Mechanics of Materials

NTU_ME CJLu Note#2 Axial Loading 2023/3/2

In this course, we concentrate on the analysis of deformation and internal forces

of straight, slender members subjected to external loads. A member is slender if its

cross-section dimensions are much less than the axial length. A slender member is

called a rod if its primary function is to support axial loads, a shaft to transmit torque,

and a beam to support transverse loads.

Rod

Shaft

Beam

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A rod is a slender uniform structure member used to support axial loads. In this

lecture, we discuss how to characterize the material properties of a rod and how to

analyze the deformation and axial forces of a rod and a structure consisting of rods.

Spring Constant of a Rod

A rod subjected to an axial force 𝑃 will behave like a linear

spring if the change in length 𝛿 is much smaller than its original 𝑙

(undeformed) length 𝑙 . Specifically, 𝑃 = 𝑘𝛿 if 𝛿/𝑙 1 . The

𝛿
proportional constant 𝑘 is called the equivalent spring constant of 𝑃

the rod. The sign conventions used are: 𝑃 is positive for tensile and negative for

compressive loads; 𝛿 is positive for elongation and negative for contraction. A natural

question arises: is 𝑘 a good measure of the stiffness of the material of which the rod is

made?

Q 1 Match the three steel rods with the lines in the 𝑃-𝛿 plot.

 
𝛿


Axial Stress and Strain

The rod's spring constant depends on the material's 𝑃/𝐴

stiffness and the rod's dimensions (i.e., original length 𝑙 and 

cross-sectional area 𝐴). If we plot 𝑃/𝐴 vs 𝛿/𝑙, all three lines

𝛿/𝑙
coincide. Define the (normal or axial) strain 𝜀 and (normal or
Fig. 1
axial) stress as

𝜀 = 𝛿/𝑙 and 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴, (1)

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respectively. In the above equation, 𝜀 indicates the deformation per unit length

and 𝜎 the average internal axial force per unit cross-sectional area. The axial stress 𝜎 is

positive (negative) if the rod is in tension (compression). The axial strain 𝜀 is positive

(negative) if the rod is elongated (shortened). Note that 𝜀 is dimensionless and 𝜎 has the

dimension of pressure.

Tensile Test

see ptt

Hooke’s Law

With the definitions of stress and strain, the results shown in Fig. 1 can be

expressed as

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 (2)

where the proportionality constant 𝐸 is called Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity.

Equation (2) is known as Hooke’s law. Young’s modulus measures the stiffness, or

ability to resist deformation, of a material.

Most engineering structures are designed to undergo relatively small deformations.

Within the range of the designated load, the structure obeys Hooke’s law. In this case,

the deformation is proportional to the applied load, and after removing the applied load,

the structure returns to its original configuration.

Ex 1 Determine the spring constant of a uniform rod.

Sol: Substitute Eq. (1) into Hooke’s law and rearrange terms to obtain
𝑃𝑙
𝛿= (3)
𝐸𝐴
Equivalently,
𝐸𝐴
𝑃= 𝛿 (4)
𝑙
Hence, the spring constant of a uniform rod of length 𝑙 and cross-sectional area 𝐴 is

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𝑘 = 𝐸𝐴/𝑙

Ex 2 Determine the deformation of the rod shown 𝐹

at right. 𝐴 ,𝑙 𝐴 ,𝑙 𝐹

Sol: Divide the rod into two parts and draw the

FBD’s.

𝐹 +𝐹 𝐹 +𝐹 𝐹 +𝐹 𝐹

𝐴 ,𝑙 𝐹 𝐹 𝐴 ,𝑙 𝐹

The elongation of the rod is the sum of that of the two parts (using Eq. (3)):
𝐹 +𝐹 𝑙 𝐹𝑙
𝛿= + (5)
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴

Principle of Superposition

Equation (5) can be rewritten as

𝐹𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝛿= +𝐹 +
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴

The above result indicates that the deformation due to the combined loads 𝐹 and 𝐹 is

the sum of the deformation due to 𝐹 alone and that due to 𝐹 alone. This result implies

a general principle - the principle of superposition. This principle states that the effect

of a given combined loading on a structure can be obtained by determining the effects

of the various loads separately and combining the results, provided that the following

conditions are satisfied (Beer and Johnston):

1. Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it.

