenario,
electricity and information flows, 538 ECM, 577
vs. traditional grids, 539 TES systems. See Thermal energy storage
two-way communication interactions, 538 (TES) systems
Solar collectors, 484 TFC. See Total final energy consumption
Solar combi-systems, 349 (TFC)
Solar domestic hot water (SDHW) Thermal comfort
systems, 348 actual mean vote model, 65
Solar only mode, CSP plants, 418 adaptive predicted mean vote, 62
Solar power tower systems, 408 ASHRAE Standard 55, 62, 63
Solar Reflectance Index (SRI), 520 definition, 60
Solar thermal collectors, 345 effective temperature, 60
Spark ignition engines, 425 extended predicted mean vote, 64
SPP. See Simple payback period (SPP) Fanger’s predicted mean value, 61
SRI. See Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) indicators, 60
Static cool roofs (SCRs), 522 KSU two-node model, 62
Statistical modeling methods, 550 mean radiant temperature, 60
Steady-state forward model, 69 metabolic activities, 60
Steady-state inverse model, 66 new predicted mean vote model, 64
Steady-state models, 66 operative temperature, 60
Steam turbines Pierce two-node model, 61
condensing turbines, 423 Thermal comfort models, 171
cost and performance characteristics, 425 Thermal energy storage (TES) systems
electrical generating efficiency, 424 charging/discharging, 505
extraction turbines, 424 control strategies, 506
noncondensing turbines, 424 cooling applications, 501, 502
Stepped control strategies for daylighting cost-effectiveness, 509
systems, 154 heating applications, 501
Stochastic engineering modeling methods, 552 mechanisms, 502
Storage-priority control, TES systems, 507 performance analysis, 508
Strategic load growth, 240 principles, 504
Stricter minimum performance energy standards, Thermal insulation materials, 77
47 Thermal sensation (TSENS) scale, 61
Stringent and more rigorous building codes, 47 Thermo-active foundations (TAF)
Super-conducting transmission cables, 195 G-function methodology, 93
Sustainable and low-energy communities ground source heat pumps, 90
combined heat and power production, 386 office building
general design approach, 389 annual average thermal energy
sustainable energy for all initiative, 386 consumptions, 94, 95
US generating power plants chiller and boiler capacities, 95
 Index 623

cooling and heating energy reduction, Two-position control, 124

94, 95 Two-step R-value control strategy, 80
EnregyPlus, 93
foundation piles, 93
model input data, 94 U
variable air volume, 93 UK BREEAM. See Building Research
recommendations, 98 Establishment’s Environmental
residential buildings Assessment Method (UK BREEAM)
apartment building, 96 Ultracoolers, 330
EnergyPlus, 97 Underground piping systems
G-function approach, 97 district cooling system, 513
multifamily residential building, 96 district heating system, 514
thermal interactions, 93 insulation materials, 512, 516
thermal performance, 92 steady-state analysis, 510
three-dimensional numerical model, 92 thermal resistance, 511
Thermochromic (TC) coatings, 525 Uniform-gradient present worth (UGPW)
Time-of-use (TOU) rates, 209 factor, 257, 261
Top–down modeling approaches, 548 Uniform gradient series payments
Topping cycle cogeneration system, energy cost savings, 257
423, 424 present value for, 257, 260
Total energy charge rates, 212 uniform-gradient future worth factor, 257,
Total final energy consumption ( TFCB), 279 263
Total final energy consumption (TFC) uniform-gradient present worth factor, 257,
annual variation, 6, 7 261
building sector, 6 Uniform-series capital recovery (USCR), 254
commercial and public services, 9 Uniform-series payments
energy mix of, 7 cash flow diagram, 254, 257
residential buildings, 9 uniform-series capital recovery factor, 254
resource decomposition, 6 uniform-series present worth factor, 257, 258
simple linear regression model, 9 Uniform-series present worth factor (USPW),
TPES/TFC ratio, 8 257, 258
Total primary energy supply (TPES), 274 Uninterruptible power supply, 235
average energy use per capita, 4 Urban heat island (UHI) effects, 474
economic output change, 3, 4 US Census Bureau’s American Housing
EIA projections, 5 Survey (AHS) database, 553
fossil fuels, 5 US commercial reference building models
OECD and non-OECD countries, 5 building type and floor area, 575
resource composition, 2 energy conservation measures, 576, 577
from 1990 to 2015, 2 renderings for, 576
Total usable useful area ( TUFAB), 279 research studies and policy assessments, 558
TPES. See Total primary energy supply USCR. See Uniform-series capital recovery
(TPES) (USCR)
Transfer function analysis US Energy Information Agency (EIA), 5
error transfer function, 123, 124 US residential buildings
Laplace transform function, 121, 122 AHS database, 553
linear differential functions, 121 cities and climate zones, 556, 558
output function, 121 Department of Energy
response function, 121 US climate zones, 555
time domain input–output relation, 120 US regions, 555
transform domain input–output relation, 122 Energy Star Home Performance program, 553
Transform domain input–output relation, 122 housing archetypes
Transient heat balance analysis, 79 East North (Chicago), 561
Transients, 228 Middle Atlantic (New York), 560
624 Index

