CHAPTER THIRTEEN

OSCILLATIONS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In our daily life we come across various kinds of motions.
You have already learnt about some of them, e.g., rectilinear
13.1 Introduction motion and motion of a projectile. Both these motions are
13.2 Periodic and oscillatory non-repetitive. We have also learnt about uniform circular
motions motion and orbital motion of planets in the solar system. In
13.3 Simple harmonic motion these cases, the motion is repeated after a certain interval of
13.4 Simple harmonic motion time, that is, it is periodic. In your childhood, you must have
and uniform circular enjoyed rocking in a cradle or swinging on a swing. Both
motion these motions are repetitive in nature but different from the
13.5 Velocity and acceleration periodic motion of a planet. Here, the object moves to and fro
in simple harmonic motion about a mean position. The pendulum of a wall clock executes
13.6 Force law for simple a similar motion. Examples of such periodic to and fro
harmonic motion
motion abound: a boat tossing up and down in a river, the
13.7 Energy in simple harmonic
piston in a steam engine going back and forth, etc. Such a
motion
motion is termed as oscillatory motion. In this chapter we
13.8 The simple pendulum
study this motion.
Summary
The study of oscillatory motion is basic to physics; its
Points to ponder
Exercises concepts are required for the understanding of many physical
phenomena. In musical instruments, like the sitar, the guitar
or the violin, we come across vibrating strings that produce
pleasing sounds. The membranes in drums and diaphragms
in telephone and speaker systems vibrate to and fro about
their mean positions. The vibrations of air molecules make
the propagation of sound possible. In a solid, the atoms vibrate
about their equilibrium positions, the average energy of
vibrations being proportional to temperature. AC power
supply give voltage that oscillates alternately going positive
and negative about the mean value (zero).
The description of a periodic motion, in general, and
oscillatory motion, in particular, requires some fundamental
concepts, like period, frequency, displacement, amplitude
and phase. These concepts are developed in the next section.

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13.2 PERIODIC AND OSCILLATORY MOTIONS Very often, the body undergoing periodic
Fig. 13.1 shows some periodic motions. Suppose motion has an equilibrium position somewhere
an insect climbs up a ramp and falls down, it inside its path. When the body is at this position
comes back to the initial point and repeats the no net external force acts on it. Therefore, if it is
left there at rest, it remains there forever. If the
process identically. If you draw a graph of its
body is given a small displacement from the
height above the ground versus time, it would
position, a force comes into play which tries to
look something like Fig. 13.1 (a). If a child climbs
bring the body back to the equilibrium point,
up a step, comes down, and repeats the process
giving rise to oscillations or vibrations. For
identically, its height above the ground would
example, a ball placed in a bowl will be in
look like that in Fig. 13.1 (b). When you play the
equilibrium at the bottom. If displaced a little
game of bouncing a ball off the ground, between
from the point, it will perform oscillations in the
your palm and the ground, its height versus time
bowl. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but
graph would look like the one in Fig. 13.1 (c).
every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
Note that both the curved parts in Fig. 13.1 (c)
Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is
are sections of a parabola given by the Newton’s not oscillatory.
equation of motion (see section 2.6), There is no significant difference between
1 2 oscillations and vibrations. It seems that when
h = ut + gt for downward motion, and
the frequency is small, we call it oscillation (like,
2
the oscillation of a branch of a tree), while when
1 2 the frequency is high, we call it vibration (like,
h = ut – gt for upward motion,
2 the vibration of a string of a musical instrument).
with different values of u in each case. These Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form
are examples of periodic motion. Thus, a motion of oscillatory motion. This motion arises when
that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is the force on the oscillating body is directly
called periodic motion. proportional to its displacement from the mean
position, which is also the equilibrium position.
Further, at any point in its oscillation, this force
is directed towards the mean position.
In practice, oscillating bodies eventually
(a) come to rest at their equilibrium positions
because of the damping due to friction and other
dissipative causes. However, they can be forced
to remain oscillating by means of some external
periodic agency. We discuss the phenomena of
damped and forced oscillations later in the
chapter.
Any material medium can be pictured as a
(b) collection of a large number of coupled
oscillators. The collective oscillations of the
constituents of a medium manifest themselves
as waves. Examples of waves include water
waves, seismic waves, electromagnetic waves.
We shall study the wave phenomenon in the next
chapter.
(c) 13.2.1 Period and frequency
We have seen that any motion that repeats itself
at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion. The smallest interval of time after
which the motion is repeated is called its
Fig. 13.1 Examples of periodic motion. The period T period. Let us denote the period by the symbol
is shown in each case. T. Its SI unit is second. For periodic motions,

