Jms 21041483
Jms 21041483
Jms 21041483
Article
Lumbar Degenerative Disease Part 1: Anatomy and
Pathophysiology of Intervertebral Discogenic Pain
and Radiofrequency Ablation of Basivertebral and
Sinuvertebral Nerve Treatment for Chronic
Discogenic Back Pain: A Prospective Case Series and
Review of Literature
Hyeun Sung Kim 1,†,*, Pang Hung Wu 1,2,† and Il‐Tae Jang 1
1 Nanoori Gangnam Hospital, Seoul, Spine Surgery, Seoul 06048, Korea;
[email protected] (P.H.W.); [email protected] (I.‐T.J.)
2 National University Health Systems, Juronghealth Campus, Orthopaedic Surgery,
Singapore 609606, Singapore
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +82‐2‐6003‐9767, Fax.: +82‐2‐3445‐9755
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 20 February 2020; Published: 21 February 2020
Abstract: Degenerative disc disease is a leading cause of chronic back pain in the aging population
in the world. Sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve are postulated to be associated with the
pain pathway as a result of neurotization. Our goal is to perform a prospective study using
radiofrequency ablation on sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve; evaluating its short and
long term effect on pain score, disability score and patients’ outcome. A review in literature is done
on the pathoanatomy, pathophysiology and pain generation pathway in degenerative disc disease
and chronic back pain. 30 patients with 38 levels of intervertebral disc presented with discogenic
back pain with bulging degenerative intervertebral disc or spinal stenosis underwent Uniportal Full
Endoscopic Radiofrequency Ablation application through either Transforaminal or Interlaminar
Endoscopic Approaches. Their preoperative characteristics are recorded and prospective data was
collected for Visualized Analogue Scale, Oswestry Disability Index and MacNab Criteria for pain
were evaluated. There was statistically significant Visual Analogue Scale improvement from
preoperative state at post‐operative 1wk, 6 months and final follow up were 4.4 ±1.0, 5.5 ±1.2 and
5.7 ± 1.3, respectively, p < 0.0001. Oswestery Disability Index improvement from preoperative state
at 1week, 6 months and final follow up were 45.8 ± 8.7, 50.4 ± 8.2 and 52.7 ± 10.3, p < 0.0001. MacNab
criteria showed excellent outcomes in 17 cases, good outcomes in 11 cases and fair outcomes in 2
cases Sinuvertebral Nerve and Basivertebral Nerve Radiofrequency Ablation is effective in
improving the patients’ pain, disability status and patient outcome in our study.
1. Introduction
Degenerative disc disease is a leading cause of chronic back pain in the aging population in the
world [1]. Disc consists of nucleus pulposus, annulus fibrosus and adjacent cartilaginous end plates.
Various factors had been studied to determine the cause of degenerative disc disease and its pain
generation pathway in an attempt to find an answer to either reverse and prevent further
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Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 2 of 28
deterioration of degeneration or provide an optimal pain management strategy to alleviate the pain
and suffering for patients with degenerative disc disease [2–5].Various genetics, environmental,
biomechanics and anatomical variation are found to have association with degenerative disc disease.
Pain generators are postulated to be discogenic origin, although recent studies found some
association with adjacent vertebral end plates and vertebral bodies, known as modic changes. A
normal disc is aneural and avascular, but pathological pain innervation pathways are generated by
stimulation by inflammatory pathways with its secreted cytokines leading to an inflammatory
response leading to neurotization of the diseased disc [6]. Sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve
are associated with the pain pathway [7–12]. In this study, we perform a prospective study using
radiofrequency ablation on sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve and evaluate its short and
long term effect on pain score, disability score and patients’ outcome and discuss the pathoanatomy,
pathophysiology and pain generation pathway in degenerative disc disease and chronic back pain.
2. Results
A total of 30 patients are included in the study who had undergone radiofrequency ablation
procedure during the study period. Mean follow up was 14.9 (6–31) months with mean age of 48 (19–
68) years old. They presents with a mean duration of 27 (8–130) months of discogenic back pain. 11
out of 30 of the cases are from L4/5 disc, 15 from L5/S1 and 4 cases had multiple levels of involvement.
In 6 cases, Transforaminal Endoscopic Lumbar approach is used to perform radiofrequency
application of which 5 of the cases are involving L4/5 degenerated disc protrusion, one case involved
2 levels ie. T12/L1 and L3/4 of degenerative disc protrusions. In the transforaminal approach group 4
of the 6 cases used local anesthesia as a method of anesthesia while 2 patients had requested to be
under regional anesthesia as the choice of anesthesia All except 2 of the other 24 cases were under
regional anesthesia. In 8 cases, Interlaminar Endoscopy Lumbar to Disc Approach was performed
with radiofrequency application, in all 8 cases, the diagnosis is degenerated disc protrusion of L5/S1
intervertebral disc with discogenic back pain on top of radicular leg pain. 16 cases of combined
Lumbar Endoscopic Unilateral Laminotomy Bilateral Decompression with interlaminar
radiofrequency ablation, all of the 16 cases has background mild spinal stenosis marked by thickening
of ligamentum flavum with degenerated disc protrusion and predominant discogenic back pain and
neuropathic leg pain but no spinal claudication. All except 2 patients had intraoperative buttock
twitching when radiofrequency was applied. The 2 cases who did not have any intraoperative
buttock twitching were both L4/5 prolapsed intervertebral intervertebral disc with isolated
discogenic back pain. Radiofrequency was applied despite no Kim’s twitching observed in both cases.
There were 28 cases had intraoperative buttock twitching and 2 cases had no intraoperative buttock
twitching. Their clinical outcome was not as good as the other patients with intraoperative twitching.
MacNab Score were fair for both of these cases and VAS score and ODI for pre‐operative, 1 week, 6
months and final follow up in first patient was VAS(6,4,4,4), ODI (64,42,38,38) respectively ; second
patientwas VAS (8,4,3,4) and ODI (80,36,32,38) respectively both seemed to have inferior results
compared to other patients who had twitched intraoperatively during radiofrequency ablation.
Radiological data was analyzed with 6 showing Modic type 2 changes and 24 with Modic type 1
changes. The stenosis is mild in all cases of preoperative MRI in terms of Schizas grading, 25 cases
had A1, and 4 cases had A3 and 1 case of A4 grade. Intraoperative endoscopic video evaluation
showed there are 6 type 2 grade and, 24 grade 3 Neovascularization and Adhesion grading cases
adjacent to the disc and pedicle at the region of sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerves. There was a
statistical significant improvement in VAS score with mean and range of pre‐operative, 1 week, 6
months and final follow up are 7.37 (6–8), 2.96 (2–4), 1.97 (1–4) and 1.67 (1–4) respectively (Figure 1).
Using paired T test, VAS score mean difference between 1wk, 6 months and final follow up with pre‐
operative were 4.4 ± 1.0, 5.5 ± 1.2 and 5.7 ± 1.3 respectively, p < 0.0001. There was a statistical significant
improvement in ODI score with mean and range of pre‐operative, 1 week, 6 months and final follow
up are 73.83 (62–86), 28.07 (20–42), 23.47 (18–38) and 21.13 (2–38) (Figure 1). The mean improvement
of ODI at 1week, 6 months and final follow up compared with pre‐operative values are 45.8 ± 8.7,
50.4 ± 8.2 and 52.7 ± 10.3, p < 0.0001. MacNab’s criteria showed excellent outcomes in 17 cases, good
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outcomes in 11 cases and fair outcomes in 2 cases. Overall the fair outcome and less clinical significant
improvement in outcomes score were associated with no intraoperative Kim’s twitching when
radiofrequency application is applied. There is one complication of post‐operative foot drop, which
spontaneously recovered after 3 months, one recurrence of symptoms with conservative
management, no revision surgery for all the patients (Table 1).