2. The deformation resulting from any given load is small and does not affect the

conditions of application of the other loads.

We will use this principle repeatedly in this course.

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Rods with Continuously Varying Loads or Dimensions

Ex 3 Determine the elongation of a uniform rod

𝑝
subjected to a uniformly distributed load 𝑝 as
𝐴, 𝑙, 𝐸
shown on the right.

𝑝 Sol: Consider a small element of length Δ𝑥 at a

𝑁 𝑥 𝑁 𝑥 − 𝑝 Δ𝑥
distance 𝑥 from the fixed end as shown on the left.

𝑥 Δ𝑥 The elongation of this element is

𝑁 𝑥 Δ𝑥
Δ𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
where the axial force 𝑁 𝑥 is

𝑁 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑙 − 𝑥

Combining the above two equations yields

𝑝 𝑙 − 𝑥 Δ𝑥
Δ𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
The total elongation 𝛿 is the sum of all Δ𝛿's
𝑝 𝑙−𝑥 𝑝 𝑙
𝛿 = lim Δ𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥 =
→ 𝐸𝐴 2𝐸𝐴
Alternatively, we can use the principle of superposition to solve this problem. The

elongation Δ𝛿 of the entire rod due to a concentrated load of 𝑝 Δ𝑥 at x is

𝑝 Δ𝑥 𝑝 Δ𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥
Δ𝛿 =
𝐸𝐴
𝑥
The total elongation due to all loads is
𝑝 𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑝 𝑙
𝛿 = lim Δ𝛿 = =
→ 𝐸𝐴 2𝐸𝐴

Ex 4 Determine the elongation of the rod of smoothly

𝑃
varying cross-sectional area 𝐴 𝑥 due to a
𝐸, 𝐴 𝑥
concentrated load 𝑃.

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Sol: The rod has a constant axial force, i.e., 𝑁 𝑥 = 𝑃 . The elongation of a small

element of length Δ𝑥 at a distance x from the left end

𝑁 𝑁
is
𝑥 Δ𝑥

𝑁Δ𝑥 𝑃Δ𝑥
Δ𝛿 = =
𝐸𝐴 𝑥 𝐸𝐴 𝑥
The total elongation is
𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝛿= (6)
𝐸𝐴 𝑥
The above result is based on the formula 𝛿 = 𝑃𝐿/𝐸𝐴, which in turn is derived using

the assumption that the stress is uniform, i.e., 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴 over every cross-section. This

assumption is not valid for a tapered rod. Hence, Eq. (6) gives satisfactory results only

if the cross-sectional area changes smoothly.

The left figure shows the stress

distribution over a cross-section of a

non-uniform rod. The stress over the

cross section is not uniform. In this

case, the average stress (𝜎ave = 𝑃/𝐴)

we used in this lecture may not be a

good indicator of the stress over the

cross section because 𝜎 may be

much larger than 𝜎ave .

Statically Indeterminate Problems

Ex 5 (B&J CA2.3) Determine the stresses in portions 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 due

to the application of a load 𝑃 at point 𝐶.

Sol: (I) Assume that point 𝐶 moves downward a distance 𝑑 due to the

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application of 𝑃. The strains of portions 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 are respectively

𝑑 𝑑
𝜀 = and 𝜀 =− (7)
𝐿 𝐿
Here, we adopt the sign convention that the normal strain is positive for elongation and

negative for compression. The corresponding stress is positive for tensile and negative

for compressive loads. The stresses in the two portions are determined by Hooke’s law,

and the corresponding tensile forces are

𝐸𝑑𝐴 𝐸𝑑𝐴
𝐹 = 𝐸𝜀 𝐴 = and 𝐹 = 𝐸𝜀 𝐴 = − (8)
𝐿 𝐿

Equilibrium of point 𝐶 requires that

𝐹 −𝐹 =𝑃 (9)