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which are either too fast or too slow on the scale as a displacement variable [see Fig.13.2(b)]. The
of seconds, other convenient units of time are term displacement is not always to be referred
used. The period of vibrations of a quartz crystal
is expressed in units of microseconds (10–6 s)
abbreviated as µs. On the other hand, the orbital
period of the planet Mercury is 88 earth days.
The Halley’s comet appears after every 76 years.
The reciprocal of T gives the number of
repetitions that occur per unit time. This
quantity is called the frequency of the periodic
motion. It is represented by the symbol ν. The
relation between ν and T is
Fig. 13.2(a) A block attached to a spring, the other
ν = 1/T (13.1) end of which is fixed to a rigid wall. The
block moves on a frictionless surface. The
The unit of ν is thus s–1. After the discoverer of
motion of the block can be described in
radio waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857–1894), terms of its distance or displacement x
a special name has been given to the unit of from the equilibrium position.
frequency. It is called hertz (abbreviated as Hz).
Thus,
1 hertz = 1 Hz =1 oscillation per second =1 s–1
(13.2)
Note, that the frequency, ν, is not necessarily
an integer.

u Example 13.1 On an average, a human

heart is found to beat 75 times in a minute.
Calculate its frequency and period.
Fig.13.2(b) An oscillating simple pendulum; its
Answer The beat frequency of heart = 75/(1 min) motion can be described in terms of
= 75/(60 s) angular displacement θ from the vertical.
= 1.25 s–1
= 1.25 Hz in the context of position only. There can be
The time period T = 1/(1.25 s–1) many other kinds of displacement variables. The
= 0.8 s ⊳ voltage across a capacitor, changing with time
13.2.2 Displacement in an A C circuit, is also a displacement variable.
In section 3.2, we defined displacement of a In the same way, pressure variations in time in
particle as the change in its position vector. In the propagation of sound wave, the changing
this chapter, we use the term displacement electric and magnetic fields in a light wave are
in a more general sense. It refers to change examples of displacement in different contexts.
with time of any physical property under The displacement variable may take both
consideration. For example, in case of rectilinear positive and negative values. In experiments on
motion of a steel ball on a surface, the distance oscillations, the displacement is measured for
from the starting point as a function of time is different times.
The displacement can be represented by a
its position displacement. The choice of origin
mathematical function of time. In case of periodic
is a matter of convenience. Consider a block
motion, this function is periodic in time. One of
attached to a spring, the other end of the spring
the simplest periodic functions is given by
is fixed to a rigid wall [see Fig.13.2(a)]. Generally,
it is convenient to measure displacement of the f (t) = A cos ωt (13.3a)
body from its equilibrium position. For an If the argument of this function, ωt, is
oscillating simple pendulum, the angle from the increased by an integral multiple of 2π radians,
vertical as a function of time may be regarded the value of the function remains the same. The

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262 PHYSICS

function f (t ) is then periodic and its period, T, (ii) This is an example of a periodic motion. It
is given by can be noted that each term represents a
2π periodic function with a different angular
T= (13.3b) frequency. Since period is the least interval
ω of time after which a function repeats its
Thus, the function f (t) is periodic with period T, value, sin ωt has a period T0= 2π/ω ; cos 2 ωt
f (t) = f (t+T ) has a period π/ω =T0/2; and sin 4 ωt has a
The same result is obviously correct if we period 2π/4ω = T0/4. The period of the first
consider a sine function, f (t ) = A sin ωt. Further, term is a multiple of the periods of the last
a linear combination of sine and cosine functions two terms. Therefore, the smallest interval
like, of time after which the sum of the three
terms repeats is T0, and thus, the sum is a
f (t) = A sin ωt + B cos ωt (13.3c) periodic function with a period 2π/ω.
is also a periodic function with the same period
T. Taking, (iii) The function e – ω t is not periodic, it
decreases monotonically with increasing
A = D cos φ and B = D sin φ time and tends to zero as t → ∞ and thus,
Eq. (13.3c) can be written as, never repeats its value.

f (t) = D sin (ωt + φ ) , (13.3d) (iv) The function log ( ω t) increases

monotonically with time t. It, therefore,
Here D and φ are constant given by never repeats its value and is a non-
periodic function. It may be noted that as
 B t → ∞, log(ωt) diverges to ∞. It, therefore,
D = A 2 + B 2 and φ = tan –1  A 
cannot represent any kind of physical
displacement. ⊳
The great importance of periodic sine and
cosine functions is due to a remarkable result 13.3 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
proved by the French mathematician, Jean
Consider a particle oscillating back and forth
Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830): Any
about the origin of an x-axis between the limits
periodic function can be expressed as a
+A and –A as shown in Fig. 13.3. This oscillatory
superposition of sine and cosine functions
motion is said to be simple harmonic if the
of different time periods with suitable
displacement x of the particle from the origin
coefficients.
varies with time as :
x (t) = A cos (ω t + φ ) (13.4)
u Example 13.2 Which of the following
functions of time represent (a) periodic and
(b) non-periodic motion? Give the period for
each case of periodic motion [ω is any
positive constant].
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt Fig. 13.3 A particle vibrating back and forth about
the origin of x-axis, between the limits +A
(ii) sin ωt + cos 2 ωt + sin 4 ωt
and –A.
(iii) e – ωt
(iv) log (ωt) where A, ω and φ are constants.
Thus, simple harmonic motion (SHM) is not
Answer any periodic motion but one in which
(i) sin ωt + cos ωt is a periodic function, it can displacement is a sinusoidal function of time.
Fig. 13.4 shows the positions of a particle
also be written as 2 sin (ωt + π/4).
executing SHM at discrete value of time, each
Now 2 sin (ωt + π/4)= 2 sin (ωt + π/4+2π) interval of time being T/4, where T is the period
of motion. Fig. 13.5 plots the graph of x versus t,
= 2 sin [ω (t + 2π/ω) + π/4]
which gives the values of displacement as a
The periodic time of the function is 2π/ω. continuous function of time. The quantities A,

