1.

0 CHEMISTRY
AN INTRODUCTION
The Study of Chemistry
Chemistry => “central science’’
The 3 perspectives on the nature of Chemistry:
Macroscopic – physical changes, chemical changes
Microscopic – elements, atoms, molecules
Symbolic – use of symbols to perceive atoms, molecules and reactions
Branches of Chemistry
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
BIOCHEMISTRY
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - This branch of chemistry is concerned on the study of chemicals
containing carbon like most of the chemicals found in all living organisms.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - This is the study of chemicals that do not contain carbon except for
some like carbonates and carbon dioxide which are conventionally classified as inorganic since
they can be sourced from minerals.
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY - This is an area in chemistry that deals with identifying both
qualitative and quantitative compositions of matter.
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY - This branch of chemistry deals with the study of physical principles that
underlie the structure of matter and chemical transformations.
BIOCHEMISTRY - This the chemistry of living things. This branch deals with the chemical
processes that occur in living things.
 1.1 THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY

Practical Arts (--- to 600 B.C.)

Greek Theory (600 B.C. to 300 B.C.)

Alchemy (300 B.C. to 1650 A.D.)

Phlogiston (1650 to 1790)

Modern Chemistry (1790 ----)

PRACTICAL ARTS ( --- to 600 B.C.)

POTTERY DYE DRUGS

• These arts which are chemical processes, became highly developed during this period.
• The development was empirical.
Greek Theory (600 B.C. to 300 B.C.)
a. All substances found on earth are composed b. Matter consists of separate and
of four elements in various proportions. Distinct units called atoms.
 Greek Theory (600 B.C. to 300 B.C.)
 Plato proposed that atoms of one
elements differ in shape from the
atoms of another. He believed that
atoms can be transmuted into an
atom of a different element.
 Aristotle proposed that the elements
are composed of the same primary
matter and differ only in the forms
that this matter assumes.
Alchemy (300 B.C. to 1650 A.D.)
Philosophical tradition of Crafts tradition of
ancient Greece ancient Egypt Alchemy

 Early alchemists used Egyptian techniques for the handling of materials to investigate theories
concerned with the nature of matter.
 The philosophical content of alchemy incorporated elements of astrology and mysticism into
the theories of the earlier Greeks.
 A dominant interest of alchemists was transmutation. They believed that a powerful
transmuting agent (later called the philosopher’s stone) is needed in transmutation.
Alchemy (300 B.C. to 1650 A.D.)
 In 7th Century A.D., alchemy was passed to the Arabs when they conquered the Hellenistic
civilization including Egypt.
 The Arabs called the philosopher’s stone, aliksir (which was later corrupted to elixir).
 Arab alchemists believed that the aliksir could not only transmute base metals to gold but
could also cure all diseases.
 The two principal goals of alchemy were:
1. Transmute base metals to gold
2. Discover the elixir of life.
 Discover the elixir of life.  Alchemy lasted until the 17th Century
Phlogiston (1650 to 1790)

 Principally the work of Georg Ernst Stahl.

 Phlogiston (“a fire principle”) was assumed to be a constituent of any substance that could
undergo combustion.
Wood + oxygen gas (from air) ashes + oxygen-containing gases
According to phlogiston theory,
Wood ashes + phlogiston (removed by air)
 The Phlogiston Theory explained calcination in a similar way.
metal + oxygen gas (from air) calx (a metal oxide)
According to phlogiston theory,
metal calx + phlogiston (removed by air)
 In combustion, phlogiston is lost so the resulting ashes weighs less. In calcination, the loss of
phlogiston is accompanied by an increase in weight, since the calx weighs more than the
original metal.
 Modern Chemistry (1790 ----)

 The work of Antoine Lavoisier is regarded as the beginning of modern chemistry.

