KWARA STATE POLYTECHNIC,

iLORIN
OPEN DISTANCE AND FLEXIBLE
e-LEARNING (ODFeL)

COURSE MATERIAL

FOR

Course Code &Title: COM 101 INTRODUCTION

TO COMPUTING

Programme: NATIONAL DIPLOMA (ND)

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Course Outline
Study Modules 1: History, classification and Impact of Computers
Study Session 1: History of Computers
Study Session 2: Classification of Computers

Module 2: Concept of Computer Hardware

Study Session 1: Elements of Computer System
Study Session 2: The CPU and the Auxiliary Memory

Module 3: Concept of Computer Software

Study Session 1: Software and its Types

Module 4: Data Processing techniques and Data Preparation Methods

Study Session 1: Data Processing techniques
Study Session 2: Data Preparation Methods

Module 5: Concept of Computer Security

Study Session 1: Computer Security
Study Session 2: Malware Infections, Data Control Techniques and Computer Ergonomics

Module 6: Concept of Computer Networks

Study Session 1: Computer Networks
Study Session 2: Types of Computer Networks

Module 7: Use of the Internet and Contemporary Computing

Study Session 1: The Internet and its Resources
Study Session 2: Electronic Mail and Cloud Computing

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 STUDY MODULES 1
HISTORY, CLASSIFICATION AND IMPACT OFCOMPUTERS
Contents
Study Session 1: History of Computers
Study Session 2: Classification of Computers

STUDY SESSION 1
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
Introduction
You are welcome to the first study session of the first module in COMM 101. Computer is
fast becoming the universal machine of the 21st century. Early computers were large in size
and too expensive to be owned by individuals. Thus, they were confined to the laboratories
and few research institutes. They could only be programmed by computer engineers. The
basic applications were confined to undertaking complex calculations in science and
engineering. Today, computer is no longer confined the laboratory. Computers and indeed,
computing have become embedded in almost every item we use. Computing is fast becoming
ubiquitous. Its application transcends science, engineering, communication, space science,
aviation, financial institutions, social sciences, humanities, the military, transportation,
manufacturing, extractive industries to mention but a few. This unit presents the background
information about computers.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

i. define computer and computer systems; and
ii. discuss the history of computers.

2.0 Main Contents

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2.1 Definition of Computers and its Basic Components
A Computer is an electronic device that can perform activities that involve Mathematical,
Logical and graphical manipulations. A computer System is used to describe a collection of
devices that function together as a system. It performs the following three operations in
sequence:
1. It receives data & instructions from the input device.
2. Processes the data as per instructions.
3. Provides the result (output) in a desired form

2.1.1 Anatomy of Computers

The computer system consists of three units:
1. Input device
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output device

Fig. Block diagram of a Computer

The various functions of these units can be summarized as:

1. Input device: Reads information from input media and enters to the computer in a coded
Form.
2. CPU (a) Memory unit: Stores program and data
(b) Arithmetic Logic unit: Performs arithmetic and logical functions
(c) Control Unit: Interprets program instructions and controls the input and output
devices

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3. Output device: decodes information and presents it to the user

Central Processing Unit: It is the part of the computer that carries out the instructions of a
computer program. It is the unit that reads and executes program instructions. Hence it is
known as the brain of the computer. The CPU consists of storage or memory unit, Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and control unit.
(a). Memory Unit: It is also known as the primary storage or main memory. It stores data,
program instructions, internal results and final output temporarily before it is sent to an
appropriate output device. It consists of thousands of cells called storage locations. These
cells activate with off-on or binary digits (0, 1) mechanism. Thus, a character either a letter or
numerical digit is stored as a string of (0, 1) Binary digits (BITS). These bits are used to store
instructions and data by their combinations.
(b) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU): It is the unit where all Arithmetic operations
(addition, subtraction etc.) and logical functions such as true or false, male or female are
performed. Once data are fed into the main memory from input devices, they are held and
transferred as needed to ALU where processing takes place. No process occurs in primary
storage. Intermediate generated results in ALU, CPU, output device, input device, Memory
unit, Control Unit and ALU are temporarily placed in memory until needed at later time. Data
may move from primary memory to ALU and back again to storage many times before the
process is finalized.
(c). Control Unit : It acts as a central nervous system and ensures that the information is
stored correctly and the program instructions are followed in proper sequence as well as the
data are selected from the memory as necessary. It also coordinates all the input and output
devices of a system.

2.2 Development of Computers

TheHistoryofcomputersystemsisaboutthedevelopmentsfromearlysimpledevicestoaidcalc
ulationtomoderndaycomputers.Thefollowingaresomeofthecalculatingdevicesthatprecede
moderndaycomputers.
Abacus:
Itisoneoftheearliestmechanicalcomputationaldevices.Theabacuswasearlyusedforarithmetict
asks.ItwasinuseintheMiddleEastasearlyas2500BC.ThefamiliarChineseabacus (dating
approximately 1200AD) iscomposedofaframeandanumberofwires.

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 Pascal’scalculator:
Pascal‘scalculatorwasthefirsttruemechanicalcalculator.In1642,attheageof19,theFrenchphilo
sopherandmathematicianBlaisePascaldeveloped
arotatingwheelcalculator,ofthelatterpopulardesktopcalculator.

TheDifferenceEngine:Thedifferenceengineisbelievedtobetheforerunnerofthemodern
computer. CharlesBabbage(1792-1871),aBritishmathematicianand
engineer,isconsideredbymanytobetherealfatheroftoday‘scomputerdevelopedthe Difference
Engineandthe Analytical
Engine.Healsodesignedasignificantlyimprovedversionofthedifferenceengine(butnotbuilt)c
alledAnalyticengine.Ithasdifferentkeycomponents:
• Thestore:A memory wheel consistingof set of counter wheels
• Themill:
Anarithmeticunitcapableofperformingthefourbasicarithmeticoperations.Itoperatedon
pairsofmechanicalregistersandproducedaresultstoredinanotherregister,allofwhichwer
elocatedinthestore.
• Operationcards:Thesecardsselectedoneofthefourarithmeticoperationsbyactivatingthemi
lltoperformtheselectedfunction.
• Variablecards:These cards
selectedthememorylocationstobeusedbythemillforaparticularoperation(asourceofoper
andandthedestinationoftheresult).
• Output:wastoprintoracardpunchdevice.

HermanHollerith’sTabulatingMachine
HermanHollerithwasastatistician,in1880,hedevelopedthetabulatingmachinecommissionedby
theU.S.CensusBureau.

MarkI:DevelopedbyHowardAikenatHarvardUniversityin1944,MarkI,wasthefirstelectromec
hanicalcomputer.Instructionswereprovidedbymeansofpunchedpaper
tape,whichcombinedthefunctionsofBabbage‘soperationcardsandvariablecards.Eachinstructio
nhadtheformat:A1A2OP, whereA1andA2areregistersstoringtheoperandsandOP
istheoperationtobeperformed (e.g.+,-
,x,%).MarkI,wasabletodoasingleadditionin6secondsanddivisionin12seconds.

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ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
Thiswasthefirstelectroniccalculatorandfirstgeneral-
purposedigitalcomputer.Thismachinewasenormous,weighing30tons.,occupying15,000squar
efeetoffloorspaceandcontainingover18,000vacuumtubes.Whilerunning,
itusedtoconsumeover140KWhofpower.Ithadthecapacitytoperform5,000additionspersecon
d.Itsmemoryconsistedof20―accumulators‖eachcapableofholdinga10-digit
decimalnumber.Thefollowingaresomeof the characteristics of ENIAC.