Substitute Eq. (8) into Eq. (9) and solve for 𝑑 to obtain
𝑃𝐿 𝐿
𝑑=
𝐸𝐴𝐿
where 𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 . Carrying this value into Eq. (8), we obtain
𝐹 𝑃𝐿 𝐹 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 = = and 𝜎 = =−
𝐴 𝐴𝐿 𝐴 𝐴𝐿
(II) Let 𝑅 be the reaction at pin 𝐴. Remove the pin joint and apply the equivalent force

𝑅 as show left. By the principle of superposition, the

displacement of point 𝐴 due to 𝑃 and 𝑅 is

𝑅 𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛿 = −
𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐴
However, point 𝐴 is fixed, i.e., 𝛿 = 0, hence
𝑃𝐿
𝑅 =
𝐿
The reaction at point 𝐵 can be determined by the equilibrium equation as
𝑃𝐿
𝑅 =𝑅 −𝑃 =−
𝐿
Dividing the reactions by 𝐴 yields the stress as

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𝑅 𝑃𝐿 𝑅 𝑃𝐿
𝜎 = = and 𝜎 = =−
𝐴 𝐴𝐿 𝐴 𝐴𝐿
Ex 6 (SP 2.2 B&J) The rigid castings 𝐴 and 𝐵 are connected by two 18-mm-diameter

steel bolts 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐺𝐻 and are in contact with the

ends of a 38-mm-diameter aluminum rod 𝐸𝐹 .

Each bolt is single-threaded with a pitch of 2.5

mm, and after being snugly fitted, the nuts at 𝐷

and 𝐻 are both tightened one-quarter of a turn.

Knowing that 𝐸 is 200 GPa for steel and 70 GPa for aluminum, determine the

normal stress in the rod.

Sol: Casting 𝐴 can be treated as fixed. Because of symmetry, rods 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐺𝐻 are

subjected to the same internal force and undergo the same deformation. Let 𝐹 be the

compressive axial force in rod 𝐸𝐹 and 𝐹 the tensile axial force in rod 𝐶𝐷 . The

equilibrium of casting B requires that

𝐹 − 2𝐹 =0 (10)

The axial forces in the aluminum rod and steel bolts must be such that they shorten the

rod and stretch the bolts so that casting 𝐵 can fit in the
1/4 pitch
space between the right end of rod 𝐸𝐹 and the nuts
𝛿
at 𝐷 and 𝐻 . Consequently, the elongation 𝛿 of
𝛿
bolt 𝐶𝐷 and the shortening 𝛿 of rod 𝐸𝐹 , due to the

corresponding axial forces, satisfy the relation (let 𝑝 denote the pitch of the bolt)

𝛿 +𝛿 = 𝑝/4 (11)

The load-displacement relations are

𝐹 𝑙 𝐹 𝑙
𝛿 = and 𝛿 = (12)
𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
We now solve Eqs. (10)-(12) simultaneously and obtain the axial forces as

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𝑝 𝑙 2𝑙
𝐹 = + and 𝐹 = 2𝐹
4 𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐴

Thermal Effects

Changes in temperature produce expansion or

contraction of structural materials, resulting in

thermal deformations. Consider a homogeneous rod

𝐴𝐵 resting freely on a smooth horizontal surface

(Fig. 2.30). The elongation 𝛿 of the rod is

proportional to both the temperature rise Δ𝑇 and the

length 𝐿 of the rod. Define thermal strain as

𝜀 = 𝛿 /𝐿

Then

𝜀 = 𝛼 Δ𝑇 (13)

where 𝛼 is a constant characteristic of the material, called the coefficient of thermal

expansion.

If the rod is subjected to both axial stress and temperature change, the strain in the

rod is the sum of that due to the axial stress and thermal strain; that is
𝜎
𝜀= + 𝛼 Δ𝑇 (14)
𝐸
Ex 7 Consider a rod of length 𝐿 , Young’s modulus 𝐸 , and coefficient of thermal

expansion 𝛼. Determine the strain and stress induced by a temperature rise Δ𝑇 for

the following two cases.

(a) The left end of the rod is fixed while the right end is free.

(b) Both ends of the rod are fixed.