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any loss of generality]. As the cosine function

of time varies from +1 to –1, the displacement
varies between the extremes A and – A. Two
simple harmonic motions may have same ω
and φ but different amplitudes A and B, as
shown in Fig. 13.7 (a).
While the amplitude A is fixed for a given
SHM, the state of motion (position and velocity)
of the particle at any time t is determined by the

Fig. 13.4 The location of the particle in SHM at the

discrete values t = 0, T/4, T/2, 3T/4, T,
5T/4. The time after which motion repeats
itself is T. T will remain fixed, no matter
what location you choose as the initial (t =
Fig. 13.7 (a) A plot of displacement as a function of
0) location. The speed is maximum for zero
time as obtained from Eq. (14.4) with
displacement (at x = 0) and zero at the
φ = 0. The curves 1 and 2 are for two
extremes of motion.
different amplitudes A and B.
ω and φ which characterize a given SHM have
standard names, as summarised in Fig. 13.6. argument (ωt + φ) in the cosine function. This
Let us understand these quantities. time-dependent quantity, (ωt + φ) is called the
The amplitutde A of SHM is the magnitude phase of the motion. The value of plase at t = 0
of maximum displacement of the particle. is φ and is called the phase constant (or phase
[Note, A can be taken to be positive without angle). If the amplitude is known, φ can be
determined from the displacement at t = 0. Two
simple harmonic motions may have the same A
and ω but different phase angle φ, as shown in
Fig. 13.7 (b).
Finally, the quantity ω can be seen to be
related to the period of motion T. Taking, for
simplicity, φ = 0 in Eq. (13.4), we have

Fig. 13.5 Displacement as a continuous function of

time for simple harmonic motion.

x (t) : displacement x as a function of time t

A : amplitude
ω : angular frequency
ωt + φ : phase (time-dependent)
φ : phase constant Fig. 13.7 (b) A plot obtained from Eq. (13.4). The
curves 3 and 4 are for φ = 0 and -π/4
Fig. 13.6 The meaning of standard symbols respectively. The amplitude A is same for
in Eq. (13.4) both the plots.

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264 PHYSICS

x(t ) = A cos ωt (13.5) This function represents a simple harmonic

motion having a period T = 2π/ω and a
Since the motion has a period T, x (t) is equal to phase angle (–π/4) or (7π/4)
x (t + T ). That is, (b) sin2 ωt
= ½ – ½ cos 2 ωt
A cos ωt = A cos ω (t + T ) (13.6)
The function is periodic having a period
Now the cosine function is periodic with period T = π/ω. It also represents a harmonic
2π, i.e., it first repeats itself when the argument motion with the point of equilibrium
changes by 2π. Therefore, occurring at ½ instead of zero. ⊳

ω(t + T ) = ωt + 2π 13.4 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
that is ω = 2π/ T (13.7) In this section, we show that the projection of
uniform circular motion on a diameter of the
ω is called the angular frequency of SHM. Its circle follows simple harmonic motion. A
S.I. unit is radians per second. Since the simple experiment (Fig. 13.9) helps us visualise
frequency of oscillations is simply 1/T, ω is 2π this connection. Tie a ball to the end of a string
times the frequency of oscillation. Two simple and make it move in a horizontal plane about
harmonic motions may have the same A and φ, a fixed point with a constant angular speed.
but different ω, as seen in Fig. 13.8. In this plot The ball would then perform a uniform circular
the curve (b) has half the period and twice the motion in the horizontal plane. Observe the
frequency of the curve (a). ball sideways or from the front, fixing your
attention in the plane of motion. The ball will
appear to execute to and fro motion along a
horizontal line with the point of rotation as
the midpoint. You could alternatively observe
the shadow of the ball on a wall which is
perpendicular to the plane of the circle. In this
process what we are observing is the motion
of the ball on a diameter of the circle normal
to the direction of viewing.

Fig. 13.8 Plots of Eq. (13.4) for φ = 0 for two different

periods.

u Example 13.3 Which of the following

functions of time represent (a) simple
Fig. 13.9 Circular motion of a ball in a plane viewed
harmonic motion and (b) periodic but not edge-on is SHM.
simple harmonic? Give the period for each
case.
Fig. 13.10 describes the same situation
(1) sin ωt – cos ωt
(2) sin2 ωt mathematically. Suppose a particle P is moving
uniformly on a circle of radius A with angular
Answer speed ω. The sense of rotation is anticlockwise.
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt The initial position vector of the particle, i.e.,
= sin ωt – sin (π/2 – ωt) the vector OP at t = 0 makes an angle of φ with
= 2 cos (π/4) sin (ωt – π/4) the positive direction of x-axis. In time t, it will
= √2 sin (ωt – π/4) cover a further angle ωt and its position vector

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OSCILLATIONS 265

u Example 13.4 The figure given below

depicts two circular motions. The radius
of the circle, the period of revolution, the
initial position and the sense of revolution
are indicated in the figures. Obtain the
simple harmonic motions of the
x-projection of the radius vector of the
rotating particle P in each case.

