Computer Network

Computer network-
A Computer Network is a group of computers linked to each other that
enables one computer to communicate with another computer and share their
resources, data, and applications.
Advantages-
1. It enhances the communication and availability of information.
2. It allows for more convenient resource sharing.
3. It makes file sharing easier.
4. It is highly flexible.
5. It is an inexpensive system.
6. It is cost efficient.
7. It boosts storage capacity.
Disadvantages-
1. It lacks independence.
2. It poses threat to security.
3. It lacks robustness.
4. It allows entry of computer viruses and malware.
5. It requires an expensive setup.
EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING

ARPANET

 Stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network.

 ARPANET was the network that became the basis for Internet.
 It was the first network that came into existence in 1969, which was
designed and named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) and US Department of Defence (DoD).
 It was where a bunch of PCs were associated at various colleges and
US DoD for sharing of information and messages.

NSFNET
  Stands for National Science Foundation Network.
 In mid 80’s another federal agency, NSFNET created a new network
which was more capable than ARPANET.
 It became the first backbone infrastructure for the commercial public
Internet.
 Its main aim was to use network only for academic research and not for
any kind of private business activity.

INTERNET

 Internet is a network of networks

 In early 90’s , many privately owned businesses with their very own
private systems joined with ARPANET and NSFNET to make more
capable and wide network, the Internet.
 ARPANET + NSFNET + PRIVATE N/Ws = INTERNET

DATA COMMUNICATION-

Data communication means transmitting information from one computer to

another.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION-

There are 5 components of data communication-

1. Sender
2. Receiver
3. Message
4. Transmission media
5. Protocols

MEASURING CAPACITY OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA-

Bandwidth – The amount of data a communication system can transfer per

unit time is referred to as Bandwidth of the system.
Bandwidth simply indicates the data transfer rate. The more the data needed
to be transmitted in the given unit time the more should be the bandwidth.
Alternatively it can be said that more the bandwidth of the communication
system more will be the data transfer rate.
Bandwidth is measured in bps or Baud. Generally a Baud is identical to bits
per second. A rate of 100 Baud is equal to 100 bps.

In digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three category:

1. Narrowband – Speed of narrowband varies between 45 to 300 Baud.
Low speed devices use this narrowband channels.
2. Voice-band- Speed of voice-band channels ranges up to 9600 Baud.
They are generally used in the ordinary telephone voice
communication.
3. Broadband – The speed of broadband channels ranges up to 1 million
Baud or more. High speed devices use broadband for large volume of
data transfer at high rate. Broadcast television, microwave and satellite
uses broadband channel.

Data Transfer Rates

The amount of data transferred per second by a communication channel is

known as data transfer rate. It is measured in bits per second (bps)

Baud

Each communication channel has certain capacity and it can carry

information up to that extent only.
This capacity is measured in terms of Baud.

Bits per Second

The speed at which data is transferred between two points is measured in
terms of Bits per Second or bps.

bps – bits per second,

Bps – Bytes per second (Note capital B) kbps – kilo bits per
second
Kbps – kilo bytes per second (Note capital K) mbps – mega bits per
second
Mbps – Mega bytes per second (Note capital M)
Gbps – Giga bytes per second (Note capital G)
Tbps - Terra bytes per second (Note capital T)

IP Address-

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a

local network. IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules
governing the format of data sent via the internet or local network.

An IP address is a string of numbers separated by periods. IP addresses are

expressed as a set of four numbers — an example address might be
192.158.1.38. Each number in the set can range from 0 to 255. So, the full IP
addressing range goes from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

Switching

Switching is the technique by which nodes control or switch data to

transmit it between specific points on a network.

Types of Switching Techniques

There are basically three types of switching methods available. Out of three
methods, circuit switching and packet switching are commonly used but the
message switching has been opposed out in the general communication
procedure but is still used in the networking application.
1) Circuit Switching
2) Message Switching
3) Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
 In Circuit Switching a dedicated link/path is established across the sender
and the receiver which is maintained for the entire duration of conversation
and then the data is transmitted from the source to the destination computer.

Message Switching
In case of Message Switching it is not necessary to establish a dedicated path
in between any two communication devices.