ENIACdidnotuseinternallystoredprograms.Programswerewiredonboardssimilartoatelepho
neswitchboard.OneofthemajordrawbacksofENIACwasthatithadtobeprogrammedmanu
allybysettingswitchesandpluggingandunpluggingcables.
DevicesthatpredatesmoderndaycomputersareAbacus,Pascal‘scalculator,theDifferenceengi
ne,HermanHollerith‘sTabulatingMachine,MarkIandENIAC.AmongthemENIACwasregar
dedasthefirstelectroniccalculatoranddigitalcomputer.

The Von Neumann

Machine:ThetaskofenteringandalteringprogramsfortheENIACwasextremelytedious.Attheti
mewhenENIACwasfirstinuse,thepersonnamedVonNeumannwas the consultanton
theENIAC project,having acloser lookat/ofENIAC‘s
shortcomingsheforwardadvancedthestoredprogramconcept,thethennewconceptenabledtheco
mputertogetitsinstructionbyreadingthemfrommemoryalongsidethedataandaprogramcouldbe
setoralteredbysettingthevaluesofaportionofamemory.Basedonthisconcept,thefirsttrueelectro
niccomputersweredevelopedbythenameEDVAC
(ElectronicDiscreteVariableComputer)andEDSAC
(ElectronicDelayStorageAutomaticComputer).

Commercial
Computers:The1950ssawthebirthofcomputersindustrywithtwocompanies,SperryandIBM,d
ominatingthemarketplace.In1947,EckertandMauchly developed their successful
commercial computer called UNIVACI (Universal AutomaticComputer).

In text questions and answers

1. What is the function of the component named mil in the difference engine?

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2. What were the distinguishing features of ENIAC from modern day computers?
3. What makes a computer different from any other electronic device?

Answers
1. It performs basic operations
2. ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs were wired on board
similar to a telephone switch board and it had to be programmed by setting switches
and plugging ang unplugging cables.
3. It can store information permanently, it has huge computing power and is highly
accurate.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this session, we have learnt that

i. Computer is any electronic device that can accept data, process it and produce an
output.
ii. The computing system is made up of the computer system, the users and the
computing environment.
iii. The computer has developed from the early simple systems that aid in calculations
like the abacus to more complex systems as we have them today.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is a computer?
2. Draw the schematic diagram of a computing system and describe each of the
components.

5.0 Further Reading

https://www.toppr.com/guides/accountancy/application-of-computers-in-
accounting/components-computer-system/
https://www.livescience.com/20718-computer-history.html

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STUDY SESSION 2
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Section and Subsections
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Classification of Computers according to Generation
2.2 Classification of Computers according to Functionality
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities (videos/audios)
6.0 Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the second study session of the first module in COMM 101. An attempt
is made in this study session to present in chronological order the various landmarks and
milestones in the development of the computer. Based on the milestone achievement of each
era the computer evolution is categorized into generations. The generational classification
however, is not rigid as we may find one generation entering into the next. Also, this session
looks into how computers are classified based on certain criteria.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. explain the generation of computer from the first to fifth and the characteristics of
each generation; and
2. describe the different classification of computers.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Classification of Computers according to Generation
2.1.1 First Generation Computers

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The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat thereby causing some of the
components to fuse together frequently. They were very expensive and only large
organisations were able to afford it. In this generation, mainly batch processing operating
system was used. Punch cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output
devices. The computers in this generation used machine code as the programming language.
The main features of the first generation are:
i. Vacuum tube technology
ii. Unreliable
iii. Supported machine language only
iv. Very costly
v. Generates lot of heat
vi. Slow input and output devices
vii. Huge size
viii. Consumes lot of electricity
ix. Generates heat

Some computers of this generation were: ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, IBM-701 and IBM-
750

2.1.2 Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were
used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first-generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores
were used as the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. This generation of computers employed assembly language and high-level
programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL. The computers used batch processing and
multiprogramming operating system. The main features of second generation in comparison
to first generation computers are:
i. Use transistors
ii. Reliable
iii. Smaller in size

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 iv. Generates less heat
v. Consumed less electricity
vi. Faster
vii. Very costly
viii. Supported machine and assembly languages.
Some computers of this generation were: IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600
and UNIVAC 1108

2.1.3 Third Generation Computers

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors,
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. This development made computers smaller
in size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-
programming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV,
COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation. The
main features of third generation in comparison to the first two generations are:
i. IC used
ii. More reliable
iii. Much smaller size
iv. Generated less heat
v. Faster
vi. Lesser maintenance
vii. Costlier
viii. Consumed lesser electricity
ix. Supported high-level language.

Some computers of this generation are: IBM-360 series, Honeywell-6000 series, PDP
(Personal Data Processor), IBM-370/168 and TDC-316 11.

2.1.4 Fourth Generation Computers

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and
other circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have

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microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC)
revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system
were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation. The main features of fourth generation are:
i. VLSI technology used
ii. Very cheap
iii. Portable and reliable
iv. Use of PCs
v. Very small size
vi. Pipeline processing
vii. Concept of internet was introduced
viii. Great developments in the fields of networks
ix. Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were: DEC 10, STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1(Super
Computer) and CRAY-X-MP (Super Computer).

2.1.5 Fifth Generation Computers

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large -Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging
branch in computer science, which interprets the means and method of making computers
think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are
used in this generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

i. ULSI technology
ii. Development of true artificial intelligence
iii. Development of Natural language processing
iv. Advancement in Parallel Processing
v. Advancement in Superconductor technology
vi. More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
vii. Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates.

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Some computer types of this generation are: Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook and
Chromebook.

In text questions and answers

1. What are the main features of the fifth generation of computers?
2. What programming language is used by the first generation of computers?

Answers
1 a. ULSI technology b. Development of true artificial intelligence c. Development
of Natural language processing d. Advancement in Parallel Processing e.
Advancement in Superconductor technology f. More user-friendly interfaces with
multimedia features g. Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper
rates.
2.Machine language

2.2 Classification of Computers according to functionality

Computers are classified according to the function they perform as follows:
2.2.1 Analog Computer
An analog computer is a computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

2.2.3 Digital Computer

Is a computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented
as digits 0 and1.

2.2.3 Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)

A combination of computers that are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital
and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost -effective method of
performing complex simulations.

2.3 Classification of Computers based on size

2.3.1 Super Computer
Supercomputers are the fastest and most powerful type of computers. They are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires this type of computer.
Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear

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energy research, and petroleum exploration.
2.3.2 Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches,
for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just
below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single
program faster than a mainframe.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer

channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas
a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.

2.3.3 Mini Computer

This is a medium sized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie
between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large
minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between
small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing
system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

2.3.4 Micro Computer or Personal Computer

These include
i. Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer placed on a desk.
ii. Laptop Computer: a portable computer with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook
computer.
iii. Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer.
Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

2.3.5 Workstations
Are terminal or desktop computers in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic
term for a user‘s machine (client machine) in contrast to a ―server‖ or ―mainframe.‖

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2.4 Impact of Computer on Society
Computers are employed in every aspect of life. Its effect on life cannot be over emphasised.
Computers are particularly important to people who own organisations, industries etc.
Almost everything in today‘s life is run by computers-cars, traffic lights, hospital equipment,
hotel facilities. Most jobs now require the use of computers. Computers have made both
negative and positive impact on social life of individuals.

Positive Impact of Computers

1. It facilitates business processes and activities by making work easy and less time
consuming.
2. Computers store large amount of information which makes it easy for businesses to
handle data.
3. It can perform multitasking and multiprocessing of data
4. It is used for communication
5. Provides greater access to information through the use of the Internet
6. It facilitates e learning, e commerce and e governance
7. Provides error free result used in research, engineering etc.