Table 1. Background data and results of Patients who underwent Sinuvertebral Nerve and
Basivertebral Nerve Radiofrequency Ablation.
Figure 1. Mean Visual Analogue Scale Pre‐operative, 1 week, 6 months post‐operatively and Oswestry
Disability Index at 1 week, 6 months post‐operatively and final follow up showing clinically
significant decrease in disability.
3. Discussion
Degenerative disc disease is a leading cause of chronic back pain. As the society is aging, quality
of life in the aging population is central to geopolitical and healthcare developments in preparing for
an aging population. However, in terms of years lived with disability burden pattern there is similar
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pattern in 1990 to 2010 with lower back pain being most likely cause of musculoskeletal disability [1].
Various biopsychosocial factors lead to disability in chronic back pain [13,14]. Degenerative disc
disease is a leading cause of lower back pain on a global scale [15]. Intervertebral disc (IVD) is an
avascular and aneural structure yet various studies showed that a diseased IVD lead to significant
disability. This review addresses the pathophysiology of IVD pain by understanding the different
anatomical parts, biomechanical changes, the interaction of local and regional cells with molecular
factors. We also discuss the inflammatory reactions and interactions with various environmental
factors which involved in disc injury and eventual degeneration. Further elaboration is made on
sympathetic nerve channel development of sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerve in intervertebral
disc pain and how radiofrequency ablation can help in treatment of degenerative disc disease
[8,11,12].
3.1. Anatomy of a Normal Disc
All vertebra except atlas and axis is separated by intervertebral disc (IVD), which is labelled by
the 2 adjacent vertebrae which it separates in between, for example Lumbar 4/5 intervertebral disc
lies between lumbar 4 and lumbar 5 vertebrae. IVD serves to provide load distribution as a shock
absorber, dispersing the weight and impact sustained. It also served as a channel for nutrition flow
between spinal cord and spine [16]. The total height of all discs made up of 20–30 % of the total height
of spine in a standing human. Their shape, structure and mechanical properties vary depending on
the location, loads and stress‐strain patterns encountered in the person daily requirements [17]. Adult
intervertebral disc is avascular and aneural, the flow of nutrients are by passive diffusion from
adjacent end plate vessels and pre‐disc vessels reaching from the inner layer of the disc in centrifugal
manner to outer layer of disc diffusing outwards [18].
Intervertebral Disc is made up of Nucleus Pulposus (NP), Annulus Fibrosis (AF) and the
cartilage vertebral endplates. Outer layer of AF is attached to end plate and vertebral epiphysis by
means of strong Sharpey fibers. While the central AF collagen fibers coalesce with nucleus to insert
themselves obliquely into the cartilaginous end plate [19].
3.2. Structure of Annulus Fibrosus
Annulus Fibrosus is a structured concentric lamellae consisting of fibrocartilaginous tissue. It is
generally referred to 2 sections, the inner and outer annulus fibrosus. The main composition consists
of water (approximately 70% inner layer and 60% outer layer), collagens mainly type I and type II
collagen of 15% inner and 7% outer dry weight) [18,20]. The structure of annulus runs in a multiple
alternating crisscross layers alternating collagen with varying angles throughout its lamellae. All
collagen is a triple helical structure with 3 polypeptide chains [21]. The collagen has anisotropic,
nonlinear and inhomogeneous mechanical property which help to withstand complex load pattern
and in particular radial forces [22]. The composition of collagen concentration increases from a lower
concentration to higher concentration creating a smooth transition zone of soft and spongy nucleus
pulposus to a stronger and stiff outer annulus [23]. In the annulus fibrosus, proteoglycans are
glycosylated proteins found extracellular matrix. The main ones found in AF are aggrecan and
versican promoting hydration and mechanical strength of the disc. The attached keratin sulphate and
chondrointin sulphate attached to their protein core of glyocosaminoglycans providing the ability to
aggregate hyaluronic acid to promote osmotic swelling pressure required for biomechanical loading,
there are also other smaller quantity of proteoglycan implicated in fibrillary collagen assembly [24].
Overall with its unique structure AF is able to transfer and distribute load allowing radial bulge,
tensile stress, rotation and compressive loading facilitating IVD joint mobility [20]. Cyclic loading
tests showed resilience and stability of mechanical loading integrity of AF, allowing it to withstand
more than 10000 cycles of stress magnitude of less than or equal to 45% of its ultimate tensile strength
[25].
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3.3. Structure of Nucleus Pulposus
Nucleus Pulposus is a gelatinous core of the disc surrounded by AF which keeps it from
herniating into the spinal canal. It consists mainly type II collagen and elastin fibers in a random
organized manner with 20% of the dry weight of the disc. Elastin fibers helped in maintaining the
collagen organization and elastic properties under various loads. Elastin microfibrils forms a
meshwork around a central elastin core sustaining its elasticity [26]. It has a low density of
chondrocyte like cells of 5000/mm3 contained in a proteoglycan gel of 50% dry weight. Nucleus is a
poorly compressible structure with 80% water helping it carrying out its role of load dispersion, shock
absorption and maintenance of internal pressure [18,27]. Metabolically active chondrocyte like cells
with Golgi Apparatus and Endoplasmic Reticulum synthesize and turnover a large volume of
extracellular matrix components of collagen and proteoglycans maintaining a high compressive load
through movement of the waters and ions in the matrix. They also maintain tissue homeostasis, play
a role in the physio‐chemical properties of cartilage‐specific macromolecules, and prevent
degenerative diseases like degenerative disc disease and osteoarthritis [28].
3.4. Structure of Vertebral End Plates
Vertebral endplates are adjacent to each IVD. It composed of an osseous and a cartilaginous
components. Its main constituents are chondrocytes, proteoglycans and collagen mesh network.
Although vertebra end plates has similar macromolecules in their extracellular matrix as NP and AF
but the proportion is different, providing a higher mechanical properties than both AF and NP [29].
The paired end plates are comprised of hyaline cartilage [30]. It serves as an interphase between hard
cortical bone of vertebra body and transiting to the annulus and nucleus via attachment of sharpey
fibers. This helps to keep disc pressurized and prevents it from bulging into the soft cancellous
trabecular bone of vertebra. Endplates are the strongest part of the IVD and failure often associated
in the Vertebra body fracture prior to end plate fracture [18]. Vertebral end plates are vascularized
and it plays a vital role in maintaining nutrition diffusion and hydration of the disc [31]. The thickness
and porosity of end plates vary from central to peripheral region. Central portion of end plate is
thinnest and less dense as compared to the periphery where subchondral bone growth starts [30].
Mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength increase as lumbar spine descend from L1 to S1
[32] End plates are usually stronger and stiffer than the vertebra body in withstanding higher loads
protecting it from tensile and compressive damage which are the common modes of failure [33].
3.5. Pathoanatomy: Structural changes to a Disc in a Pathological State
Central to its main changes is the necrosis of chondrocyte like cells in nucleus, it is a natural
process with accelerating rate as per aging. Starting around 2% at birth to 50% in adulthood. With
these cells necrosis, pathological state such as cartilage –collagen interphase degradation,
syndesmophyte formation with abnormal bone growth at the adjacent vertebra and calcification
occurs, stiffening the IVD joint [34].
Vertebra end plate porosity increases up from 50–130% with aging and disc degeneration,
affecting its mechanical property [32].