Message Switching Data Network

 Each intermediate device receives the message and stores it until the next
device is ready to receive it and then this message is forwarded to the next
device( For this reason a message switching network is sometimes called
as Store and Forward Switching) . This process is continued until the
message is delivered to the destination computer.
 The storing and Forwarding introduces the concept of delay. For this reasons
this switching is not recommended for real time applications like voice and
video.

Packet Switching
Packet Switching works almost like message switching technique but here
messages are broken up into packets having a tight upper limit on the packet
size and each of the packet includes a header with source, destination and
intermediate node address information. Individual Packets in packet switching
technique take different routes to reach their respective destination.
 Packet Switching Network
 The major advantage of Packet switching is that message switching stores
data packets in discs whereas packet switching stores data packets in main
memory which improves its performance.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported

from one device to other over some medium. Various transmission media can
be used for transfer of data.These transmission media may be of two types −
• Guided − In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling
system that has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic
wires, etc.
• Unguided − In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free
space in form of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves,
lasers, etc.
Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms
of bandwidth, speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance,
etc.

Twisted Pair Cable

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals
because of good performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in
telephone lines. However, if two or more wires are lying together, they can
interfere with each other’s signals. To reduce this electromagnetic
interference, pair of copper wires are twisted together in helical shape like a
DNA molecule. Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To reduce
interference between nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each
pair.
Up to 25 twisted pair are put together in a protective covering to form twisted
pair cables that are the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet
networks.
Types of twisted pair cables :

1. Unsheilded twisted pair cable (UTP)

2. Sheilded twisted pair cable (STP)

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world.
This is due to the many advantages that they offer −

• It is simple, easy to install and maintain

• It is physically flexible and has a low weight
• Least expensive for short distances
• Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too
−

• Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

• High error rate for distances greater than 100m
• Very thin and hence breaks easily
• Not suitable for broadband connections.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than

twisted pair cables, so that transmitted signals may travel longer distances at
higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of these layers, starting from the
innermost −
• Stiff copper wire as core
• Insulating material surrounding the core
• Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the
insulator
• Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire
Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.
Types of Co-axial cables :

1. Thicknet
2. Thinnet

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

These are the advantages of coaxial cables −
• Excellent noise immunity

• Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps

for 1 Km cable
 • Can be used for both analog and digital signals

• Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables

• Easy to install and maintain

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables −

• Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

• Not compatible with twisted pair cables

Optical Fibre -
Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called
optical fibre. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light
waves at the source, which is read by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre
cable has a bundle of such threads or fibres bundled together in a protective
covering. Each fibre is made up of these three layers, starting with the
innermost layer −
• Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic
• Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower
refractive index than the core

• Protective outer covering called buffer

Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material. However, as
refractive index of the cladding is lower, any stray light wave trying to escape
the core is reflected back due to total internal reflection.
Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines, internet
communication and even cable TV connections because transmitted data
can travel very long distances without weakening.
Types of fibre optics :

1. Single node
2. Multi node
Single node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of 2 kms and
bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multinode fibre optic cable can have maximum
segment length of 100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.

Advantages of Optical Fibre

Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that
it offers −
• High bandwidth
 • Immune to electromagnetic interference
• Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
• Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre :

Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre may not
be a viable option for every one due to these disadvantages −

• Optical fibre cables are expensive

• Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and
maintaining optical fibre cables
• Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full
duplex transmission

Infrared :
Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication
like TV remote, wireless speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc.
Infrared signals can propagate within a room but cannot penetrate walls.
However, due to such short range, it is considered to be one of the most
secure transmission modes.

R ad io W av e :
Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radiowave
transmission. We all are familiar with radio channels that broadcast
entertainment programs. Radio stations transmit radio waves using
transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in our devices.
 Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio
signals. These radio frequencies can also be used for direct voice
communication within the allocated range. This range is usually 10 miles.
• Radiowaves are preferred when we need reasonably high speed
connectivity in areas where wired connectivity is not feasible.

Advantages of Radio Wave :

These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions −

• Inexpensive mode of information exchange as compared to satellite

transmission.
• No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
• Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Radio Wave :

These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions −

• Insecure communication medium
• Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

Microwave
 This media uses microwave signals to transmit data without the use of
cables. They are used for long distance communication and consist of :
a transmitter, a receiver and atmosphere.
 Microwave transmission is line-of-sight transmission (i.e signals travel
in a straight line)
Advantages of Microwave :

• Inexpensive mode of information exchange as compared to radio wave

and satellite transmission.
• No land needs to be acquired for laying cables

• Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Microwave :

• Insecure communication medium

• Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.
• It is unidirectional and provides limited bandwidth.
• Its speed is less as compared to radiowave and satellite transmission.