Negative impact of Computers

1. It facilitates data piracy.
2. It is expensive and may not be affordable by many.
3. Data can be stolen, hijacked or destroyed
4. It can lead to unemployment
5. It needs to be constantly updated
6. It facilitates computer crime and cyber theft.

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

In this study session we have learnt that there are five computer generations
known till date. We also discussed each generation in detail along with their period and
characteristics. We also learnt classification of computers according to size and
functionality and how computers can affect society both positively and negatively.

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4.0 Self- Assessment question

Answer the following questions

1. What is the main difference between a super computer and a main frame computer?
2. Define a workstation.
3. Mention the four types of personal computers.

5.0 Further Reading

Akinyokun, O.C, (1999). Principles and Practice of Computing Technology. International
Publishers Limited, Ibadan.
https://btob.co.nz/business-news/five-generations-computers/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/generations-of-computer/

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 STUDY MODULE 2
CONCEPT OF COMPUTER HARDWARE
Contents
Study Session 1: The Computer Hardware Components
Study Session 2: The CPU and its Components

STUDY SESSION 1
ELEMENTS OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
Section and Subsections
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Definition of Computers and its basic components
2.2 Development of Computers
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0 Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the first study session of the second module in COMM 101. There are six
main elements that make up a computer system. They all interact with each other and perform
the task at hand. They include the hardware, software, people, procedures, data and connectivity.
In this study session, we are going to learn about the computer hardware.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. explain the meaning of hardware, its components and functions;
2. explain various peripheral devices and their functions.

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2.0 Main Content
2.1 Hardware and its Components
These are all the physical parts of a computer system. They are tangible, i.e., you can see and
touch them. Hardware components are the electronic or mechanical instruments, like keyboard,
monitor, printer etc. They help computer users interface with the software, and also display the
result of the tasks being performed. There are four types of hardware components, depending on
which function they perform. The four types of hardware are:

2.1.1 Input Hardware/Device

This is used to input data into the computer system. Examples: keyboard, mouse, scanner,
(MICR), Optical Character Reader (OCR), bar code reader, Optical Mark Reader (OMR) etc.

Key board

Is an input device that helps to input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like
that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions. Keys on the key board include:
i. Typing keys- letters A-Z and numbers 0-9.
ii. Numeric Keypad - It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement.
Consists of a set of 17 keys used by most adding machines and calculators.
iii. Function Keys - The twelve function keys are arranged in a row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose, i.e., f1 to f12
iv. Control keys - These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page
Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc).
v. Special Purpose Keys - Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such
as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

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Mouse

Mouse is a pointing device. It has a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the
mouse buttons are pressed. It has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel
between the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen,
but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is also pointing device. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device used in notebook or laptop computer instead of a mouse. This is

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a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved. A
track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a
button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device. It works like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer
for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted
into a digital form that can be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are
printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it
converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used
for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

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Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine
readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The
main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans the text optically, character by
character, converts them into a machine-readable code, and stores the text on the system
memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It
may be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is
then fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

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Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is
specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

In text questions
1. What is the most widely used input device?
2. What is the term used to define all input and output devices in a computer system?
3. Information that comes from an external source and is fed into computer software is
called
4. The most common method of entering text and numerical data into a computer system
is through the use of a ___

Answers
1. Keyboard
2. Hardware
3. Input
4. Keybord

2.1.2 Output hardware

These devices are used to translate and display the result of the data processing. Example:
Monitor Screen, Printer and Graphic Plotters etc.

Monitors
Monitors called Visual Display Units (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of VDUs.
i. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
ii. Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

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The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels,
the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a
whole character, such as the letter ‗e‘ in the word help. The CRT has the advantage of high-
power consumption and large size.

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on
your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors,
laptop computer, and graphics display. They are two types:
i. Emissive Displays – These devices convert electrical energy into light e.g., plasma
panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
ii. Non-Emissive Displays – These devices use optical effects to convert sunlight or
light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-
Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device used to print information on paper. There are two types of
printers
i. Impact Printers
ii. Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers: Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is
then pressed on the paper. They are of two types
Character printers: Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types: Dot Matrix Printer (DMP) and Daisy Wheel

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Dot Matrix Printer

One of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of
their ease of printing and economical price. It is cheap, widely used and can be used to print
characters in other languages. It is however slow and has a bad quality.

Daisy Wheel

These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to
be sent here and there with very nice quality. It is of better quality and more reliable than
DMP. It is however slower and more expensive.

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time. We have two types

i. Drum Printer: The surface of the drum is divided into a number of tracks.
Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper. A character set is embossed on the track. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000
lines per minute but quite expensive.
ii. Chain Printer: A chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters. It is very noisy.

24
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a
complete page at a time; thus, they are also called as Page Printers. These printers are of two
types:
i. Laser Printers
ii. Inkjet Printers

Laser Printers: These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots
needed to form the characters to be printed on a page. They have high output quality, high
speed and good graphic quality but expensive

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying
small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable
features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible.

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

At the end of this study session, you learnt that

Input devices are used to give data and instructions to the computer.Keyboard and mouse are
the most commonly used input devices.Microphone gives sound or voice input to the

25
computer.Output devices are used to display the result or information on the
computer.Monitor and the printer are the commonly used output devices.The output seen on
the VDU is called soft copy.The printed copy of the output is called hard copy.Speakers are
used to listen to the music and sounds played by the computer.Plotter are used for a high
quality of printed output.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Devices that let the computer communicate with you are called ------------
2. Devices that allow you to put information into the computer are called --------------
3. Which of the following is not an example of hardware?
A) Scanner B) Printer C) Monitor D) Interpreter
4. Using output devices one can ____
A) Input data B) Store data C) Scan data D) View or print data
5. The wheel located between the two standard buttons on a mouse is used to ____
A) Click on web pages B) Shutdown C) Click and select items D) Scroll

5.0 Additional Activities (Video/Audio)

6.0 Further Reading

https://www.toppr.com/guides/computer-aptitude-and-knowledge/basics-of-computers/input-
and-output-devices/
https://medium.com/@thebeginnerspoint/q-4-what-is-input-devices-and-output-devices-
explain-with-examples-226d60c38d3

26
 STUDY SESSION2
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT AND AUXILIARY MEMORY
Section and Subsections
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 The Central Processing Unit
2.2 Memory and Auxiliary Unit
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0 Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the second study session of the second module in COMM 101. The
Microprocessor, or Central Processing Unit (CPU), is the computer‘s most important single
item. It does all the PC‘s thinking and runs the programs (series of instructions). Thepurpose
of the CPU is to process data. The CPU is where processes such as calculating, sorting and
searching take place. Whatever is done on our computers, such as checking emails, playing
games and doing homework, the CPU has processed the data we use. The CPU is made up of
three main components, the control unit, the immediate access store and the arithmetic and
logic unit.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. describe the CPU and its components;
2. describe the memory and auxiliary unit;
3. define bit, byte, nibble, word and storage size.

27
2.0 Main Content
2.1 The Central Processing Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program) and
controls the operation of all parts of the computer. It consists of the following three
components.
i. Memory or Storage Unit
ii. Control Unit
iii. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Source: Tutorial Point

Memory or Storage Unit

The memory store instructions, data, and intermediate results. It supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the
main memory or the primary storage or Random-Access Memory (RAM). The size of the
memory affects speed, power, and capability of the computer system. The computer system
is composed of two memories: Primary memory and secondary memory. Functions of the
memory include:
i. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
ii. It stores intermediate results of processing.
iii. It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
iv. Inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

28
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out data
processing operations. The functions of the control unit include:
i. It controls the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
ii. It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
iii. It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation
of the computer.
iv. It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The Arithmetic Logic Unit is made up of two parts:
Arithmetic Section
Logic Section

Arithmetic Section: This section performs arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All operations no matter it complexity are done by performing
the above operations repeatedly.