Blood and Nervous supply of IVD changes during different stages of life. During early stages of
skeletal development, blood and lymph vessels are in abundance in majority of the disc with
exception of nucleus. As skeletal maturation occurs, blood and lymph vessels migrate towards AF
and end plates up to 12months of age. Beyond 12months of age to 20 years of age which marked
skeletal maturity, blood vessels start to recede from nucleus and inner annulus to only remaining in
outer annulus and end plates [35]. After full recede process of the blood supply to outer annulus and
end plate, the nutrition supply is relying mainly on diffusion which often is responsible for lower
regenerative potential of tissue during aging [36]. There are 2 pathways that diffusion occurs from
the blood vessels at disc margin: the cartilaginous endplate‐nucleus pulposus pathway and the
annulus fibrosus periphery pathway [37]. Impairment of either of these pathways can lead to
different degenerative patterns with cartilaginous endplate‐nucleus pulposus pathway affecting
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mainly nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrous pathway affecting the annulus fibrosus using 3D finite
element model [2].
3.6. Types of Pathology in a Disc
According to lumbar disc nomenclature version 2.0, disc conditioned are broadly classified into
Noramal, Congenital/developmental variation, Degenerative changes, Trauma,
Inflammatory/Infection, Neoplasia and Miscellaneous paradiscal masses of uncertain origin [38]. The
authors would focus on degeneration in this review. Degenerative changes are sub classified as
annular fissures, degeneration and herniation.
Annular fissure is separation between the AF fibers or between AF fibers and the vertebral bone.
There are 3 patterns in AF fissures, namely, concentric fissure, radial fissure (vertical or oblique) and
transverse fissure which is a horizontal oriented radial fissure. Annular tear is synonymous as fissure
but it is a term which gives a connotation to traumatic cause.
Degeneration includes terms such as dessication of the disc, fibrosis, narrowing of disc space
and diffuse bulge of annulus beyond its normal confine, mucinous degeneration and intradiscal gas.
The associated consequences of degenerated disc such as syndesmophyte formation, sclerosis of end
plates and modic changes seen in MRI are spectrum of disc degeneration [39–41].
Herniation is categorized into focal displacement of disc material beyond the normal limits of
IVD space. Disc material can be any constituent of the disc ie annulus, nucleus, apophyseal bone, end
plate or combination of the above. The IVD normal margin is defined by Vertebra body end plates in
cephalad caudal dimension and outer rim of vertebral ring apophyses excluding the osteophytes.
Focal displacement refers to less than 25% of the dimension in 90 ° of periphery of the disc in axial
plane. A more diffuse presence of disc tissue extension beyond the confined of normal IVD is term
bulging of disc. Asymmetric bulging of disc greater than 25% of disc circumference can occur in
deformity of spine but not considered as a form of herniation [42]. Disc herniation is subclassified
into protrusion or extrusion depending on the shape of disc material. Protrusion is seen if the edge
of disc material present outside IVD space is less than the distance between the base of the disc
herniation. There is typically no migration in a disc protrusion type of herniation. Disc herniation is
categorized as contained which is when the displaced disc is covered by annulus fibers or posterior
longitudinal ligament which would appear to have smooth margin on axial computer tomography
(CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), they are typically contained by a few fibers of superficial
posterior annular fibers or posterior longitudinal ligament while uncontained disc occurs when such
restrain from the fibers are lost [42,43]. Extrusion is defined when disc material distance from its edge
to base in at least one plane is more than the edges of the base or when there is no continuity exists
in between disc material and its base. The latter form of extrusion is often termed sequestration when
the disc material is completely separated from the parent disc. The term migration is used when
displacement of disc material is beyond the IVD margin from the site of extrusion [44]. Degenerated
disc includes all normal and pathologic degenerative processes in the disc [38]. Degenerative disc
disease(DDD) includes both annulus fibrosis and adjacent apophyses degeneration termed as
“spondylosis deformans “ and nucleus pulposus and vertebral end plate degeneration known as “
intervertebral osteochondrosis”. It had been suggested that the former is a consequence of normal
aging while the latter is pathological but not necessarily symptomatic [38].
3.7. Pathophysiology: Etiology of Degenerative Disc Disease
Degenerative Disc Disease (DDD) is a result of complex interplay of structural, genetics,
environmental, trauma, and aging. Non traumatic degeneration starts with progressive decrease in
disc nutrient supplies and changes in the extracellular matrix composition as part of aging process.
Over time such changes leads to disc being less capable of maintaining its function of load
distribution and ECM turnover. There is lowering of pH and oxygen concentration due to these
changes [37]. Calcification of end plates developed due to these changes which further led to decrease
in nutrient flow and blood supply leading to further dysfunction of disc subjecting in response to
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microtrauma. Accumulation of microtrauma over time and propagates the mechanical damage
manifesting as annular fissure and nucleus damage [45].
3.8. Potential Trigger Events
Several trigger events can lead to progression of DDD. The cause and effect of the trigger is not
direct correlation. It is likely cumulative effect of several factors acting in sync to cause the gradual
and progressive process of DDD. Several triggers are discussed in this review. Structural changes
and biomechanics of spine and pelvis, trauma, genetics, smoking, nutrition deficiency plays
important role in leading to DDD.
3.9. Structural and Biomechanics of Spine and Pelvis Affecting DDD
Alterations in the regular alignment of spine in one segment of the spine will leads to
compensatory changes in another part of spine to compensate the alignment in order for man to stay
upright and look straight. Pelvis driven Lumbar disc disease is a possible mechanism of degenerative
disc disease. Study showed that because pelvic morphology plays a key role defining the spinal shape
as well as its load and function it thereby potentially predisposes the development of spinal
degeneration if the shape of pelvis is out of normal range [46]. Vertebra body shape plays a role in
determination of the stress distribution between the superior and inferior adjacent IVD. For example
a wedge shape L5 will have different forces going through the L4/5 and L5/S1 disc compared to
regular and rectangular shape L5. Study showed that asymmetry of superior and inferior endplates
in the mid‐sagittal plane is a risk factor for lumbar disc degeneration [47].
Fei et al. studied sagittal parameters and the effects on lumbar herniation. The author showed
that the mean lumbar lordosis, sacral slope and thoracic kyphosis were significantly lower, with a
higher pelvic tilt and the increased sagittal vertical axis in lumbar disc herniation group as compared
to the control group in a young sample population [48]. Overall, vicious cycle situation where coronal
and sagittal imbalance accelerated disc degeneration and advanced disc degeneration leads to
subluxation of facet joints and abnormal weight bearing causing a deformity in the spine [49].
3.10. Muscle Dynamics and General Joint Laxity Effect on Disc Pathology
IVD with adjacent vertebras and attached soft tissues are part of functional spinal unit. Panjabi
et al. explained the importance of neutral zone being a parameter that correlate well with instability
of spinal system [50]. For optimal muscle power generation, good alignment of the bone allow
optimal stretch in muscle generating the power required in activities and helps to prevent
pathological increase in forces going through the joints. In patients with chronic radiculopathy, disc
herniation and severe facet degeneration were associated with altered paraspinal muscle morphology
at or below the pathology level [51]. The status of muscle and ligamentous laxity may have an
association with prevalence of the lumbar disc disease with significantly higher prevalence of the
lumbar disc herniation and also worse clinical and radiological outcomes than patients without
general joint laxity with conservative treatment or after surgery [52,53].