Fig. 13.10
will make an angle of ω t + φ with the +ve
x-axis. Next, consider the projection of the
position vector OP on the x-axis. This will be Answer
OP′. The position of P′ on the x-axis, as the (a) At t = 0, OP makes an angle of 45o = π/4 rad
particle P moves on the circle, is given by with the (positive direction of ) x-axis. After
x(t ) = A cos ( ωt + φ )
which is the defining equation of SHM. This time t, it covers an angle 2πt in the
T
shows that if P moves uniformly on a circle, anticlockwise sense, and makes an angle
its projection P′ on a diameter of the circle
executes SHM. The particle P and the circle of 2πt + π with the x-axis.
on which it moves are sometimes referred to T 4
as the reference particle and the reference circle, The projection of OP on the x-axis at time t
respectively. is given by,
We can take projection of the motion of P on
any diameter, say the y-axis. In that case, the
x (t) = A cos 
2π π
displacement y(t) of P′ on the y-axis is given by t+ 
 T 4
y = A sin (ωt + φ ) For T = 4 s,
which is also an SHM of the same amplitude
x(t) = A cos 
as that of the projection on x-axis, but differing 2π π
by a phase of π/2. t+ 
 4 4
In spite of this connection between circular
motion and SHM, the force acting on a particle which is a SHM of amplitude A, period 4 s,
in linear simple harmonic motion is very
different from the centripetal force needed to and an initial phase* = π .
keep a particle in uniform circular motion. 4

* The natural unit of angle is radian, defined through the ratio of arc to radius. Angle is a dimensionless
quantity. Therefore it is not always necessary to mention the unit ‘radian’ when we use π , its multiples
or submultiples. The conversion between radian and degree is not similar to that between metre and
centimetre or mile. If the argument of a trigonometric function is stated without units, it is understood
that the unit is radian. On the other hand, if degree is to be used as the unit of angle, then it must be
shown explicitly. For example, sin(150) means sine of 15 degree, but sin(15) means sine of 15 radians.
Hereafter, we will often drop ‘rad’ as the unit, and it should be understood that whenever angle is
mentioned as a numerical value, without units, it is to be taken as radians.

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266 PHYSICS

(b) In this case at t = 0, OP makes an angle of where the negative sign shows that v (t) has a
90o = π with the x-axis. After a time t, it
direction opposite to the positive direction of
2 x-axis. Eq. (13.9) gives the instantaneous
covers an angle of 2π t in the clockwise velocity of a particle executing SHM, where
T displacement is given by Eq. (13.4). We can, of
course, obtain this equation without using
sense and makes an angle of  −
π 2π 
 2 T 
t geometrical argument, directly by differentiating
(Eq. 13.4) with respect of t:
with the x-axis. The projection of OP on the
x-axis at time t is given by d
v(t) = x (t ) (13.10)
dt
x(t) = B cos  −
π 2π 
 2 T 
t The method of reference circle can be similarly
used for obtaining instantaneous acceleration
= B sin  t 
2π of a particle undergoing SHM. We know that the
 T  centripetal acceleration of a particle P in uniform
For T = 30 s, circular motion has a magnitude v2/A or ω2A,
and it is directed towards the centre i.e., the
x(t) = B sin  t  direction is along PO. The instantaneous
π
 15  acceleration of the projection particle P′ is then
(See Fig. 13.12)
Writing this as x (t) = B cos  t −  , and
π π
 15 a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ)
2
comparing with Eq. (13.4). We find that this = –ω2x (t) (13.11)
represents a SHM of amplitude B, period 30 s,
π
and an initial phase of − . ⊳
2

13.5 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION IN

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
The speed of a particle v in uniform circular
motion is its angular speed ω times the radius
of the circle A.
v = ωA (13.8)
The direction of velocity v at a time t is along
the tangent to the circle at the point where the
particle is located at that instant. From the
geometry of Fig. 13.11, it is clear that the velocity Fig. 13.12 The acceleration, a(t), of the particle P′ is
the projection of the acceleration a of the
of the projection particle P′ at time t is
reference particle P.
v(t ) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) (13.9)
Eq. (13.11) gives the acceleration of a particle
in SHM. The same equation can again be
obtained directly by differentiating velocity v(t)
given by Eq. (13.9) with respect to time:

d (13.12)
a (t ) = v (t )
dt
We note from Eq. (13.11) the important
Fig. 13.11 The velocity, v (t), of the particle P′ is property that acceleration of a particle in SHM
the projection of the velocity v of the is proportional to displacement. For x(t) > 0,
reference particle, P. a(t) < 0 and for x(t) < 0, a(t) > 0. Thus, whatever