Satellite Communication :

• Satellite communication is a special case of microwave relay system.

• In this communication, the earth station consists of a satellite dish that
functions as an antenna.
• Satellite communication is preferred in case of very large geographical
areas and for very high speed connectivity.

Advantages of Satellite transmission

• No land needs to be acquired for laying cables

• They are capable of covering very large geographical areas.
• They provide very high speed data transmission facility.
• The laying and maintenance of inter-continental cables is difficult and
expensive, this is where satellite proves to be the best alternative.
 Disadvantages of satellite transmission

• Maintaining and installing satellites is very expensive.

• Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES AND TYPES

NETWORK TOPOLOGY:-The pattern of interconnection of

nodes in a network is called the topology or the network topology.
Different types of topologies are as following:-
STAR TOPOLOGY:- This topology consists of a central node to
which all other nodes are connected by a single path.

ADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY

 It is easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network take place while connecting or removing

devices.

 It is easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

DISADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY

 It requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, Nodes attached are disabled.

 It is more expensive than linear bus topologies because of

 the cost of the hubs.

BUS TOPOLOGY

 This topology consists of a single length of the transmission

medium (normally coaxial cable) onto which various nodes are
attached.

 The transmission from any station travels the length of the bus,
in both directions and can be received by all other stations.

ADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY

 It is easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 It requires less cable length than a star topology.

DISADVANTAGES OF BUS TOPOLOGY

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

 It is more difficult to identify the problem if the entire network

shuts down.
 It is not meant to be used as a stand-alone topology in a large building.

TREE TOPOLOGY

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and

star topologies. It consists of groups of star configured
workstations connected to a linear bus backbone. The network
is shaped as an inverted tree with the central root branching
and sub-branching to the extremities of the network.
Transmission takes place as in bus topology.

ADVANTAGES OF TREE TOPOLOGY

 It uses point to point wiring for individual segments.

 It is supported by several hardware and software venders.

DISADVANTAGES OF TREE TOPOLOGY

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

MESH TOPOLOGY
A network set-up where each computer and network devices
interconnected with one another to provide an alternative route in case of
the host is down or busy.
Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Excellent for long distance networking.

2. Communication is also possible through the alternate route, if
one path is busy.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Long wire/cable length, hence increase in cost of installation

and maintenance.
2. There are high chance of redundancy in many of the network
connections.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.

TYPES OF NETWORK
 PAN:- Pan refers to personal area network. A pan is the
network of various IT devices within the range of an individual
person (typically within 10 meters).
  LAN:-Small computer networks that are confined to a localized
area are known as local area network. LAN users can share
data, information, program, printers, hard disk, modem etc.
LANs are said to have geographical spread of upto 10 kms.

 WAN:-A WAN is a group of computers that are separated by

large distances and tied together. The WANs link computers to
facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at lesser
costs and higher speed. (preferred when connectivity has to be
provided from one city to another city or country i.e. for
distances >100 kms)

 MAN:- MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is the network that is

spread over an area as big as a city.(i.e. for a distance of upto
100 kms) .
Difference between LAN and WAN
LAN WAN
Covers a small geographical Covers a large geographical
area. area
Speed is more. Speed is less.
Error rates are high. Error rates are low.
More costly Less costly

NETWORK DEVICES

MODEM
 A modem is a device that enables a computer to transmit data over,
for ex. telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored
digitally, whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is
transmitted in the form of analog waves.
A modem converts between these two forms. A modem (modulator–
demodulator) modulates one or more wave signals to encode digital
information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the
transmitted information.

RJ45 CONNECTOR

 RJ45 is a type of cable connector which is mainly used in computer

networks. RJ45 is mainly used for ethernet networking which is used to
connect different types of devices like a switch, hub, PC, router, firewall
to each other. RJ45 is the most known and popular connector type in
the IT world.

 RJ45 stands for Registered Jack 45 physical connector for network

cables. Modern Ethernet cables feature small plastic plugs on each
end that are inserted into the RJ45 jacks of ethernet devices.