Logic Section: This section performs logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

2.2 The Memory and Auxiliary Unit

The computer memory is used to store data and instructions. It is the storage unit of the
computer, where data and instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is
divided into small parts called cells. Each cell has a unique address, which varies from zero
to memory size minus one. There are three types of memory:
i. Primary Memory/Main Memory
ii. Secondary Memory
iii. Cache Memory

i. Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently

29
working. It is volatile i.e. data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in the main
memory. There are two types of main memory: Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read
Only Memory (ROM).

Read Only Memory

We can only read from this memory but cannot write on it. It is a non-volatile memory. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM stores
instruction required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing
machine and microwave oven. The following are the different types of ROM:

MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs.
They are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM is a read-only memory that can be
modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents
using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses which are burnt open
during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM can be erased by
exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser
is used to perform this function.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): EEPROM is

programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand
times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).

Random Access Memory

This is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and program result. It is a
read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is
switched off, data is erased. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very

30
expensive. Since RAM is volatile a backup Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) is often
used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of
data it can hold. RAM is of two types:
i. Static RAM (SRAM)
ii. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM): In this type of RAM, the memory retains its contents as long as power is
on. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM need not
be refreshed on a regular basis. SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of
storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as cache memory
and has very fast access.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM): DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to
maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the
data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap
and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor
and one transistor.

The amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit is called the memory unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes. The main memory storage units are
Bit: A bit represents a passive or an active state of a component in an electric circuit. It is a
binary digit of logic 0 or 1.

Nibble: A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte: A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.

Word: A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer. The length of a
computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as 8 bits or may be as
long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of computer words.

31
Note:
1Kilobyte (1KB) = 1024 Bytes
1Megabyte (1MB) = 1024 KB
1GigaByte (1GB) = 1024 MB
1TeraByte (1TB) = 1024 GB
1PetaByte (1PB) = 1024 TB

In text questions
1. Differentiate between a nibble and a byte
2. What are the three components of the auxiliary memory?
3. What are the main functions of the memory?

Answers
1. A nibble is a group of 4 bits while a byte is a group of 8 bits.
2. The three main components of the auxiliary memory are cache, main and secondary
memories.
3.
i. It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
ii. It stores intermediate results of processing.
iii. It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
iv. Inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory holds data and information permanently. This type of memory is also
known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main memory. CPU directly
does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The
contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU
can access it. Examples include disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc. it is usually referred to as back
up memory. It is slower than main memory.

Cache Memory
The cache memory acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. Those parts of
data and program which are most frequently used by the CPU are held in the cache. The
parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating
system, from where the CPU can access them. It is a very fast semi -conductor memory
which speeds up the CPU. It stores data temporarily i.e., data to be executed in a short time.

32
It is faster and consumes less access time than the main memory. It is however very
expensive and has limited capacity.

Auxiliary Memory
Auxiliary memory is used to store inactive programs and to archive data. They are
among computer peripheral equipment. Auxiliary memory holds programs and data for future
use, and, because it is nonvolatile (like ROM). Early forms of auxiliary storage included
punched paper tape, punched cards, and magnetic drums. Since the 1980s, the most common
forms of auxiliary storage have been magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, and optical discs.

Magnetic disk drives

Magnetic disks are coated with a magnetic material such as iron oxide. There are two types:
hard disks, and removable diskettes. Hard drives generally have several disks, or platters,
with an electromagnetic read/write head for each surface; the entire assembly is called a
comb. A microprocessor in the drive controls the motion of the heads and also
contains RAM to store data for transfer to and from the disks. Floppy Disk Drive FDDs
function similarly, but the removable diskettes spin at only a few hundred revolutions per
minute.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

At this study session, we have learnt that a CPU is the brain of a computer,
processing all the instructions you give it. A CPU has various components to receive the
instructions, process them, and then transform them into signals to activate other parts of
the computer. The CPU has three parts: the primary memory, control unit, and arithmetic
logic unit. Other peripheral devices, are attached to the CPU. In modern systems, the CPU is
embedded inside a chip called an integrated circuit.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. The CPU is made up of three components, name them.

2. How does the cache memory differ from the main memory?

33
 3. What is the function of the ALU?

5.0 Additional Activities (Video/Audio)

6.0 Further Reading

https://www.britannica.com/technology/central-processing-unit
https://www.britannica.com/technology/central-processing-unit

34
 STUDY MODULE 3:
CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Contents
Study Session 1: Software and its Types

STUDY SESSION 1
SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES
Section and Subsections
Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1Types of software
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0 Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the first study session of the third module in COMM 101.The computer
hardware is driven by the software. The usefulness of the computer depends on the programs
that are written to manipulate it. Computer software come in different forms: the operating
system, utility software, language translators and application software. This unit therefore
presents detailed discussions of each category of computer software. The computer hardware
is driven by the software. The usefulness of the computer depends on the programs that are
written to manipulate it. Computer software come in different forms: the operating system,
utility software, language translators and application software. This unit therefore presents
detailed discussions of each category of computer software.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. explain Software and its types;

35
 2. distinguish between High Level Languages and Low-level Languages;
3. explain Object code and Source Code;
4. define translators and their types;
5. explain the use of Package Programs

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Types of Software
Computer software essentially is a set of instructions that tells a computer how to perform a
certain task. It is a set of programs which enable the users to perform some particular specific
task or actually used to operate their computer. It essentially directs all of the peripheral
devices on the entire computer system on what exactly to do and how exactly to perform a
task. A software plays a key role of an interface between the user and the computer hardware.
In the absence of software, a user essentially can‘t perform any task on a computer. They are
the programs that run on the computer.

Types of Computer Software

There are three main types of software namely
1. System Software
2. User Application Software
3. Programing Language Software

1. System Software
Systems software are programs supplied by the manufacturer of the computer. These
programs protect the user from the enormous complexity of the computer system, and enable
the computer to be used to maximum effect by a wide variety of people, many of whom will
know very little about the Software System. Without System Software, the computer would
be virtually impossible to use. System software are of three types:
i. The Operating System (OS)
ii. System Service
iii. Graphical User Interface

i. The Operating System

36
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. A computer system comprises
of elements of both hardware and software. It is the job of the operating system to manage
these resources as efficiently as possible. In so doing, the operating system acts as a buffer
between the user and the complexities of the computer itself. One way of regarding the
operating system is to think of it as a program which allows the user to deal with a simplified
computer, but without losing any of the computational power of the machine. In this way the
computer system becomes a virtual system, its enormous complexity hidden and controlled
by the operating system and through which the user communicates with the real system. The
resources managed by Operating System are CPU, Memory, Input/Output Devices, Backing
Store and Files.

Functions of the Operating System

i. Interpretation of the command language by which operators can communicate with
the operating system
ii. Error handling. For example, detecting and reporting inoperative or malfunctioning
peripherals
iii. protection of data files and programs from corruption by other users
iv. Security: protection of data files and programs from unauthorized use
v. Accounting: accounting and logging of the use of the computer resources.
vi. Program Loading to the main memory for processing
vii. Multiprogramming
viii. Interrupt handling
ix. Job Sequencing
x. File Management
xi. Job Scheduling
xii. Peripheral Control
xiii. Recovery from System Failure
Examples of operating systems include windows, IOS, Linux etc.