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OSCILLATIONS 267

the value of x between –A and A, the acceleration (b) Using Eq. (13.9), the speed of the body
a(t) is always directed towards the centre. = – (5.0 m)(2π s –1) sin [(2 π s –1 ) ×1.5 s
For simplicity, let us put φ = 0 and write the + π/4]
expression for x (t), v (t) and a(t) = – (5.0 m)(2π s–1) sin [(3π + π/4)]
x(t) = A cos ωt, v(t) = – ω Asin ωt, a(t)=–ω2 A cos ωt = 10 π × 0.707 m s–1
The corresponding plots are shown in Fig. 13.13. = 22 m s–1
All quantities vary sinusoidally with time; only (c) Using Eq.(13.10), the acceleration of the
their maxima differ and the different plots differ body
in phase. x varies between –A to A; v(t) varies = –(2π s–1)2 × displacement
from –ωA to ωA and a(t) from –ω2A to ω2A. With = – (2π s–1)2 × (–3.535 m)
respect to displacement plot, velocity plot has a = 140 m s–2 ⊳
phase difference of π/2 and acceleration plot has
a phase difference of π. 13.6 FORCE LAW FOR SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
Using Newton’s second law of motion, and the
expression for acceleration of a particle
undergoing SHM (Eq. 13.11), the force acting
on a particle of mass m in SHM is
F (t ) = ma
= –mω2 x (t )
i.e., F (t ) = –k x (t ) (13.13)
where k = mω2 (13.14a)

k
or ω = (13.14b)
m
Like acceleration, force is always directed
towards the mean position—hence it is sometimes
called the restoring force in SHM. To summarise
the discussion so far, simple harmonic motion can
be defined in two equivalent ways, either by Eq.
(13.4) for displacement or by Eq. (13.13) that gives
Fig. 13.13 Displacement, velocity and acceleration of its force law. Going from Eq. (13.4) to Eq. (13.13)
a particle in simple harmonic motion have required us to differentiate two times. Likewise,
the same period T, but they differ in phase by integrating the force law Eq. (13.13) two times,
we can get back Eq. (13.4).
u Example 13.5 A body oscillates with SHM Note that the force in Eq. (13.13) is linearly
according to the equation (in SI units), proportional to x(t). A particle oscillating under
x = 5 cos [2π t + π/4]. such a force is, therefore, calling a linear
harmonic oscillator. In the real world, the force
At t = 1.5 s, calculate the (a) displacement,
may contain small additional terms proportional
(b) speed and (c) acceleration of the body.
to x2, x3, etc. These then are called non-linear
oscillators.
Answer The angular frequency ω of the body
= 2π s–1 and its time period T = 1 s. u Example 13.6 Two identical springs of
At t = 1.5 s spring constant k are attached to a block
(a) displacement = (5.0 m) cos [(2 π s –1)× of mass m and to fixed supports as shown
1.5 s + π/4] in Fig. 13.14. Show that when the mass is
= (5.0 m) cos [(3π + π/4)] displaced from its equilibrium position on
= –5.0 × 0.707 m either side, it executes a simple harmonic
= –3.535 m motion. Find the period of oscillations.

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13.7 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Both kinetic and potential energies of a particle

in SHM vary between zero and their maximum
values.
In section 13.5 we have seen that the velocity
of a particle executing SHM, is a periodic
Fig. 13.14 function of time. It is zero at the extreme positions
of displacement. Therefore, the kinetic energy (K)
Answer Let the mass be displaced by a small of such a particle, which is defined as
distance x to the right side of the equilibrium
position, as shown in Fig. 13.15. Under this 1
situation the spring on the left side gets K= mv 2
2

1
= m ω 2 A 2 sin 2 (ωt + φ )
2

1
= k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ ) (13.15)
2
is also a periodic function of time, being zero
when the displacement is maximum and
maximum when the particle is at the mean
Fig. 13.15 position. Note, since the sign of v is immaterial
in K, the period of K is T/2.
elongated by a length equal to x and that on What is the potential energy (U) of a particle
the right side gets compressed by the same executing simple harmonic motion? In
length. The forces acting on the mass are Chapter 6, we have seen that the concept of
then, potential energy is possible only for conservative
forces. The spring force F = –kx is a conservative
F1 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on
force, with associated potential energy
the left side, trying to pull the
mass towards the mean 1
position) U= k x2 (13.16)
2
F2 = –k x (force exerted by the spring on
Hence the potential energy of a particle
the right side, trying to push the
executing simple harmonic motion is,
mass towards the mean
position)
The net force, F, acting on the mass is then 1
U(x) = k x2
given by, 2
F = –2kx
1
Hence the force acting on the mass is = k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) (13.17)
proportional to the displacement and is directed 2
towards the mean position; therefore, the motion Thus, the potential energy of a particle
executed by the mass is simple harmonic. The executing simple harmonic motion is also
time period of oscillations is, periodic, with period T/2, being zero at the mean
m position and maximum at the extreme
T = 2π displacements.
2k ⊳

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OSCILLATIONS 269

It follows from Eqs. (13.15) and (13.17) that Observe that both kinetic energy and
the total energy, E, of the system is, potential energy in SHM are seen to be always
E =U+K positive in Fig. 13.16. Kinetic energy can, of
course, be never negative, since it is
proportional to the square of speed. Potential
1 1 energy is positive by choice of the undermined
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + k A 2 sin2 (ωt + φ )
2 2 constant in potential energy. Both kinetic
energy and potential energy peak twice during
each period of SHM. For x = 0, the energy is
1
= k A 2 cos2 (ωt + φ ) + sin 2 (ωt + φ ) kinetic; at the extremes x = ±A, it is all
2
potential energy. In the course of motion
Using the familiar trigonometric identity, the between these limits, kinetic energy increases
value of the expression in the brackets is unity. at the expense of potential energy or
Thus, vice-versa.