ETHERNET CARD

 Ethernet card is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp. in

association with DEC and Intel. Ethernet uses bus or star topologies
and can support data transfer rates upto 10 Mbps.

 It serves one basic function to transmit data from the network to your
computer. Ethernet cards are physical expansion cards that insert into
a PCI expansion slot on a computer.

ROUTER

A router is a network device that forwards data from one network to

another. A router works like a bridge but can handle different protocols. For
ex. a router can link Ethernet with any other type of network.
If the destination is unknown to a router it sends the traffic to
another router which knows the destination.
SWITCH

 A switch is a device that is used to segment networks into different sub

networks called subnets or LAN segments.

 A switch is responsible for filtering i.e. transforming data in a specific

way and for forwarding packets between LAN segments. It can support
any packet protocol.

GATEWAY

 A gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It

establishes an intelligent connection between a local network and
external networks with completely with completely different structures.

WiFi CARD

 A wifi card is also known as local area network card. It is basically a type
of adapter card. These are also known as wireless internet card that add
capabilities to personal computer. The wifi hotspots has made wireless
internet cards even more desirable.

PROTOCOLS-
These are the set of rules that two or more computers must follow in order
to communicate on network. Some of the common protocols are-
1. HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)- These are the set of rules for
transferring hypertext documents on world wide web.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)- These protocols are used for
exchanging files across internet. Files of any type can be transferred
however the type of file need to be specified.
3. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)- TCP
is responsible for dividing data into packets at sending end and
reassembling them at the receiving end. IP is responsible for putting
serial number and destination address on the packets and performing
routing.
 4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)- This protocol is used to
send email from your computer to your mail server and then to
receiver’s mail sever. However the mail should contain only textual
information.
5. MIME (Multimedia Internet Mail Extension)- This protocol is used
instead of SMTP if the mail contains multimedia elements.
6. POP/ IMAP (Post Office Protocol/ Internet Mail Access Protocol)-
These protocols are used to retrieve the mail from mail server to
receiver mail boxes. POP downloads the mail from mail server to
client machine and then delete it from the server. However, IMAP
allows you to see the mail without saving it locally.
7. PPP/SLIP( Point To Point Protocol/ Serial Line Internet Protocol)-
These protocols are used when connecting to internet through phone
line. SLIP does not take care of error correction while PPP handles
error Correction.
8. HTTPS- Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an
extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used
for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely
used on the Internet.

REMOTE LOGIN (TELNET)

Remote login facility permits a user to work on a program on a distant

computer based on valid login credentials. It is a network application that
permits a user sitting at a different location to work on a specific program on
another computer.
PROTOCOLS FOR CHATTING AND VIDEO
CONFERENCING:-

1. IRC(Internet Relay Chat):- It is a simple text base

conferencing protocol involving a no. interconnected server.
2. H.323:- It is a standard that provide multimedia communication
service like real time audio, video and data communication over
packet based network.
 3. SIP(Session Initiation Protocol):- This protocol can
establish, modify and terminate multimedia session such as internet
telephone calls.
4. VOIP(voice Over Internet Protocol):- It is a technology that
enables voice communication over internet through compression of
voice in data packets that can be efficiently transmitted over data
networks and then converted back into voice at other end.

WIRELESS AND MOBILE COMPUTING-

Some of the mobile computing technologies are:-

GSM:- It stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM

users use sim cards. This technology uses narrow band TDMA(Time
Division Multiple Access). It allows 8 simultaneous calls on the same
radio frequency. It works by dividing a radio frequency into time slots
and then allocating slots to multiple calls. GSM systems use encryption
to make phone calls more secure.

SIM:- Stands for Subscriber Identification Module. It is a tiny computer

chip that gives a cellular device its unique phone no. It has memory,
processor and ability to interact with user.

CDMA:- It stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a digital

cellular technology that uses spread spectrum technology. It does not
assign a specific frequency to each user but every user shares the
entire spectrum. In this technique data is sent in small pieces over a
no. of discrete frequencies. Each user signal is spread over the entire
bandwidth by unique spreading code. At the receiver end the same
code is use to recover the signal.