3.11. Mechanical Load
Lumbar spine overload was associated with work tasks requiring combinations of manual
handling of objects and trunk rotation or bending. Those included healthcare, foundry and forest
workers, production operators, cabinetmakers, locksmiths and bricklayers [54]. In a study of 4 groups
of workers in Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, lumbar spine degeneration
is significantly increased in blue collar and agribusiness and low‐level workers [3,55]. Cellular ovine
culture studies also showed that the result with mechanical loading with limited nutrition leading to
detrimental effects on IVD cells in whole organ culture [56,57]. Chronic and excess exposure to high
mechanical load can lead to deleterious effects on IVD, however low rate of loading is important for
forced convection aiding in diffusion of nutrients both to normal and degenerated disc. Hence
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appropriate amount of loading is necessary in preference over complete offloading by bedrest in
maintenance of healthy disc [58].
3.12. Genetics and Degenerated Disc
Genes played a significant role in disc degeneration. Twin studies shown up to 50–70% of an
individual risk of DDD is attributed to genetic disposition [59,60] and Case control studies showed
significant familial disposition with DDD [61]. Genes that are postulated to be related to DDD are
genes affecting IVD structure, catabolic cyctokines polymorphism and inflammatory cascade
cycokine polymorphisms. For genes affecting IVD structure, Aggrecan, COL1, COL9, COL 11, FN,
HAPLIN 1, Thrombospondin, Cartilage Intermediate layer protein (CLIP) and Asporin (ASPN) genes
has effects in maintenance of IVD structure. The catabolic cytokines polymorphisms are vitamin D
receptor gene polymorphisms MMP1, MMP2, MMP3, PARK2, and PSMB9 and anticatabolic tissue
inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) favor catabolism and can contribute to the degeneration of
the IVD [3].
3.13. Environmental and Psychosocial Factors Associated with DDD
Smoking, obesity and diabetes mellitus are positively correlated with DDD. Of the 3 factors,
smoking is the highest correlations to DDD and their effect is synergistic [62]. ADAMTS5 is the
primary aggrecanase found in animal study that mediating smoking‐induced disc aggrecanolysis
and DDD [63]. Elmasary et al. showed that smoking caused nicotine‐mediated down‐regulation of
cell anabolism affecting the glycosaminoglycan concentration at the cartilage endplate, reducing it
up to 65% from normal physiological conditions and reducing of solutes exchange between blood
vessels and disc tissue affecting mainly the nucleus pulposus, whose cell density and
glycosaminoglycans levels were reduced up to 50% of their normal physiological levels [64,65].
3.14. Nutritional Deficiency
Healthy disc required good nutritional supply. Interruption of the nutritional pathway can lead
to disc degeneration [2]. Nutrition studies are challenging due to variability of food culture and wide
prevalence of DDD as a result to multifactorial factors, the correlation of diet and DDD is weak with
insufficient fish and egg consumption [66].
3.15. Exercise
Physical exercise is clinically recommended in several guidelines to help in alleviating pain [67]
Physical exercise helps in IVD cell proliferation in animal model studies, particularly in moderate to
high volume low repetition and frequency exercises [68,69]. It has effect on paraspinal muscle
strength and aids in reducing pain and disability [70].
3.16. Pathophysiology of Pain in Lumbar Degenerative Disc Disease
After Initial trigger event, several interlinked macro and microscopic changes in the disc leads
to development of DDD and pain sensitization. It starts with microscopic damage leading to cytokine
secretion which stimulate immune cell migration and further cytokine secretion. The effect is an
increase in neutrophils and nerve ingrowth and spinal nerve sensitization leading to lower back pain.
The presence of physical irritation by changes in anatomy can lead to further neural compression and
neuropathic pain.
3.17. Types of Lower Back Pain
There are mainly 2 groups of back pain, specific back pain and non‐specific back pain. Specific
back pain is divided into 3 subtypes. A) discogenic back pain, which presents with back and/or leg
pain which has no radiological significant compression of nerve roots. B) nociceptive back pain other
than disc such as myofasicial back pain which includes back sprain and back spasms, osteoarthritis
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 9 of 28
back pain which includes synovial joints such as facet joints, vertebral fractures and osteoporosis. C)
Neural leg pain such as radicular pain secondary to nerve root compression Non specific back pain
may arise spontaneously without evidence of any anatomical abnormalities, the exact cause of non
specific back pain is unknown, biopsychosocial factors play important role in non specific back pain.
Centralization occurs when pain becomes chronic and pathological neuronal pathways may form
when disc is degenerated [71].
3.18. Adjacent Vertebra End Plates and Bodies Stressed Related Pain Response
Previously it was thought that discogenic back pain as its name suggests is predominantly due
to disc origin of pain. However more evidence recently suggests that adjacent vertebral end plates
play a significant role in discogenic back pain with the main pathologic innervation focus on the end
plates region [31,72].
3.19. Modic Changes and Pain Simulation
Modic changes (MC) in MRI shown as signal changes in T1w and T2w images often accompany
DDD. Modic Changes prevalence is high in LBP patients (43 % median prevalence in a meta‐study)
compared to only 6 % median prevalence of the asymptomatic population [73]. There is postulation
that Modic changes in bone is a sign of end plate damage with persistent stimulus and damage
accumulation coupled with various factors leading to symptomatic response from the Modic changes
[74]. MC is associated with more frequent and longer duration of LBP [75].The size of MC is directly
correlated with the severity of LBP [76]. Further analysis with disc and bone tissue obtained around
IVD and the adjacent MC showed there is plausible cross communication between these 2 tissues
with pairwise correlating expression of similar gene and cytokine interaction in disc and adjacent
bone marrow with Modic changes [72]. Disc‐secreted factors are important in MC pathobiology, a
feature that should motivate new treatment approaches that target MC spinal levels on top of
targeted DDD. The cause and nature of the communication between the 2 surfaces are unknown.
However, Neurotrophic receptors of the tropomyosin receptor kinase (Trk) family were up‐regulated
in MC disc and bone marrow, it is postulated to be its communication pathway. But typical
appearance of both adjacent cephalad and caudal vertebra bodies adjacent to the diseased disc with
MC couple with the fact that there is direct correlation of size of MC to severity of DDD showed there
is significant correlation and communication between the interphase [77].
3.20. Genetics and its Effect on Pain Perception in Disc Diseases
Catechol‐O‐methyltransferase, which is encoded by COMT, is a major mammalian enzyme
involved in the degradation of catecholamines, it is postulated to be a putative pain sensitivity gene
COMT. Important role of COMT gene in the symptomatic lumbar disc herniation is show in
susceptibility studies with the influence of genetic variants of COMT gene in the variation in pain
after treatment for low back pain [78,79]. There is an interest in developing relevant genetic markers
such as COMT to provide useful clinical information in terms of predicting outcome after surgery for
patients diagnosed with DDD [80].