1
E= k A2 (13.18) u Example 13.7 A block whose mass is 1 kg
2 is fastened to a spring. The spring has a
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic spring constant of 50 N m–1. The block is
oscillator is thus independent of time as pulled to a distance x = 10 cm from its
expected for motion under any conservative equilibrium position at x = 0 on a frictionless
surface from rest at t = 0. Calculate the
force. The time and displacement dependence
kinetic, potential and total energies of the
of the potential and kinetic energies of a
block when it is 5 cm away from the mean
linear simple harmonic oscillator are shown position.
in Fig. 13.16.

Answer The block executes SHM, its angular

frequency, as given by Eq. (13.14b), is

k
ω =
m

–1
50 N m
=
1kg

= 7.07 rad s–1

Its displacement at any time t is then given by,

x(t) = 0.1 cos (7.07t)

Fig. 13.16 Kinetic energy, potential energy and total
energy as a function of time [shown in (a)] Therefore, when the particle is 5 cm away from
and displacement [shown in (b)] of a particle
in SHM. The kinetic energy and potential the mean position, we have
energy both repeat after a period T/2. The
total energy remains constant at all t or x. 0.05 = 0.1 cos (7.07t)

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270 PHYSICS

Or cos (7.07t) = 0.5 and hence let it go. The stone executes a to and fro motion,
it is periodic with a period of about two seconds.
3 We shall show that this periodic motion is
sin (7.07t) = = 0.866
2 simple harmonic for small displacements from
Then, the velocity of the block at x = 5 cm is

= 0.1 × 7.07 × 0.866 m s–1

= 0.61 m s–1

Hence the K.E. of the block,

1
= m v2
2
= ½[1kg × (0.6123 m s–1 )2 ]

= 0.19 J
(a)
The P.E. of the block,
1
= k x2
2
= ½(50 N m–1 × 0.05 m × 0.05 m)
= 0.0625 J
The total energy of the block at x = 5 cm,

= K.E. + P.E.

= 0.25 J

we also know that at maximum displacement,

K.E. is zero and hence the total energy of the (b)
system is equal to the P.E. Therefore, the total Fig. 13.17 (a) A bob oscillating about its mean
position. (b) The radial force T-mg cosθ
energy of the system, provides centripetal force but no torque
about the support. The tangential force
= ½(50 N m–1 × 0.1 m × 0.1 m )
mg sinθ provides the restoring torque.
= 0.25 J
which is same as the sum of the two energies at the mean position. Consider simple pendulum
a displacement of 5 cm. This is in conformity — a small bob of mass m tied to an inextensible
with the principle of conservation of energy. ⊳ massless string of length L. The other end of
13.8 The Simple Pendulum the string is fixed to a rigid support. The bob
It is said that Galileo measured the periods of a oscillates in a plane about the vertical line
swinging chandelier in a church by his pulse through the support. Fig. 13.17(a) shows this
beats. He observed that the motion of the system. Fig. 13.17(b) is a kind of ‘free-body’
chandelier was periodic. The system is a kind diagram of the simple pendulum showing the
of pendulum. You can also make your own forces acting on the bob.
pendulum by tying a piece of stone to a long Let θ be the angle made by the string with
unstretchable thread, approximately 100 cm the vertical. When the bob is at the mean
long. Suspend your pendulum from a suitable position, θ = 0
support so that it is free to oscillate. Displace There are only two forces acting on the bob;
the stone to one side by a small distance and the tension T along the string and the vertical

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OSCILLATIONS 271

force due to gravity (=mg). The force mg can be Table 13.1 sin θ as ma function of angle θ
resolved into the component mg cosθ along the
string and mg sinθ perpendicular to it. Since (degrees) (radians) sin
the motion of the bob is along a circle of length
L and centre at the support point, the bob has
a radial acceleration (ω2L) and also a tangental
acceleration; the latter arises since motion along
the arc of the circle is not uniform. The radial
acceleration is provided by the net radial force
T –mg cosθ, while the tangential acceleration is
provided by mg sinθ. It is more convenient to
work with torque about the support since the Equation (13.24) is mathematically, identical to
radial force gives zero torque. Torque τ about Eq. (13.11) except that the variable is angular
the support is entirely provided by the tangental displacement. Hence we have proved that for
component of force small q, the motion of the bob is simple harmonic.
From Eqs. (13.24) and (13.11),
τ = –L (mg sinθ ) (13.19)
This is the restoring torque that tends to reduce mgL
angular displacement — hence the negative ω =
sign. By Newton’s law of rotational motion, I
τ = Iα (13.20) and
where I is the moment of inertia of the system
about the support and α is the angular I
T = 2π (13.25)
acceleration. Thus, mgL
I α = –m g sin θ L (13.21)
Now since the string of the simple pendulum
is massless, the moment of inertia I is simply
mL2. Eq. (13.25) then gives the well-known
Or,
formula for time period of a simple pendulum.
m gL
α = − sin θ (13.22) L
I T = 2π (13.26)
We can simplify Eq. (13.22) if we assume that g
the displacement θ is small. We know that sin θ u Example 13.8 What is the length of a
can be expressed as, simple pendulum, which ticks seconds ?