The Law of Conservation of Mass
 There is no detectable change in mass during the course of a chemical reaction.
 Lavoisier used the modern definitions of elements and compounds.
 Lavoisier showed that a metal is an element and the corresponding calx is a compound
composed of the metal and of oxygen from the air.
1.2 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
THE STEPS IN THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
STEP 1: Make observations

STEP 1: Make observations

■ Qualitative observations describe properties or occurrences in ways that do not rely on
numbers.
■ Quantitative observations are measurements, which by definition consist of both a number
and a unit.
Example:
Qualitative observation: Yesterday’s wind was strong.
Quantitative observation: Yesterday’s wind had a speed of 50kph.
STEP 2: Formulate a hypothesis.
■ Scientists generally begin an investigation by forming a hypothesis, a tentative explanation for
the observation(s).
■ For example, the observation that we experience alternating periods of light and darkness
corresponding to observed movements of the sun, moon, clouds, and shadows is consistent
with either one of two hypotheses:
– Earth rotates on its axis every 24 hours, alternately exposing one side to the sun.
– The sun revolves around Earth every 24 hours.
STEP 3: Design and perform experiments.
■ Experiments are systematic observations or measurements, preferably made under
controlled conditions.
STEP 4: Accept or modify the hypothesis.
■ Accept if hypothesis is valid.
■ Otherwise, we can reject or modify the hypothesis.
STEP 5: Development into law and/or theory
■ A law
– simply states what happens
– unlikely to change greatly over time unless a major experimental error is discovered
■ A theory
– attempts to explain why nature behaves as it does
– is incomplete and imperfect, evolving with time
 1.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER
Matter- is any substance that has mass and takes up space.
MASS & WEIGHT
• Mass is a measure of a quantity of matter • Weight is the force exerted on a mass by gravity.
• Mass is invariable • Weight is variable
ELEMENTS
• It is a pure substance that cannot be split into two or more simpler substances by chemical
means.
• Elements are represented by chemical names & chemical symbols.
• Chemical names differ from one language to another.
• Chemical symbols are the same regardless of language.
Nitrogen - English
Azoto - Italian
Stickstoff – German
Chemical Symbol: N
COMPOUNDS
• A pure substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined together in a
fixed ratio.
• Law of definite proportions (first proposed by Joseph Proust in 1799) states that a pure
compound always consists of the same elements combined in the same proportion by mass.
• Compound : Water (H20)
11.19% Hydrogen
88.81% Oxygen
• 100g Water H ଶ O , consists of 11.19g Hydrogen and 88.81g Oxygen
MIXTURES
• A mixture is made up of two or more substances that are not chemically combined.
Two Types of Mixtures
• A heterogeneous mixture is not uniform throughout but consists of parts that are physically
distinct.
• A homogeneous mixture appears uniform throughout and is called a solution.
PHASES & STATES OF MATTER
• A physically distinct portion of matter that is uniform throughout in composition and
properties is called a phase
• States of matter explains the form of matter at a given temperature and pressure
GRANITE
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES are • CHEMICAL PROPERTIES describe the
characteristics that scientists can characteristic ability of a substance to
measure without changing the react to
composition of the sample under -acidity
study -reactivity
-color -volume -flammability
-length
EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE PROPERTIES
• Extensive properties vary with • Intensive properties, in contrast, do
the amount of the substance. not depend on the amount of the
-weight substance
-length -boiling point
-volume -concentration -temperature

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE

• Physical changes are changes in • Chemical changes occur when bonds
which no chemical bonds are broken are broken and/or formed between
or formed. Molecules and atom.
-Melting -Rotting
-Shredding -Rusting
-Chopping -Digestion

DENSITY (ρ)
• Density is defined as mass per unit volume and is usually expressed in grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3).
Density = mass/volume
P= m/v
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Glycerol is viscous liquid used by both the pharmaceutical and food industries as a
sweetener, thickener, and stabilizer. To determine its density, a student delivers 15.0 mL
sample by pipet into a flask with a mass of 28.45g. The mass of the flask and glycerol
is 47.37g. What is the density of glycerol?