3.21. Factors Release Inducing Innervation and Neuronal Sensitization
3.21.1. Inflammatory Processes
Inflammatory response plays a key role in induction of hyperalgesia of the disc as experiments
show that exposure of nucleus pulposus to annulus fibrosis leads to increase inflammatory cells
around the region of exposure [81,82]. The degenerating disc releases growth factors, such as bFGF
and TGF‐beta1; together with increased levels of tumour necrosis factor‐α, interleukin‐1β, Nerve
Growth Factor, NGF and Brain Derived Neutrophic Factor , BDNF leads to increase production of
macrophages and mast cells which might play a key role in the repair of the injured annulus fibrosus
and subsequent disc degeneration [83]. These Factors also stimulate neurite growth and calcitonin
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gene‐related peptide expression, both of which were blocked by anti‐NGF treatment. In a protein
arrays study, it was found that there is increased levels of 20 inflammatory factors, many of which
have nociceptive effects; demonstrating that degenerating and painful human IVDs release increased
levels of NGF, inflammatory and nociceptive factors ex vivo that induce neuronal plasticity and may
actively diffuse to induce neo‐innervation and pain in vivo [84]. Other anti‐inflammatory cytokines
such as IL‐1, IL‐6, and COX 2 are associated with DDD and pain related to DDD [85].Systematic
Review on genes and biomarkers for pain in DDD shows that five genetic variants; i.e., OPRM1
rs1799971 G allele, COMT rs4680 G allele, MMP1 rs1799750 2G allele, IL1α rs1800587 T allele, IL1RN
rs2234677 A allele, were associated with reduced recovery of lower back pain and three biomarkers;
i.e., TNFα, IL6 and IFNα, were associated with persistent back pain [86] In our endoscopic videos
analysis, we found the presence of grade 2 and 3 neovascularization associated with all cases which
required sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerves ablation. We postulate that neovascularization and
inflammation with adhesion formation is associated with pathological neuronal sensitization.
3.21.2. Neuronal Sensitization and Pathologic Innervation of Disc
Mechanical pressure on a normal disc does not result in pain as compared to a diseased disc.
There is suggestion of diseased disc sensitization with growth of nerve fibers within the fissures and
even lying within the deep layers [87,88]. The nerve fibres often described are sinuvertebral nerve
(SVN) and basivertebral nerve (BVN).
3.21.3. Sinuvertebral Nerve (Figure 2)
Sinuvertebral nerve was first described by Dr. Hubert von Luschka in 1850, as a nerve derived
from spinal nerve and has connection to sympathetic nervous system with intersegmental
anastomoses, now it has been shown that sinuvertebral nerve distribution is extending as far as
posterior annulus fibrosus [89,90]. The sinuvertebral nerve is formed by the union of a somatic root
from the ventral ramus and an autonomic root provided by the grey ramus. It arises bilaterally from
the ventral ramus of each spinal nerve just distal to the dorsal root ganglia, supplying both
proprioceptive and nociceptive fibers and joined by grey ramus communicans to provide the
sympathetic supply to sinuvertebral nerve. After the union with grey ramus communicans, it takes a
recurrent course to re‐enter the spinal canal through the intervertebral foramen via the deep anterior
intraforaminal ligament, lying alongside the pedicle cephalad to the corresponding disc [89].
Sinuvertebral nerve distribution is controversial whether it is segmented at the spinal nerve of origin
level or branching out rostrally and caudally in spinal canal. The opinions is divided on its
distribution [8] Various studies show that the nerve divides into superficial and deep networks
around the posterior longitudinal ligament with the superficial network predominantly sympathetic
and deep network being somatic supplying annulus and posterior longitudinal ligaments [90].
However Nakamura showed that sympathetomy can cause up to 90% loss of sensory fibres to the
posterior annulus fibrosus suggesting that both sympathetic and somatic networks are connected
[91]. Besides supplying the annulus, the posterior longitudinal ligament, studies showed that
sinuvertebral nerve supplies several other anterior spinal structures such as ventral surface of the
dura mater extending to the lateral aspects sparing the dorsal surfaces of dura, the periosteum of the
vertebrae and the ligaments of facet joints, for the somatic fibers, however it does not supply
sensation to the facet joint which is supplied by medial branch of the posterior ramus [7,92]. While
the sympathetic fibers also innervate surrounding anterior spinal vasculature in the outer annulus,
end plates, vertebral bodies and vertebral marrow.
Since sinuvertebral nerve is both somatic and sympathetic, the information transmitted by
sinuvertebral nerve is an important clinical question. Cavanaugh et al. stimulate New Zealand white
rabbits were used in series neurophysiologic and neuroanatomic studies. It shows that extensive
distribution of small nerve fibers and free nerve endings in the superficial annulus of the disc and
small fibers and free nerve endings in adjacent longitudinal ligaments with long lasting excitatory
changes after dissection of grey ramus communicans of these rabbits, suggesting that it is more
visceral afferents predominant pain pathway in discogenic pain [93].
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 11 of 28
Various substances and peptides had been implicated as the carrier of neuronal message in the
sinuvertebral nerve. Tyrosine vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, substance P and calcitonin gene
related peptide are found in nociceptive fibers in both superficial and deep divisions of sinuvertebral
nerve. Most of these substances are found in sympathetic nerve transmission peptides, hence
supporting previous findings that it has sympathetic nerve supply [94–96].
There is controversy on how the sinuvertebral nerve communicate and flow through the lumbar
spinal system. Morinaga using retrograde transport markers cholera toxin B and horseradish
peroxidase crystals demonstrated retrograde flow from L5/6 to L1/2 in rats [97]. Cavanaugh et al.
demonstrated a similar ascending track in sympathetic flow from lower lumbar vertebrae [93].
3.22. Discogenic Back Pain and Sinuvertebral Nerves
Figure 2. Figure of Coronal Mid Pedicle Cut of Lumbar Spine. A: Sympathetic ganglion, B: Pedicle,
C: Dorsal Root Ganglion, D: Sinuvertebral Nerve giving rise to branches D1: Ascending branch which
goes intraosseous and give rise to Basivertebral Nerve near the pedicle D4, D2: Descending Branch
supplying adjacent to Posterior longitudinal ligament and disc, D3: Direct branches to intervertebral
disc.
Sinuvertebral nerve (SVN) is associated with 26–39% of patients with lower back pain [98,99]. It
has a variable penetration to annulus in normal and diseased state, penetrating much deeper in
diseased state and even as deep as nucleus pulposus [100–102]. The penetration is mediated by
vascularized granulation formation bringing in the neurotropic factors and facilitating the pathologic
penetration of sinuvertebral nerve fibers to deeper disc region [102,103]. The sinuvertebral nerve
fibers are denser in the end plates of degenerated disc as compared to normal disc [104]. Studies
showed that when sinuvertebral nerve penetrated deep enough to be in contact with nucleus
pulposus, various side effects occurs such as increased neural damage, inflammatory cells
accumulation and increased capillary permeability and increment of nerve discharge [82,105]. In our
experience, which we published in the literature, we find patients with sinuvertebral and
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 12 of 28
basivertebral nerve pain presenting with radicular pattern of pain without any significant
radiological and endoscopic evidence of significant irritations [106,107].
3.22.1. Basivertebral Nerve (Figure 2)
Basivertebral nerve (BVN) is a paired nerve believed to play an important role in end plate pain
nociceptive transmission and are branches from sinuvertebral nerve complex. BVN transmits pain
signal from end plate [31,72,108]. BVN are branches of SVN which enters vertebral body through
central vascular foramen together with basivertebral vessels and branches around the end plates
[12,109]. The transmission substances are found to be substance P, protein S‐100, PGP 9.5 and CGRP
which are predominantly nociceptive neurotransmitters [84,110–112]. BVN density is proportional to
the amount of disc damage, creating evidence of its role in chronic lower back pain [31]. As disc
degenerates and adjacent end plates showing concordant damage, a convective flow induced during
cyclical spinal loading allows cross talk between disc and bone marrow of subchondral bone through
the release of inflammatory mediators and an ineffective healing response of progressively increase
inflammatory mediators and response generation but little progress in healing due to inherent
relentless cycle of degenerative cascade [72,75,113].