θ3 θ5 Answer From Eq. (13.26), the time period of a

sin θ = θ − + ± ... (13.23)
3! 5! simple pendulum is given by,
L
where θ is in radians. T = 2π
Now if θ is small, sin θ can be approximated g
by θ and Eq. (13.22) can then be written as, From this relation one gets,
gT 2
α = −
mgL
θ L =
(13.24) 4π 2
I
The time period of a simple pendulum, which
In Table 13.1, we have listed the angle θ in ticks seconds, is 2 s. Therefore, for g = 9.8 m s–2
degrees, its equivalent in radians, and the
value of the function sin θ . From this table it and T = 2 s, L is
can be seen that for θ as large as 20 degrees, 9.8(m s –2 ) × 4(s2 )
=
sin θ is nearly the same as θ expressed 4π 2
in radians. =1m ⊳

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272 PHYSICS

SUMMARY

1. The motion that repeats itself is called periodlic motion.

2. The period T is the time reequired for one complete oscillation, or cycle. It is related to
the frequency v by,
1
T =
v
The frequency ν of periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of oscillations per
unit time. In the SI, it is measured in hertz :
1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1s–1

3. In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x (t) of a particle from its
equilibrium position is given by,

x (t) = A cos (ωt + φ ) (displacement),

in which A is the amplitude of the displacement, the quantity (ωt + φ ) is the phase of
the motion, and φ is the phase constant. The angular frequency ω is related to the
period and frequency of the motion by,

2π
ω= = 2πν (angular frequency).
T
4. Simple harmonic motion can also be viewed as the projection of uniform circular
motion on the diameter of the circle in which the latter motion occurs.
5. The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM as functions of time are given by,

v (t) = –ωA sin (ωt + φ ) (velocity),

a (t) = –ω2A cos (ωt + φ )

= –ω2x (t) (acceleration),

Thus we see that both velocity and acceleration of a body executing simple harmonic
motion are periodic functions, having the velocity amplitude vm=ω A and acceleration
amplitude am =ω 2A, respectively.
6. The force acting in a simple harmonic motion is proportional to the displacement and
is always directed towards the centre of motion.
7. A particle executing simple harmonic motion has, at any time, kinetic energy
K = ½ mv2 and potential energy U = ½ kx2. If no friction is present the mechanical
energy of the system, E = K + U always remains constant even though K and U change
with time.
8. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of Hooke’s law restoring force
given by F = – k x exhibits simple harmonic motion with

k
ω = (angular frequency)
m

m
T = 2π (period)
k
Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
9. The motion of a simple pendulum swinging through small angles is approximately
simple harmonic. The period of oscillation is given by,

L
T = 2π
g

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OSCILLATIONS 273

POINTS TO PONDER

1. The period T is the least time after which motion repeats itself. Thus, motion repeats
itself after nT where n is an integer.
2. Every periodic motion is not simple harmonic motion. Only that periodic motion
governed by the force law F = – k x is simple harmonic.
3. Circular motion can arise due to an inverse-square law force (as in planetary motion)
as well as due to simple harmonic force in two dimensions equal to: –mω2r. In the
latter case, the phases of motion, in two perpendicular directions (x and y) must differ
by π/2. Thus, for example, a particle subject to a force –mω2r with initial position (0,
A) and velocity (ωA, 0) will move uniformly in a circle of radius A.
4. For linear simple harmonic motion with a given ω, two initial conditions are necessary
and sufficient to determine the motion completely. The initial conditions may be (i)
initial position and initial velocity or (ii) amplitude and phase or (iii) energy
and phase.
5. From point 4 above, given amplitude or energy, phase of motion is determined by the
initial position or initial velocity.

6. A combination of two simple harmonic motions with arbitrary amplitudes and phases
is not necessarily periodic. It is periodic only if frequency of one motion is an integral
multiple of the other’s frequency. However, a periodic motion can always be expressed
as a sum of infinite number of harmonic motions with appropriate amplitudes.

7. The period of SHM does not depend on amplitude or energy or the phase constant.
Contrast this with the periods of planetary orbits under gravitation (Kepler’s third law).

8. The motion of a simple pendulum is simple harmonic for small angular displacement.

9. For motion of a particle to be simple harmonic, its displacement x must be expressible

in either of the following forms :

x = A cos ωt + B sin ωt

x = A cos (ωt + α ), x = B sin (ωt + β )

The three forms are completely equivalent (any one can be expressed in terms of any
other two forms).

Thus, damped simple harmonic motion is not strictly simple harmonic. It is

approximately so only for time intervals much less than 2m/b where b is the damping
constant.