Types of Operating System

i. Single User OS: Allow one user‘s program at a time

37
 ii. Simple Batch Systems: Provides multiprogramming of batch programs but have few
facilities for multi-access. The users of a batch operating system do not interact with
the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device and submits it
to the computer operator. Jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a
group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then
sorts the programs with similar requirements are sorted into batches.
iii. Multi-access and Time-sharing: Allows multiple access to system resources and
therefore share processors time to cope with numerous users. Time-sharing is a
technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular
computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users
simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.

The main difference between multiprogram batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems
is that in case of multiprogram batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor
use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.
iv. Real-time system: Used in any real time data processing technique. A real-time
system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time
taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated
information is termed as the response time. So, in this method, the response time is
very less as compared to online processing.

System Services
These are programs designed specifically for program or application development.
Examples Language Translators (Processors). These are computer programs designed to
convert high-level language programs into machine code, that is, into a form directly
usable by a computer. Common types of language processors are Assembler, Compilers
and Interpreters.
Assembler: This is a translator that convert program written in Assembly language to
machine code.

38
 Compiler: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level Language to
machine code, and the translation in done all at once. Languages translated by Compiler
are COBOL, FORTRAN, C++ etc.

Interpreter: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level language to
machine code, but the translator is done line by line. Example of language translated by
Interpreter is BASIC.

Utility Programs
These programs are specifically designed to aid program development and testing. These
include the following:
Editors: These permit the creation and modification of source programs and data files.
Debugging Aids: Debugging aids help programmers to isolate and identify the cause of
bugs.
File managers: These simplify and facilitate a number of operations connected with
program development and maintenance such as keeping backup copies of
important files; deleting, creating, merging, sorting files etc. Without the help of
such dedicated programs, operations such as these could be extremely be time-
consuming and consequently expensive.

Graphical User Interfaces (GUls)

The vast majority of microcomputer users are interested merely in using a computer as a tool,
without any real interest in the technical details of its operation. A typical user will probably
want to run one or more common general-purpose applications, organise files into directories,
delete files and format disks. Though the operating system will provide these services, the
user needs to have a certain amount of technical knowledge to perform these tasks, Graphical
user interfaces (or GUI, pronounced Gooey) provide a more intuitive means of performing
common tasks. They usually make use of a mouse, by means of which a pointer is moved
around the monitor screen on which small pictures (or icons) are displayed. These icons
represent, among other things programs which can be run by moving the mouse pointer over
the icon and then clicking one of the buttons on the mouse. Applications run in their own
self-contained areas called windows. In addition, it is usually possible to activate pull-down

39
menus which provide access to standard functions. When a GUI uses Windows, Icons,
Mouse, Pointers and Pull-down menus, it is referred to as a WIMP environment.

2. User Application Software

Applications software refers to programs that have some direct value to an organisation, and
will normally include those programs for which the computer system was specifically
purchased. Application Software are grouped into User Program and Commercially produced
applications software.

In text question
1. Define the following
a) Assembler
b) Interpreter
c) Compiler
2. Mention the three type of utility programs

Answers
1.a. Assembler: Is a translator that translates program written in Assembly language
to machine code.
b. Compiler: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level
Language to machine code, and the translation in done all at once. Languages
translated by Compiler are COBOL, FORTRAN, C++ etc.
c. Interpreter: This is a translator that convert program written in High Level
language to machine code, but the translator is done line by line. Example of
language translated by Interpreter is BASIC.
2 a. Editor
b. Debugging Aid
c. File Manager

User Programs: are written by people within the organisation for specific needs, which
cannot be satisfied by other sources of software. These program writers may be
professional programmers employed by the organisation, or other casual users with
programming expertise.
Commercial Packages: These are the kind of application packages that are produced by
software professionals and be sold for a wide variety of users. This falls into two main
categories:
a) Special-purpose packages: Though commercial, it is designed for a specific
purpose like a department or a section of an organisation. Examples are -

40
Airline Seat Reservation, Theatre Seat Reservation, Hotel Room Reservation,
Point of Sales Software, A Payroll Program.
Program for each of these areas are of use only in their specific area of
application and their use will be confined to a specific department of the
business. A Payroll Program for example, can only be used for Payroll and will
be used by Payroll staff only.
b) General Purpose: These provide facilities which might be used in a wide
variety of business situation and which might therefore be used across many
department of business e.g.
i. Word-processing: These programs that, more or less, turn a computer system
into a powerful typewriting tool and more. It helps us to produce letters,
reports, magazines, memos, etc. Example of Word-processing programs are:
WordStar, WordPerfect, PC Write, MultiMate, Ten Best and WordStar 2000.
ii. Database Management: They store and retrieve information such as
customer lists, inventories and notes. These programs help us to record and
maintain information about people, places, things and management reports of
all types. Examples are Dbase III & IV, FoxBASE, Oracle, FoxPro and
Clipper, MICROSOFT ACCESS, Paradox,
iii. Spreadsheet: Spreadsheets are software packages that, more or less, turn a
computer system into a sophisticated electronic calculator. Many Spreadsheet
packages also have presentation graphics generators, which take data and
painlessly convert them into bar charts, line charts, and the like. These
programs help us to produce financial reports and other mathematical
computations. Examples are Lotus 1-2-3, QuatoPro, SuperCalc, Multiplan, VP
Planner, Planning Assistant and Microsoft Excel.
iv. Desktop Publishing & Graphics Programs: Graphics programs create graphs
and drawings that can be used in newsletters, posters, advertisements and other
documents. Some allow users to import photographs into documents or create
animated pictures for use in "multimedia" presentations. Popular graphics
programs include PC Paintbrush, Illustrator, Persuasion, Cricket Draw, Corel
Draw, Print Master, Print Shop, Microsoft PowerPoint, and Harvard Graphics.
v. Communication Software: This allows communications and networking.
Examples are Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator

41
Guideline for Acquisition of Application Software
1. The software to be acquired must be one whose use will improve the particular operating
function of that business.
2. It must be of high performance
3. The software to be acquired must be one with enough ease in learning.
4. The software to be acquired must be available when needed
5. If a software package is complex then training is required
6. Good documentation: The package to be used must be properly documented. This should
include how the package is to be installed how to use the package and other necessary
technical details.
7. Users friendliness: The package must be easy to use even by non- computer specialists.
8. Compatibility of the package: Before a package program can be adopted, it must be
compatible with the user system requirements as well as with the user‘s hardware.

Custom Application
These are software specifically designed to meet individual‘s specific needs. It is a tailored
software solution created for a specific user. They are developed to meet the precise need of
an individual and his company. They are referred to as bespoken software.

Source Code and Object Code

Source codes are codes written in high level languages such as PHP, C++, Python and Java
etc. Instructions in these languages are written in English like words. This makes it easier to
understand because this type of codes is closer to human language. The computer cannot
understand source code. The source code has to be converted into object code before
execution. Object codes on the other hand are written in machine language. It is also called
object program or machine code. Computer easily execute object code because this type of
language is written in binary form and the binary language is the only language the computer
system understands.

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

We learnt that a software is a program which tells the computer what to do. There are broadly
three types of software i.e., system software, application software, and programming
language software. Each type of software has its function and runs on the computer system.

42
Systems software includes the programs that are dedicated to managing the computer itself,
such as the operating system, file management utilities, and disk operating system (or DOS).
Application software are written for specific purposes.

4.0Self-Assessment Questions

1. What are the important categories of software?

2. What is the main difference between a computer program and computer software?
3. Define an Operating System, what are the categories of operating system?
4. Differentiate between a high -level language and a low- level language.