3.22.2. Diagnostic and Treatment Procedures
Patient who presents with degenerative disc disease has mechanical pain which is worse on
flexion related activities as more compressive stress is placed on the IVD during flexion. The pain
may radiate to the bilateral buttock region but unlike radicular pain due to compression of nerve,
discogenic pain seldom goes below the level of the knees. The diagnostic gold standard test is
provocative discogram which would reproduce the lower back pain that the patient experienced. It
involves injection of a contrast into the disc concern and concurrent assessment of the patient’s pain
response, it is important to assess the pattern of pain which should be similar to the pattern that
patient complains of. A well performed discogram can be more specific than magnetic resonance
imaging [114]. Once proven by provocative discogram, a few strategies in treatment had been shown
to have variable effectiveness in the literature. Anesthetic (4% xylocaine or 0.75%) bupivacaine mixed
with contrast during discogram can give therapeutic effect on top of diagnostic intervention [9]. Other
electrothermal based intervention through catheters such as intradiscal electrothermal annuloplasty
(IDET), disc fx [115] and transforaminal epidurosopic laser ablation of sinuvertebral nerve with good
clinical outcomes [10,116].
A randomized controlled double blind sham controlled multi‐center study showed there is
improved of significant clinical improvement using radiofrequency ablation of BVN through
transpedicular intraosseous probe insertion [12]. The author’s group also treated BVN with
epiduroscopic basivertebral nerve laser ablation (TEBLA) with good clinical results [11].
3.22.3. Radiofrequency Ablation (Figure 3)
Currently in the authors’ practice, we used a protocol which involved first taking a history and
physical examination of the patients presenting with lower back pain and radicular leg pain. A typical
degenerative disc disease pain would be a patient with no history of cancer or trauma, presenting
with chronic lower back pain worse on prolonged standing and activities. Carrying heavy load and
bending caused aggravation of pain with radiation to the buttock and radicular pain. After MRI
which may showed degenerative disc changes which is classified by Pfirrmann classification with
good inter and intra observer agreement [117] and Modic classification of the adjacent vertebral body
[39] but no significant compression by Schiaz grading, a decision is made on clinical diagnosis of
degenerative disc disease. If symptoms are severe and typical of degenerative disc disease, a
provocative discogram (Figure 4) can be done to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment options can be
conservative treatment with physiotherapy [6,118], injection,fluoroscopic guided radiofrequency
ablation [12,119] and recently to improve accuracy of radiofrequency ablation and ensure safety, we
do radiofrequency ablation through endoscopic visualization with transforaminal endoscopic
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 13 of 28
approach [10]. Interlaminar approach can be performed to do radiofrequency ablation of
sinuverterbral nerve and basiverterbral nerve as well as shown in this study. The indication is mainly
BVN and SVN based discogenic back pain and leg pain with concurrent thickening of ligamentum
flavum or L5/S1 discogenic back and leg pain.
In our prospective case series, we applied radiofrequency ablation to sinuvertebral nerve and
basivertebral nerve in patients with discogenic back and leg pain without imaging suggestive of
significant neural compression. We observed clinical and statistical significant improvement of VAS
pain score and ODI score with good to excellent MacNab pain relief score in all except 2 patients who
had no twitching of buttock during radiofrequency ablation. And in that 2 patients, the VAS, ODI
improvement and MacNab score for pain relief is only fair. The twitching observed is postulated to
be due to stimulation of aberrant connections with traversing nerve or exiting nerve root during
pathological neurotization of the sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerve. The presence of twitching of
buttock is suggestive that we are on the right spot in application of the radiofrequency and there is
pathological neurotization. We also used a novel neovascularization grading and found that only
patients with grade 2 (presence of neovascularization) and grade 3 (presence of neovascularization
and adhesions to neural elements) were found in our patients endoscopic findings. This is an
important inferred sign in view that both the sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve are usually
not able to be seen even with endoscopic magnified vision.
Overall, this study was performed in patients with Modic changes in association with
pathological increased Mechanical loading component due to degenerative disc disease and its
relationship to neovascularization and postulated association with neurotization of the sinuvertebral
and basivertebral nerve, successful ablation of these pathological nerves as evidenced by Kim’s
twitching which subsided after treatment has a positive clinical outcome, all the selected patients
with correct indications and associated Kim’s twitching showed statistically significant
improvements in VAS, ODI and MacNab Criteria after application of radiofrequency ablation to
sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerve.
Figure 3. Radiofrequency ablation of the sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve. In A, normal
disc, there is a presence of sinuvertebral nerve branches but no pathological neurotization and no
neovascularization. B: Pathological neovascularization and neurotization around the disc with
hyperalgesia from signals transmitted by the sinuvertebral nerves and basivertebral nerves. C: When
radiofrequency is applied to the pathological hyperalgesic nerve fibers, there is twitching of the
patient’s buttock muscles. D: As radiofrequency ablation continues, the pathological neurotized nerve
fibers are coagulated and twitching of the buttock muscles stopped in our case series. The patients
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performed better in clinical outcomes if they had initial buttock twitching and subsequent stoppage
of twitching after radiofrequency ablation.
Figure 4. Provocative discogram at L1/2. The left picture shows the landmark of the Antero Posterior
view of the L1/2 disc entry point. The right picture shows the lateral view with provocative discogram,
the patient had immediate axial back pain and left buttock pain which is similar in nature to her
chronic back pain.
3.23. Limitations
As this is a novel procedure and concept beginning to gain acceptance in the spine community,
the number of cases performed in the study in small with inherent limitations. Procedures performed
has confounding factors of approaches (transforaminal compared to interlaminar), amount of bone
resection (interlaminar endoscopic lumbar disc approach compared to interlaminar endoscopic
unilateral laminotomy with bilateral decompression) with their respective different sizes of scope
and working cannula used to perform these procedures. Indications had a mixture of degenerative
disc disease with and without degenerated disc protrusion and spinal stenosis without significant
facet arthropathy as confounding factors. We attempted to limit the confounding factors by only
including patients with back and leg pain without significant neural compression by Schiaz grade.
Among the bulging degenerative disc, we selected only degenerated disc protrusion cases which
discectomy was not performed and radiofrequency ablation was done on similar specific spots.
Radiofrequency ablation is also applied in region of the bulging disc which we believed have
connecting fibres to sinuvertebral nerves and basivertebral nerves though these areas of bulging disc.
3.24. Summary of Discogenic Back Pain Pathway and the Role Sinuvertebral Nerve and Basivertebral Nerve
in Molecular Science
Discogenic back pain is a clinical challenge for scientists and physicians. It encompasses a
complex pathway leading to significant disability. It starts with disc injuries leading to disruption of
the structure of the disc. Such damages can happen in minor repeated microrepetitive injuries to disc
leading to mechanical structural disruption, chemical and inflammatory pathways activation. These
activations leads a vicious cycle of destruction of the disc and interacts with the adjacent vertebral
bodies which science community postulates that it leads to Modic changes. These chemical and
inflammatory reactions can lead to acute back and radicular pain initially which may subside with
conservative management. However if the microscopic mechanical instability, chemical and
inflammatory reactions continued unabated, neovascularization and pathological neurotization may
occur which leads to pathological sensitization of sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve.
Chronic sensitization of these pathological nerves can lead to centralization of pain.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 15 of 28
In our opinion, many of the myriad of pain pathways in degenerative disc diseases that have not
been resolved so far are likely inter‐related problems. Treatment had been targeted at different levels
by various physicians, 1) at the disc level directly by various agents to remove parts of diseased disc
or pain generators 2) in fusion to stabilize the mechanical instability 3) in oral anti‐inflammatory
medications epidural steroids taken in acute phase and chronic phase to decrease the chemical and
inflammatory reactions to disc injuries, 4) in radiofrequency ablation of sinuvertebral and
basivertebral nerves which are the nerves related to the discogenic back pain which is the focus of
our study 5) in medications and devices such as spinal cord stimulation to decrease centralization
related chronic pain.