WLL (Wireless in Local Loop)- This technique is used to serve

the user at home and office. It is a system that connects subscriber to
the public switched telephone network (PSTN) using radio signal as a
substitute for other connecting medium. It does not suffer from weather
effects and offers better bandwidth then traditional telephone system.
 GPRS( General Packet Radio Service):- it is a technology for
radio transmission of small packets of data between mobile devices
and internet. A user of GPS network is charged on the basis of amount
of data sent or receive as opposed to duration of connection.

MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

1G,2G,3G,4G and 5G network:-

 1G is considered to be the first analog cellular system which started in
early 1980.1G networks were conceived and designed purely for voice
calls with no consideration of data services.

 2G networks are the first digital cellular systems launched in early

1990s, offering improved sound quality, better security and higher total
capacity. It uses GSM technology.
 2.5G networks are enhanced version of 2G network with higher data
rate and always on data service.

 3G mobile communication technology is a broad band packet based

transmission of text, digitized voice video and multimedia at data rates
upto and possibly higher than 2 Mbps.

 4G is a Mobile multimedia, network system with anytime anywhere

Global mobility support, integrated wireless solution and Customized
Personal Service. It uses technologies like WiMAX and LTE(Long term
evolution)etc.

 5G is the fifth generation of wireless communications technologies

supporting cellular data networks. Large scale adoption began in 2019
and today every telecommunication service provider in the developed
world is upgrading its infrastructure to offer 5G functionality.

WWW:-(World Wide Web) It is a set of protocols that allows you to

access any document on the net through its URL . It also specifies the way –
HTTP – to request and send a document over the Internet.
Domain names is a unique name assigned to a website. It is the address
of the document’s web server. It consists of multiple parts, separated by dots.
Eg. www.internic.com

Domain name consists of two parts, a second level domain (SLD) and a top
level domain (TLD). A second level domain is the name of our website,
“internic” in this case. Everything that comes after the dot is a top level
domain, sometimes called “domain extension”, and in this case that is ‘com’.

Domain Name Resolution refers to the process of obtaining

corresponding IP address from a domain name.

Domain Name System (DNS) - The domain name system (DNS) is a

naming database in which internet domain names are located and translated
into internet protocol (IP) addresses. The domain name system maps the
name people use to locate a website to the IP address that a computer uses
to locate a website.

UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATER (URL):-The technique used to

address documents on the Web is called URL. It provides an addressing
scheme which allow the browser to request about any document or web
page.
A URL normally takes the form<protocol>://<web server name>/<directory
name>/<filename>
For example :-http://www.microsoft.com/IE/index.htm

Difference between URL and Domain Name

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the complete address of a

document on the web, whereas a domain name specifies the location of
document's web server. A domain name is a component of the URL used
to access web sites. For example the web address
http://www.example.net/index.html is a URL. In this URLexample.net is
the domain name.

Web page:-A Web Page is single unit of information, often called a

document that is available via the World Wide Web (WWW). A web page is
an HTML document that is stored on a web server and that has a URL so
that it can be accessed via a web. It is a document that uses HTTP.

WEB SITE:- A web site is a collection of web pages belonging to a

particular person or organization.

WEB BROWSER:- It is a client application that requests, receives and

display HTML pages. It is a software program that your computer runs to
communicate with web servers on the internet, which enables it to download
and display the web-pages that you request. The most popular browsers are
–
 INTERNET EXPLORER
 Firefox
 Google Chrome

Web server:-It is the job of web server to accept connections from web
browsers all over the internet and when requested, send them the HTML
documents that are available from the server.

WEB HOSTING- It is a means of hosting web server application on a

computer system through which electronic content on the internet is readily
available to any web browser client.
HTML(Hyper Text Markup Language):-
  It is a language to make web pages.
 HTML describes the structure of a Web page
 HTML consists of a series of elements
 HTML elements tell the browser how to display the content
 HTML elements are represented by tags
 HTML tags label pieces of content such as "heading", "paragraph",
"table", and so on
 Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the
content of the page

XML:-Extensible Markup Language-

 XML is a markup language for creating documents containing structured
information.
 XML is a markup language much like HTML
 XML was designed to store and transport data
 XML was designed to be self-descriptive

Difference between HTML & XML:

HTML XML

Not case sensitive Case Sensitive

Predefined tags User defined tags

Does not report errors Reports the errors

Used for formatting documents Used for storage of data