5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0 Further Reading

https://yourstory.com/mystory/what-software-types-examples
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/computer_software.htm

43
 STUDY MODULE 4
DATA PROCESSING, DATA PREPARATION METHODS AND DATA
PREPARATION METHODS
Contents
Study Session 1: Data Processing techniques
Study Session 2: Data Preparation Methods

STUDY SESSION 1
DATA PROCESSING TECHNIQUES
Section and Subsections
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Data Processing Techniques
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0 Self-Assessment Questions
5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0 Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the first study session of the fourth module in COMM 101. In this study
session, we are going to learn how data is processed into information. Several data processing
methods are used to convert raw data into meaningful information. Data is manipulated to
produce results that leads to a resolution of a problem or an improvement in the existing
situation. Data processing follows a cycle where inputs (raw data) are fed to a process
(computer systems, software, etc.) to produce output (information and insights). Computer
systems are employed to carry out a series of operations on the data to present, interpret, or to
obtain information. The process includes activities like data entry, summary, calculation,
storage, etc. A useful and informative output is presented in various appropriate forms such
as diagrams, reports, graphics, etc. Data processing is important in business and scientific
operations. Business data is repeatedly processed, and usually needs large volumes of output.
Scientific data requires numerous computations and usually needs fast-generating outputs.

44
1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. define different types of batch processing methods;
2. differentiate between different type of batch processing methods.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 Data Processing Techniques
Data is unprocessed facts. In its raw form it is not useful to any organisation. Data processing
is the method of collecting raw data and translating it into usable information. It is usually
performed in a step-by-step process by a team of experts in an organisation. The raw data is
collected, filtered, sorted, processed, analyzed, stored and then presented in a readable
format. Data processing is important for organisations in order to create better business
strategies and increase their competitive edge. By converting the data into a readable format
like graphs, charts and documents, employees throughout the organisation can understand
and use the data.

Types of Data Processing Techniques

There are three methods of data processing techniques:
1. Manual Data Processing Technique
2. Mechanical Data Processing Technique
3. Electronic Data Processing Technique

1. Manual data processing technique

In manual data processing technique, data is processed manually without using any machine
to get the required results. All calculations and logical operations are performed manually on
the data. Data is also transferred manually from one place to another. This method of data
processing is very slow and full of errors. Mostly, data is processed manually in many small
business firms as well as government offices & institutions. This type of data processing is
very primitive. With the advancement of technology, the dependency on manual methods has
drastically decreased.

45
2. Mechanical Data Processing technique
This involves the use of different devices like typewriters, mechanical printers or other
mechanical devices to process data. This method of data processing is faster and more
accurate than manual data processing. These are faster than the manual mode but still forms
the early stages of data processing. With invention and evolution of more complex machines
with better computing power this type of processing has faded away.

3. Electronic Data Processing (EDP)

Here data is processed through a computer. Data and a set of instructions are given to the
computer as input, and the computer automatically processes the data according to the given
set of instructions. This method of data processing is the fastest and most reliable method.
Technology used is the latest as this method uses computers. Manpower required is minimal.

Electronic data processing uses the following methods to process data:

1. Batch Processing
2. Real-time processing
3. Multiprocessing
4. Time-sharing
5. Online Processing
6. Offline Processing

Batch Processing
In this type of processing method, jobs from different users are processed in the order
received i.e., in batches. After the jobs are organised into batches, they are sent for processing
in the same order. This processing of a large volume of data helps in reducing the processing
cost thus making data processing economical. Batch processing improves efficiency by
setting processing priorities and completing jobs on time. It allows large amount of data to be
processed easily and accurately.

Real Time Processing

In real-time data processing, data is processed in the shortest possible time there by providing
instant output. The processing is done as the data is inputted, so it needs a continuous stream

46
of input data in order to provide a continuous output. Examples of real-time data processing
systems are bank ATMs, traffic control systems and modern computer systems such as the
PC and mobile devices. It is the fastest data processing technique.

Multiprocessing
Multi-processing refers to the ability of a system to support more than one processor at the
same time. It is the use of two or more central processing units within a single computer
system. A multiprocessing operating system is capable of running many programs at the
same time. Applications in a multi-processing system are broken to smaller tasks that run
independently. The operating system allocates these tasks to the processors improving
performance of the system. A computer's ability to process more than one task
simultaneously is called multiprocessing. The term also refers to the ability of a system to
support more than one processor or the ability to allocate tasks between them
simultaneously.

Source: loginworks.com

Time Sharing
This is a method of data processing where computer resources are shared by different users in
different locations simultaneously. It is also called multiprogramming or multitasking. The
operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a
small portion of a time. This provides the advantage of quick response, avoids duplication of
software and reduces CPU idle time. This method however poses the question of data
integrity and security.

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Online Processing
This involves processing done in real time and provides instant output. This is a method use
Internet connections and equipment connected to a computer. This allows the data to be
stored in one place and being used at an altogether different place. Cloud computing is a
perfect example which uses this type of processing.

Offline processing
Here data is stored in files on a high-speed data storage device. A different computer system
is used to type in data from paper into a file on a high- speed storage device. When the
computer is ready, it can get all the data it needs from these files rather than from relatively
slow input devices. This is termed ‗offline’ processing because the main computer doing the
processing is not immediately controlling and reading the data from its input devices. The
data is being prepared and stored away from that computer on a high-speed storage device
and is then made available as necessary.

In text questions
1. What are the three methods of data processing?
2. Define multiprogramming
3. Define data

Answer
1. Manual, mechanical and electronic
2. This is a method of data processing where computer resources are shared by
different users in different locations simultaneously.
3. Data are raw un processed facts

3.0 Summary and Conclusion

In this study session, we learnt there are three main methods of data processing – manual,
mechanical and electronic. The manual and mechanical methods are no longer
in use with advancement in technology. The electronic method uses different
data processing technique including batch, multiprocessing, real time, online
and offline methods.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the following questions

48
 1. What do we mean by multiprocessing?
2. Differentiate between real time processing and batch processing
3. Define data processing

5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0 Further Reading

https://planningtank.com/computer-applications/data-processing-methods-types
https://www.loginworks.com/blogs/5-different-types-of-data-processing/

49
 STUDY SESSION 2
DATA PREPARATION METHODS
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1Data Processing Techniques
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
7.0 Self-Assessment Questions
8.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)
9.0 Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the second study session of the fourth module in COMM 101. Data
preparationis the process of gathering, combining, structuring and organising data so it can be
used in business. It is the process in which data from one or more sources is cleaned and
transformed to improve its quality before it is used in data analysis. It‘s often used to merge
different data sources with different structures and different levels of data quality into a clean,
consistent format. This consistency of format is what makes data preparation so powerful. It‘s
the key process that combines data from many different data sources and provides the
opportunity for meaningful insights. Without data preparation, patterns and insights could be
missing from the database and overlooked during analysis. In the big data era, where
advanced data mining software like Import. Io‘s can quickly and easily grab data from
different websites, any business can take advantage of fast and effective data preparation
techniques.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. explain data preparation techniques;
2. describe the principle and procedures of operating the computer
system.

50
2.0Main Content
2.1 Data Preparation Methods
Steps in the data preparation process
The steps involved in data preparation differ from one data professional and vendor to
another. It however includes several distinct steps involving the following:
1. Data Collection: data is collected from different sources and put together for further
processing. The collected data must conform with the final objectives of the application to
be developed.
2. Data Profiling: the collected data must be studied to understand its contents and ways to
improve and prepare it for its intended use. Data profiling helps identify mistakes, missing
data, anomalies so they can be fixed.
3. Data Cleansing: Here, errors and mistakes are identified, inconsistencies harmonized and
corrected to ensure the data is accurate and ready for processing.
4. Data Structuring: data is modeled and structured into a format needed for use.
5. Data Transformation: This is the act of transforming data into useful information to
produce desired result.
6. Data Publishing: The results are then made available for use or stored for future need.