Such a wide myriad of solutions to a common clinical problem means that the true solution is
still eluding the scientific community, perhaps molecular science can contribute research in the
diagnosis and subsequent correct targeted treatment developments which can lead us to finding the
solution to this common clinical problem
Molecular science can play a significant role in the advancement of the mystery in discogenic
back pain. First, molecules specific to the chemical and inflammatory response to disc injury would
be helpful for diagnosis. Second, Modic changes is closely associated to pathological mechanical
loading, many of the studies of discogenic pain, including molecular biology, that had been
conducted in the past, have not been successful in finding the linkage between discogenic pain during
rest and during mechanical loading in the form of pain pathway. Part of the reason is because
mechanical loading dynamic loading response molecules and the pain pathway molecules might be
different. If we can find a molecular pathway in detecting pathological mechanical loading leading
to Modic changes it would be helpful in diagnosis of discogenic back pain. Third, molecules specific
to adhere to neovascularization processes in the region of sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerves or
specific to these pathological nerves can be helpful in diagnosis of sinuvertebral and basivertebral
nerves related discogenic back pain. Forth, MRI detectable contrast can be tagged to these molecules
to home in the area of pathological sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerves for better diagnosis and
targeted treatment.
4. Materials and Methods
A prospective case series evaluation was performed for patients who had uniportal spinal
endoscopic radiofrequency ablation of both basivertebral nerve and sinuvertebral nerve as a
treatment for chronic discogenic back pain between 1st June 2016 to 1st June 2018 performed by single
senior spine surgeon. We include patients who had chronic discogenic back pain as they met
inclusion criteria of 1) clinical presentation back‐associated leg pain in a dermatomal distribution of
at least 6 months in duration with documented failure of conservative management [106] 2) Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) showing degenerative disc PfirrmannType 3 [120] and above disc changes
with or without degenerated disc bulge and Modic Changes of either type 1 and 2 (Figure 5). We
included patients without any clear compression of nerve roots based on Schiaz grading in imaging
studies, thickened ligamentum flavum is acceptable for the study as long as no clinically significant
neural compression with degenerated disc bulge [121].Preoperative Discography was performed in
patients who had no other spinal pathology except axial back pain and non bulging degenerative disc
disease as a diagnostic test to confirm concordant discogenic back pain. Intraoperative Discography
would be performed if there were other spinal pathologies which warrants surgery such as bulging
degenerative disc disease and spinal stenosis with concurrent discogenic back pain from
degenerative disc disease. We excluded patients with previous spinal surgery, traumatic fracture,
infection and tumor. We excluded patients with predominant non mechanical leg pain, patients with
neurogenic claudication. We excluded patients with MRI showing prolapsed uncontained disc or
significant facet arthropathy. We also excluded patients who required discectomy or removal of any
disc fragment for neural compression during endoscopic spine surgery
The senior surgeon (HSK) would use interlaminar uniportal full endoscopic approach for
patients with associated spinal stenosis and when the disc pathology occurs in L5/S1 level. While
transforaminal endoscopic lumbar approach was performed on lumbar one to lumbar five levels
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 16 of 28
without spinal stenosis. In either approach, the procedure would end with sinuvertebral and
basivertebral nerve ablation as the final step.
Figure 5. A: Degenerative disc disease with Pfirrmann grade III disc, showing inhomogeneous
structure, and an unclear distinction of nucleus and annulus and intermediate signal intensity in T2
image with slightly decreased disc height and disc bulge. B: Radiofrequency ablation of the disc,
sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve showing shrinkage of degenerative disc and there is an
increase in the signal of Modic changes in the adjacent vertebra body.
4.1. Surgical Technique
In all 3 types of endoscopic surgeries, the procedure consists of 2 parts. First part is to 1) safely
access to the spinal canal with or without removing ligamentum flavum and 2) thermal shrinkage of
disc protrusion by radiofrequency coagulator. Second is to expose the region of sinuvertebral and
basivertebral nerve in order to perform radiofrequency ablation to basivertebral nerve and
sinuvertebral nerve.
4.1.1. Interlaminar Endoscopic Lumbar Approach to Disc [122–125] (Figure 6)
Procedure is done under sedated regional or general anesthesia. Patient is placed in prone
position. Endoscope is docked on the junction of ipsilateral facet joint and intervertebral disc line on
intraoperative fluoroscopy. Serial dilation is done and the TESSYS Endoscopic System (Joimax
GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany) with endoscope of 30° viewing angle, a 7.3 mm outer diameter, a 4.7
mm‐diameter working channel, and 251 mm of total length is introduced to docking point.
Hemostasis performed and soft tissue dissection done to expose ligamentum flavum. Ligamentum
flavum is split using a probe and working channel is pushed into the spinal canal away from the
neural elements towards the disc space. Working channel is manipulated with rotation to retract
neural elements out of harm’s way. Disc was inspected for any uncontained herniated disc fragments
which would be excluded from the study. Degenerated bulging disc which were included in the
study would have radiofrequency thermal shrinkage procedure performed on the annulus surface
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 17 of 28
Figure 6. A: Uniportal interlaminar endoscopic approach to disc showing the relationship of the
lumbar five (L5) traversing nerve root which is retracted away by the working channel, exposing the
disc of L4/5, the basivertebral nerve is located above pedicle of left L5, there is grade 3
neovascularization and inflammatory granulation tissue with adhesion around the basivertebral
nerve region. In most circumstances, the basivertebral nerve is too fine to be seen by endoscopic
vision. B: Same region in the same patient after radiofrequency was applied to shrink the degenerative
disc, and to ablate the pathological neovascularization with underlying inflammatory tissues and the
basivertebral nerve, the typical response is twitching of the buttock when the correct location of the
basivertebral nerve is ablated. C: Another patient with similar steps in retraction of traversing nerve
root and exposing neovascularized tissue and the location of the basivertebral nerve. D:
Radiofrequency ablation applied to neovascularized tissue, disc and basivertebral nerve.
4.1.2. Lumbar Endoscopic Unilateral Laminotomy for Bilateral Decompression with Radiofrequency
Ablation [122–125]
Procedure is done under regional or general anesthesia. Patient is placed in prone position. An
iLESSYS Delta Endoscopic System (Joimax GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany) is used for endoscopic work.
This system has a working cannula of 13.7 mm outer diameter and 10.2 mm inner diameter. The
endoscope has a 10‐mm outer diameter and a 6‐mm working channel, and a 15‐degree view angle.
Endoscope is docked on the junction of ipsilateral facet joint and intervertebral disc line on
intraoperative fluoroscopy. Using endoscopic diamond burr drills, we drilled just enough lamina to
safely remove the thickened flavum so as to safely approach the targeted disc. We routinely switched
the endoscope to a 30° viewing angle, a 7.3 mm outer diameter, a 4.7 mm‐diameter working channel,
and 251 mm of total length for closer examination of the disc and end plates region and to perform
radiofrequency ablation to the sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerves.