US residential buildings (cont.) V

Mountain (Albuquerque), 570 Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs), 77
Mountain (Denver), 569 Valley filling management, 239
Mountain (Phoenix), 571 Variable air volume (VAV) system, 93, 94
New England (Boston), 559 VAV system. See Variable air volume (VAV)
Pacific North (Seattle), 572 system
Pacific South (Los Angeles), 574 VIPs. See Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs)
Pacific South (San Francisco), 573 Voltage compensators, 234
South Atlantic (Atlanta), 565 Voltage fluctuations, 230
South Atlantic (Miami), 566 Voltage sags, 227
Washington, 564 Voltage swells, 228
West North Central (Kansas City), 563 Voltage unbalances, 230
West North Central (Minneapolis), 562 Volume flow rate, 323
West South Central (Fort Worth), 567
West South Central (New Orleans), 568
housing characteristics, 556, 557 W
housing stock distribution, 554, 556 Waste-generated thermal energy, 483
new housing sector, 552 Waste heat recovery systems, 484
RECS database, 553 Water-tube boilers, 491
regional and national retrofit programs, 553 Weibull cumulative distributions, 395, 396
single family detached houses, 554 Weibull probability distribution, 395
Utility cost Wet-bulb efficiency, 331, 333
chilled water and steam, 221 Whole-building energy models, 55
crude oil, 221 dynamic models, 66
electricity forward energy analysis model
administrative costs, 199 basic approach, 65
billing demand, 200 dynamic models, 70
block pricing rates, 206 energy simulation tools, 65
customer types, 200 steady-state energy analysis, 69
fuel cost adjustment, 204 inverse energy analysis model
fuel costs, 199 basic approach, 65
generation plant, 199 dynamic models, 68
innovative rates, 209 flexibility, 65
monthly billing structure, 202 regression analysis, 65
power factor clause, 201, 202 steady-state inverse model, 66
ratchet clause, 203 uses, 66
rate structures, 200 steady-state models, 66
real-time pricing rates, 211 Wind–diesel–battery (W–D–B) hybrid
riders and discounts, 200 system
seasonal pricing rates, 206 CO2 emissions reduction, 458, 459
service level, 205 mountain village simulation results, 456
transmission/distribution systems, 199 recommendations, 460
fuel oil, 221 Wind power density, 392
natural gas Wind turbines
commercial general service, 220 air mass flowrate, 391–393
monthly utility bills, 207, 208 components, 391
residential general service, 219 configurations, 391
Utility data analysis, 39 power coefficient, 394
Utility microgrids, 223 power curve and operation regions, 395, 396
 Index 625

turbine power, 393 Z

Weibull cumulative distributions, 395, 396 Zero energy buildings (ZEB), 47
Weibull probability distribution, 395 BEopt tool, 316
wind power density, 392 for energy balance, 315
wind resources, 392, 393 life-cycle net zero energy, 315
wind speed variation, 393, 394 office building designs
in Paris, 368
X in Seattle, 368
XPS. See Expanded and extruded polystyrene site energy, 314
(XPS) source energy, 314