Advantages of data preparation

i. Data preparation helps produce high quality and reliable results.
ii. Data preparation helps to identify and fix errors quickly before analysis
iii. It helps executives make better and more informed decisions.

2.2 Procedure for Operating the Computer System

The Start-Up Sequence
Different components of the computer work in harmony once the computer is start up by
simply pressing a button. These components include
1. The CPU: The as we all know is very large and it is the brain of the computer. It controls
every other component in the computer by reading instructions and data from RAM,
carrying out the instruction, and then writing the data back to RAM.
2. Random Access Memory (RAM): as the name implies can be read and written to i.e., we
can change, add or delete data from the RAM. It is volatile which means data written to

51
 RAM can be lost once the power is switched off. It however store data temporarily only
while the computer is running. It is very fast.
3. Read Only Memory (ROM): Data can only be read from this memory and cannot be
written into it. It contains data written to it by the programmer. This data cannot be
changed or overwritten. It is fast and non- volatile i.e.; data cannot be lost due to loss of
power.
4. Hard disk or drive: It is the main storage device on the computer system. It is a non -
volatile memory. Data can be written and read from it. Files and folders are sorte on the
hard drive and so is the operating system.
5. Basic Input Output System (BIOS): The BIOS contain the code for controlling the
computer hardware during start up after which the control is given to the operating system.

The start-up sequence takes place as follows:

i. The CPU fetches instruction from the BIOS and place it in the RAM stored in ROM.
ii. The BIOS starts the monitor and the keyboard and performs some basic check to
ensure the computer is functioning properly.
iii. The BIOS then begin the boots sequence and looks for the operating system
iv. The BIOS then fetches the operating system from the hard drive and loads it into the
RAM.
v. Control is then transferred to the operating system by the BIOS.

In text questions
1. Mention the steps involved in data preparation
2. What are the advantages of data preparation?

Answers
1. Data collection, Data profiling, Data cleansing, Data structuring, Data
transformation, Data publishing
2.Data preparation helps produce high quality and reliable results.
Data preparation helps to identify and fix errors quickly before analysis
It helps executives make better and more informed decisions.

Fix up Procedure
These are procedures carried out to trouble shoot a computer system caught up in an endless
boot cycle. When accessing Windows or files seem impossible, troubleshooting and repairing

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a PC that reboots constantly without warning can be time consuming. Before taking the
computer for repair, try the following:

Drivers, Viruses and Safe Mode

i. Shut down the computer
Disconnect any peripheral device connected to the computer
ii. Restart the computer
When the BIOS screen appears, press F8.
Windows recovery menu will appear, select ‗Troubleshoot‘ and then ‗Windows Start
up setting‘.
iii. Select the ‗safe mode‘ boot option then press the ‗Enter‘ key
Wait a few minutes for the computer to boot into Windows safe mode
Then run anti -virus scan.
iv. Restart the computer to verify if the boot problem has been rectified by the anti-virus
scan

Restart the computer each time to connect a peripheral device; connect only device at a time.
If the computer fails to boot after connecting a peripheral device, update the driver
software causing the problem.

Check Power and Connections

1. Connect all cables to the computer including the power cords, monitor, keyboard and
mouse cables
2. Locate the voltage selector switch on the rear of the power supply where the power cord
plugs into the computer.
Ensure the voltage selector setting is correct.
Remove case cover with a screw driver
Remove all cards on the mother board and reseat them.
Check all power connections to the mother board, hard drives and any optical -drives.
3. Replace the case cover and reconnect all the cables. Then restart the computer.

Check the Hard Drive

1. Restart the computer and press F8 to display Windows recovery window
2. Select ‗Troubleshoot‘ option then ‗command prompt‘.

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 3. Type ―chkdsk c: /f /r‖ after the command prompt appear, then press ‗Enter‘
Wait for the CHKDSK utility to scan the system and hard drive for any bad sector and
repairable errors

After the scan, attempt to restart the computer.

Scan Windows System Files
1. Restart the computer and press F8 to get to windows recovery window.
2. Select Troubleshoot then command prompt option
3. Type ‗SFC /scannow‘ at the command prompt, then press Enter.
Wait for Windows to scan all required system files and DDL library files to determine
if any are corrupt. If any corrupt window system is found, it is replaced, it is replaced
with original versions from the system cache automatically.
Restart the computer to see if replacing corrupted windows system files has fixed the
rebooting problem.

Shutting down the System

Shut down is the act of turning off the computer‘s power by closing all software programs
that are currently running. As part of the computer shut down process the operating system is
the last to be closed. If computers are not properly shut down, it can lead to corruption of files
and some data may be lost. Shutting down must be done properly to ensure the hard ware is
not damaged and operating system does not get corrupted.

Shut Down Procedure

There are many ways to shut down your PC—you can turn the PC off completely, you can
make it sleep, or you can hibernate the PC

Turn off the PC completely

To shut down
1. For Windows 10
Go to Start
Select Power, then shut down
2. For Window 8.1/RT8.1

54
 Right click on the Start button or press Window logo key + X on the keyboard
Click on Shut down or sign out then choose Shut down.
3. For Windows 7
Click Start button, then click Shut down.

Shutting down via the command prompt

To access the command prompt window from Windows 8 or 10:
1. Go to the ‗Start‘
2. Type ‗cmd‘ in the Search field
3. Press Enter key

From an open command prompt window:

1. Type ‘shut down’, followed by the option you wish to execute.
2. To shut down your computer, type ‗shutdown/s’
3. To restart your computer, type ‘shutdown/r’
4. To log off your computer type ‘shutdown/l
5. For a complete list of options type ‗shutdown/?
6. After typing your chosen option, press the Enter key. The computer will execute the
desired task

Computer Initialization
Computer Initialization is how the computer boots and loads. When the computer is switched
on it performs a Power- On-Self-Test (POST) to ensure it is working properly, loads drivers
needed for the computer hardware, the operating system and other programs. This takes about
2 minutes depending on the speed of the system.

Steps to take when Windows take time to load

1. Boot time can be deceased by disabling programs not used often from automatically
loading each time the computer is powered on.
2. Run ScanDisk at least once every three months. This will help verify the hard drive
runs free of error. It will also help organise stored data efficiently.
3. Hard drive with less than 250MB of free space available can cause slowdown in boot
time and overall general performance.

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 4. Install all available Microsoft Windows update and make sure the computer has the
latest drivers.
5. If haven gone through all the steps above and still the system is slow, clean the system
registry.
6. Format the system and re-install Windows.
7. Upgrade some hardware by installing additional RAM and a Solid-State Drive (SSD).

Formatting of Storage Media

Disk formatting is the process of preparing a storage medium such as hard disk drive, flash
drive, solid state drive for initial use. With disk formatting any existing file on the device is
erased. Disk formatting must be done with caution as it can erase files and delete installed
program. It is there advice sable to have a back- up before formatting. Disk formatting
involves
i. Low level formatting: This helps in preparing the physical structure of the medium.
ii. Disk partitioning: Is the division of the hard drive into logical volumes for data
storage
iii. High level formatting: This helps in creating the file formats in the disk partitions

Advantages of Disk Formatting

1. It can identify errors in the drive.
2. It can scan and repair bad sectors
3. It can remove bad applications and sophisticated virus.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session we have learnt data preparation methods, procedures for
operating the computer such as start up sequence, fix up procedure etc. We have also learnt
what to do in case the boot up procedure is slow and how to format storage media.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What components of the computer system are involved in the start- up sequence?
2. What are the steps in shutting down the computer?