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4.1.3. Transforaminal Endoscopic Lumbar Approach for Radiofrequency Ablation [126] (Figure 7)
Procedure is done under local anesthesia with moderate sedation. Patients were placed in prone
position on Wilson Frame. Skin marking is made on the entry point which is in line with
intervertebral disc on anteroposterior view of intraoperative fluoroscopy in a slight 5–10° cephalad
caudal direction and with 25–35° angle to horizontal in axial plane about 12–14cm from midline of
lumbar. The angle of approach varied according to the position of the degenerated disc protrusion
Needle is docked at Kambin’s triangle near the intervertebral disc which is marked by space between
hypotenuse as exiting nerve root, base as superior border of the inferior vertebra and height as
traversing nerve root [127]. We used endoscope of 30° viewing angle, 7.3 mm outer diameter, 4.7 mm‐
diameter working channel, and 251 mm of total length. We performed mobile outside in technique
with drilling of ventral superior articular facet to have better access to disc [126]. Parts of disc were
removed to create space in facilitating the approach to the region of sinuvertebral nerve and
basivertebral nerve. The region of sinuvetebral nerves is commonly located in the region just below
the center of annulus. In order to ablate this area safely under the view, removal of parts of ventral
degenerated disc annulus was inevitable.
The region of basivertebral nerves is commonly located close to the upper medial part of pedicle and
in order to expose this area, removal of some part of ventral annulus is inevitable to safely access the
region of basivertebral nerve.
Figure 7. A: Right transforaminal endoscopic approach of L4/5 disc space, under endoscopic view we
can assess the traversing nerve root of L5 to be decompressed, L5 pedicle and location of basivertebral
nerve above the pedicle are observed. B: Application of radiofrequency ablation on the basivertebral
nerve.
4.2. Ablation of Neuropathic Basivertebral Nerve and Sinuvertebral Nerve [10]
In both transforaminal and interlaminar approaches, the final step is performing radiofrequency
ablation. A bipolar radiofrequency electrocoagulator (Elliquence, Baldwin, NY, USA) is used in
ablation of neuropathic basivertebral nerve around the suprapedicular area(Figure 2 and Figure 3)
and sinuvertebral nerve in mid disc region between posterior annulus and posterior longitudinal
ligament. This is performed with the working channel protecting the neural elements, making sure it
is out of harm’s way. At the area of pathological neurotization of Basivertebral and Sinuvertebral
Nerves, there would typically be neovascularization with or without adhesion tissues, which we
grade and record accordingly. Then bipolar radiofrequency probe is applied to medial
suprapedicular area, we observe for twitching of the buttock when application of bipolar
radiofrequency and typically it starts twitching when basivertebral nerve is coagulated. We termed
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 19 of 28
this iatrogenic twitching phenomenal when the neural elements are well protected out of harm’s way
by working cannula as Kim’s twitching as it is a sign of the correct targeted treatment area. Once of
basivertebral nerve was completely ablated, Kim’s twitching would stop even when radiofrequency
applied to the same area which was twitching initially. Sinuvertebral nerve on the other hand is just
caudal to mid disc region of the intervertebral disc in the space between the posterior annulus of the
disk and the posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL), when radiofrequency is placed on the right
region, either buttock of the patient would also have Kim’s twitch accordingly and once sinuvertebral
4.3. Data Collection
Basic parameters of age, sex and indication of surgery of the patients are collected, nature of
surgery and levels of surgery is documented. For each patient, the following information was
collected preoperatively and during follow‐up: visual analogue scale (VAS) scores for low‐back pain,
Oswestry Disability score, and and MacNab’s criteria are used in evaluation of patients’ pain
response and disability. Clinical parameters are measured at pre‐operative, 1 week, 6months and
final follow up in a prospective data collection. The medical files were reviewed for data on
intraoperative and postoperative complications including bleeding, infection and revision posterior
decompression. Endoscopic videos review were performed to evaluate the presence of intraoperative
twitching and grade the degree of neovascularization and adhesion. In this novel grading,
Degenerative Spinal Neovascularization Grade. We defined as follows: Grade 1. Normal
vascularization, Grade 2. Neovascularization without adhesion, Grade 3. Neovascularization with
adhesion (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Drawings of the neovascularization grading system. Left picture showing a grade 1 normal
appearance with sparse epidural vessels around the disc. The middle picture showed a grade 2
increased neovascularization of epidural vessels with vascularization. The right picture showed grade
3 with increased neovascularization of epidural vessels with vascularization and adhesion on neural
tissues.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging is done pre‐operatively and post‐operatively. We observed type
of Modic changes, Schiaz [128] grade for degree of spinal stenosis and adequacy of decompression in
patients with spinal stenosis and shrinkage of disc in patients who had degenerative disc disease and
degenerated disc protrusion with or without other pathologies (Figure 9).
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 20 of 28
Figure 9. Sagittal cuts across L5/S1 in a patient with spinal canal stenosis, degenerative disc disease
of L5/S1 with disc protrusion into the spinal canal and vertebral bodies of L4 and L5, there are Type
1 Modic changes signifying bone marrow edema and inflammation. The corresponding axial and
sagittal cuts are labelled A, B and C accordingly. On axial cuts, we can see preoperative spinal canal
stenosis with disc bulge and ligamentum hypertrophy with Schiaz grade A3 with rootlets lying
dorsally occupying more than half of the dura sac area. This patient suffered buttock pain and both
leg pain especially right leg pain for 5 months. The patient visited the clinic with visual analogue scale
(VAS) score of 8 that was aggravated from 3 months ago, especially buttock pain and right leg pain,
in spite of the preoperative MRI and spinal stenosis was not severe (Schiaz Grade A3). We can check
the severe Modic change (Type 1) in the adjacent vertebrae. The patient had decompressed and
radiofrequency ablation to sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerves in MRI postoperative day 1 which
had been maintained in a 1‐year follow up. There is shrinkage of the disc and less marrow changes in
bone edema. The patient’s final follow‐up VAS was 1 and returned to work as per normal.
4.4. Statistical Analysis
Clinical data was analyzed with SPSS version 18 statistical analysis software (IBM corporation,
New York). The continuous variables were expressed as mean and standard deviation (SD). The
paired t test is used for comparison of pre‐operative and post‐operative visual analogue scale (VAS),
Oswestry Disability Index (ODI) and MacNab’s outcome criteria to assess patient’s outcome at pre‐
operative, 1 week, 6 months and final follow up. Statistical significance is when p value is less than
0.05.
5. Conclusion
Pathoanatomy and pathophysiology of degenerative disc disease is a subject of intensive
scientific research, the pathological neurotization of sinuvertebral nerve and basivertebral nerve can
lead to siginificant pain and disability. Radiofrequency ablation to sinuvertebral and basivertebral
nerve is effective in our prospective case series. More investigation should be considered in the
treatment of sinuvertebral and basivertebral nerve.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 1483 21 of 28
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.S.K. and P.H.W.; methodology H.S.K. and P.H.W.; software H.S.K.
and P.H. W.; validation H.S.K. and P.H.W.; formal analysis, H.S.K. and P.H.W.; investigation, H.S.K. and P.H.W.;
resources, H.S.K., P.H.W. and I.‐T.J.; data curation H.S.K. and P.H.W.; writing—original draft preparation,
H.S.K. and P.H.W.; writing—review and editing, H.S.K., P.H.W. and I.‐T.J.; visualization, H.S.K. and P.H.W.;
supervision, H.S.K. and I.‐T.J.; project administration, H.S.K. and P.H.W.; funding acquisition, I.‐T.J. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: Hyeun‐Sung Kim and Pang Hung Wu contributed equally to this work as first authors. We
thank Keong Rae Kim had contributed in the statistical analysis of the data and Jae Eun Park for the coordination
of scientific research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
Abbreviations
IVD Intervertebral Disc
DDD Degenerative Disc Disease
ODI Oswestry Disability Index
VAS Visual Analogue Scale
AF Annulus Fibrosus
NP Nucleus Pulposus
PLL Posterior Longitudinal Ligament
SVN Sinuvertebral Nerve
BVN Basivertebral Nerve
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