Sol: (a) The rod can expand freely. There is no stress in the rod. The deformation is due

to the thermal expansion. Hence, 𝜎 = 0 and 𝜀 = 𝜀 = 𝛼Δ𝑇

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(b) Because both ends are fixed, the total strain of the rod is zero. By Eq. (14),

𝜎 = −𝐸𝛼Δ𝑇

where the negative sign indicates a compressive stress. This kind of stress due to a

temperature change is called thermal stress.

Alternatively, one can solve this problem by the principle

of superposition. Because the right end of the rod cannot

move, the thermal elongation 𝛿 due to the temperature

change must be pushed back by the reaction 𝑃. Obviously,

𝑃𝐿
𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐿 =
𝐸𝐴
Hence, the compressive stress is

𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴 = 𝐸𝛼Δ𝑇 (15)

It is worth noting that

(i) For a structure which can deform freely, a uniform temperature change throughout

the structure will induce thermal strains but no thermal stresses. On the other hand, for

a structure that has supports preventing free deformation, even a uniform temperature

change will produce thermal stresses.

(ii) The stress in a structure member should not exceed the designated allowable stress,

𝜎allow , which is usually much less than Young’s modulus. To ensure the thermal stress

considered in case (b) to be less than 𝜎 , by Eq. (15),

𝜎allow
𝛼Δ𝑇
𝐸
Take stainless steel, with 𝛼 = 17 10  °C and 𝜎allow /𝐸 = 10 , as an example.

The allowed temperature change is Δ𝑇 = 59 °C. Note that a relatively modest change

in temperature can produce significant thermal stresses. Hence, temperature effects can

be important in engineering design. 

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Q 2 For a (linear) statically determinate structure,

uniform temperature changes in the members

produce thermal strains but no thermal stresses. True

or False
Gere M of M, Fig. 2-21

Q 3 For a (linear) statically indeterminate structure,

uniform temperature changes in the members

may or may not produce thermal stresses. True

or False
Gere M of M, Fig. 2-22

Ex 8 (B&J 2.4) The rigid bar 𝐶𝐷𝐸 is attached to a pin support at 𝐸 and rests on the 30-

mm-diameter brass cylinder 𝐵𝐷. A 22-mm-diameter steel rod 𝐴𝐶 passes through

a hole in the bar and is secured by a nut which is snugly fitted when the temperature

of the entire assembly is 20 °C. The temperature of the brass cylinder is then raised

to 50 °C while the steel rod remains at 20 °C .

Assuming that no stresses were present before

the temperature change, determine the stress in

the cylinder.

Rod 𝐴𝐶 : steel, 𝐸 = 200 GPa , 𝛼 = 11.7

10 /°C , Cylinder 𝐵𝐷 : brass 𝐸=

105 GPa, 𝛼 = 20.9 10 /°C

Sol: Let the elongations of rod 𝐴𝐶 and cylinder 𝐵𝐷 be 𝛿 and 𝛿 , respectively.

Because bar 𝐶𝐷𝐸 is rigid, 𝛿 is related to 𝛿 by

𝛿 = 2.5𝛿 (16)

The deflection of cylinder 𝐵𝐷 consists of two parts: the thermal expansion due to the

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temperature change and the contraction due to the compressive axial force 𝐹 .

Specifically,
𝐹 𝐿
𝛿 =𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐿 − (17)
𝐸 𝐴

The elongation 𝛿 is purely caused by the tensile axial force 𝐹 ,

𝐹 𝐿
𝛿 = (18)
𝐸 𝐴
Moment equilibrium about point 𝐸 requires that

0.75𝐹 − 0.3𝐹 = 0 or 𝐹 = 0.4𝐹 (19)

Substituting the above equation into Eq. (18) gives

0.4𝐹 𝐿
𝛿 = (20)
𝐸 𝐴
Substitution of Eqs. (17) and (20) into Eq. (16) results in an equation for 𝐹
0.4𝐹 𝐿 𝐹 𝐿
= 2.5 𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐿 −
𝐸 𝐴 𝐸 𝐴
Rearranging terms gives
𝐿 𝐸 𝐴
𝐹 =𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐸 𝐴 0.16 +1
𝐿 𝐸 𝐴
Carrying the values of the parameters into the above equation yields 𝐹 = 31.7 kN

and the resulting compressive stress

𝐹
𝜎 = = 44.8 MPa
𝐴

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