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274 PHYSICS

Exercises

13.1 Which of the following examples represent periodic motion?

(a) A swimmer completing one (return) trip from one bank of a river to the other
and back.
(b) A freely suspended bar magnet displaced from its N-S direction and released.
(c) A hydrogen molecule rotating about its centre of mass.
(d) An arrow released from a bow.
13.2 Which of the following examples represent (nearly) simple harmonic motion and
which represent periodic but not simple harmonic motion?
(a) the rotation of earth about its axis.
(b) motion of an oscillating mercury column in a U-tube.
(c) motion of a ball bearing inside a smooth curved bowl, when released from a
point slightly above the lower most point.
(d) general vibrations of a polyatomic molecule about its equilibrium position.
13.3 Fig. 13.18 depicts four x-t plots for linear motion of a particle. Which of the plots
represent periodic motion? What is the period of motion (in case of periodic motion) ?

Fig. 18.18

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OSCILLATIONS 275

13.4 Which of the following functions of time represent (a) simple harmonic, (b) periodic
but not simple harmonic, and (c) non-periodic motion? Give period for each case of
periodic motion (ω is any positive constant):
(a) sin ωt – cos ωt
(b) sin3 ωt
(c) 3 cos (π/4 – 2ωt)
(d) cos ωt + cos 3ωt + cos 5ωt
(e) exp (–ω2t2)
(f) 1 + ωt + ω2t2
13.5 A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm
apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is
(a) at the end A,
(b) at the end B,
(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,
(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
13.6 Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the displacement
x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x
(b) a = –200x2
(c) a = –10x
(d) a = 100x3
13.7 The motion of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is described by the
displacement function,
x(t) = A cos (ωt + φ ).
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is ω cm/s,
what are its amplitude and initial phase angle ? The angular frequency of the particle
is π s–1. If instead of the cosine function, we choose the sine function to describe the
SHM : x = B sin (ωt + α), what are the amplitude and initial phase of the particle
with the above initial conditions.
13.8 A spring balance has a scale that reads from 0 to 50 kg. The length of the scale is 20
cm. A body suspended from this balance, when displaced and released, oscillates
with a period of 0.6 s. What is the weight of the body ?
13.9 A spring having with a spring constant 1200 N m–1 is mounted on a horizontal table
as shown in Fig. 13.19. A mass of 3 kg is attached to the free end of the spring. The
mass is then pulled sideways to a distance of 2.0 cm and released.

Fig. 13.19
Determine (i) the frequency of oscillations, (ii) maximum acceleration of the mass,
and (iii) the maximum speed of the mass.

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276 PHYSICS

13.10 In Exercise 13.9, let us take the position of mass when the spring is unstreched as
x = 0, and the direction from left to right as the positive direction of
x-axis. Give x as a function of time t for the oscillating mass if at the moment we
start the stopwatch (t = 0), the mass is
(a) at the mean position,
(b) at the maximum stretched position, and
(c) at the maximum compressed position.
In what way do these functions for SHM differ from each other, in frequency, in
amplitude or the initial phase?
13.11 Figures 13.20 correspond to two circular motions. The radius of the circle, the
period of revolution, the initial position, and the sense of revolution (i.e. clockwise
or anti-clockwise) are indicated on each figure.

Fig. 13.20
Obtain the corresponding simple harmonic motions of the x-projection of the radius
vector of the revolving particle P, in each case.
13.12 Plot the corresponding reference circle for each of the following simple harmonic
motions. Indicate the initial (t =0) position of the particle, the radius of the circle,
and the angular speed of the rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation
may be fixed to be anticlockwise in every case: (x is in cm and t is in s).
(a) x = –2 sin (3t + π/3)
(b) x = cos (π/6 – t)
(c) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4)
(d) x = 2 cos πt
13.13 Figure 13.21(a) shows a spring of force constant k clamped rigidly at one end and a
mass m attached to its free end. A force F applied at the free end stretches the
spring. Figure 13.21 (b) shows the same spring with both ends free and attached to
a mass m at either end. Each end of the spring in Fig. 13.21(b) is stretched by the
same force F.

Fig. 13.21
(a) What is the maximum extension of the spring in the two cases ?
(b) If the mass in Fig. (a) and the two masses in Fig. (b) are released, what is the
period of oscillation in each case ?

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OSCILLATIONS 277

13.14 The piston in the cylinder head of a locomotive has a stroke (twice the amplitude)
of 1.0 m. If the piston moves with simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency
of 200 rad/min, what is its maximum speed ?
13.15 The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 m s–2. What is the time
period of a simple pendulum on the surface of moon if its time period on the surface
of earth is 3.5 s ? (g on the surface of earth is 9.8 m s–2)
13.16 A simple pendulum of length l and having a bob of mass M is suspended in a car.
The car is moving on a circular track of radius R with a uniform speed v. If the
pendulum makes small oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium
position, what will be its time period ?
13.17 A cylindrical piece of cork of density of base area A and height h floats in a liquid of
density ρl. The cork is depressed slightly and then released. Show that the cork
oscillates up and down simple harmonically with a period

hρ
T = 2π
ρ1g
where ρ is the density of cork. (Ignore damping due to viscosity of the liquid).
13.18 One end of a U-tube containing mercury is connected to a suction pump and the
other end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between the
two columns. Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury
in the U-tube executes simple harmonic motion.

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