56
 3. What does the term shut down mean?
4. State the steps involved in disk formatting.

5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0 Further Reading

https://smallbusiness.chron.com/dell-inspiron-wont-connect-wireless-networks-53331.html
https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/s/shutdown.htm
https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/shut-down-sleep-or-hibernate-your-pc-
2941d165-7d0a-a5e8-c5ad-8c972e8e6eff

57
 STUDY MODULE 5
COMPUTER SECURITY
Contents
Study Session 1: Computer Security
Study Session 2: Malware Infections, Data Control Techniques and Computer Ergonomics

STUDY SESSION 1
CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SECURITY
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1The Need for Computer Room Security and Safety
2.2 Malware Infection and Standard Procedure for Installing Anti-virus
2.3 Computer Ergonomics and Security
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the first study session of the fifth module in COMM 101. Security
threats to the computer are possible dangers that can possibly hamper the normal functioning
of the computer. In the present age, computer security threats are constantly increasing as the
world is going digital. It has therefore become paramount to protect the both the computer
hardware and software from any threat that can cause damage or theft. One must be well
aware of these threats and be kept appraised with required knowledge to safeguard against
them. This study session outlines in simple terms the kinds of issues that can arise in
computer security, including an explanation of common security terms and their
meanings.

58
1.0 Learning Outcomes
At the end of this study session, you should be able to::
1. explain computer security and the need for computer room safety;
2. explain the methods of preventing hazards;
3. describe malware infections and the standard procedure for installing an anti-virus;
4. explain computer ergonomics and security using passwords and usernames.

2.0 Main Content

2.1The Need for Computer Room Security and Safety
Computer Security is defined as the process of protecting the computer system from un
authorized use, theft and harm. It can also be defined as measures put in place to ensure
confidentiality, integrity and availability of all the components of the computer system.

Computer security is divided into the following categories:

1. Network security: The act of securing from intentional and unintentional attacks and
malwares.
2. Data security: The act of protecting the privacy and integrity of data during transit and
when in storage.
3. Application security: An application that is compromised could give access to the data it
is meant to protect. It is the responsibility of the application security to keep software and
devise free from threats.
4. Operational security: Includes user who have the authority to access data, procedures that
determine where data is kept and processes for handling and protecting the data.
5. End user education: Users must be taught protective measures against threats such as not
to plug in unauthorized USB dives, to delete suspicious e mail attachment and others
measures of security.
6. Recovery from disasters: this is how the company returns back to capacity in the advent
of a disaster.

This is achieved through:

i. Securing information from deletion, modification and un-authourised access.
ii. Building security features that protect applications from cyber threats.
iii. Keeping the system updated and patched.

59
 iv. Securing both software and hardware technologies.
v. Protecting computer systems communicating over networks.

Threats to computer security are growing and becoming more complex. There is therefore the
need to device counter measures to ensure the computer, data and information are
safeguarded against these growing threats. The following are paramount to safeguard both the
hardware and software components of the computer system.
1. Update latest software Operating System versions as soon as they become available.
2. Install reliable anti-virus software
3. Constantly change your password.
4. Activate firewalls to guard against any intrusion from the Internet
5. Perform system scan on a regular basis.
6. Always back-up your data to ensure it is retrievable after loss or damage.
7. Use strong password that cannot be guessed.
8. Do not open e mail attachments from unknown sources.
9. Avoid using unsecure Wi-Fi networks in public places

In text questions and answers

1. Define computer security.
2. What are the categories of computer security?
3.
Answers
1. ComputerSecurity is defined as the process of protecting the computer system
from un authourised use, theft and harm. It can also be defined as measures put
in place to ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability of all the components
of the computer system.
2. Network security, Application security, Data security, Operational security, End
use education and Recovery from disaster.

Computer Room Safety and Security

The computer room is the data center of any organisation. It houses the computers, network
equipment, servers and all the information of the company. It is from here that information is
made available to different departments of the company. Security of information plays a vital
role in any organisation. It should not be limited to software updates and patches. Securing
the company‘s data, information, strategies and product must begin with securing the
computer room. The computer room requires a dedicated power supply, cooling for the

60
computers and physical network connections. Any change in power supply and cooling can
result in loss of information. Measures must be put in place to ensure computer room
security.

Methods of Preventing Hazard to the Computer Room

1. Servers, firewalls, switches and network panels must be stored on a locked rack to
prevent unauthorized users from physically damaging them or stealing information.
2. Back up the power supply and information. 24/7 uninterrupted power supply must be
provided.
3. Heat generated by the server and computers can created a fire risk. The computer room
must therefore be kept cool to keep the computer working properly and to prevent a fire
outbreak.
4. Access control must be put in place. Only authorized personnel should be allowed into
the computer room by using access control mechanism like face recognition etc.
5. Remove drives, USB ports and other means of connecting external drive to prevent
employees from copying information.
6. Install surveillance cameras to keep track of people going in and out of the computer
room.
7. Fire extinguishers must be kept at strategic places in the event of fire outbreak.

3.0 Study Session Conclusion and Summary

In this study session, we have learnt that Computer security depends on many
aspects of a computer system. The threats that a site faces, and the level and quality of the
countermeasures, depend on the quality of the security services and supporting procedures.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the following questions

1. Explain the need for computer room security.
2. What are the methods of preventing hazards to the computer room?
3. Define computer security

61
5.0 Additional Activities (Videos/Audio)

6.0 Further Reading.

https://www.hpe.com/us/en/insights/articles/how-to-secure-your-server-room-1809.html
https://www.giac.org/paper/gsec/2892/computer-rooms-meet-physical-security-
measures/104866

62
 STUDY SESSION 2
MALWARE INFECTIONS, DATA CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND
COMPUTER ERGONOMICS
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1 Malware Infection and Standard Procedure for Installing Anti-virus
2.3 Computer Ergonomics and Security
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0Further Reading

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. discuss malware infections and prevention;
2. explain system security and computer ergonomics.

2.0Main Content
2.1 Malware Infection and Standard Procedure for Installing Anti-virus
You are welcome to the second study session of the fifth module in COMM 101.
MaliciousSoftware (Malware) is a collective term used to describe harmful computer
programs like viruses and trojans designed purposely to destroy computers, networks and
gain access to sensitive information without permission from the owner. It consists of code
developed by cyber criminals, designed to cause extensive damage to data and systems or to
gain unauthorized access to a network. Malware is typically delivered in the form of a link or
file over email and requires the user to click on the link or open the file to execute the
malware. Different malwares have different ways of causing havoc or damage to the system
from stealing, encrypting or deleting sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing

63
functions, and spying on someone' computer activity without their consent. Some are
delivered over email via a link or executable file. Others are delivered via instant messaging
or social media. Even mobile phones are vulnerable to attack. It is essential that organisations
are aware of all vulnerabilities so they can lay down an effective line of defense.

Types of Malwares
1. Virus
A computer virus is a type of malware that replicates itself by attaching itself to executable
files. Once executed it spreads from one program to another. A computer virus behaves in a
way similar to a biological virus, which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. While
some are harmless or mere hoaxes, most computer viruses are considered malicious.

2. Worms
A worm is also a self-replicating program. A worm propagates itself through computer
networks without user intervention. Unlike a virus, it doesn't need to attach itself to an
existing program. The terms "virus" and "worm," are often confused by many, using them
both to describe any self-propagating programs.

3. Trojan Horse
A Trojan Horse is a deceptive software which seems to be doing one thing but it is actually
doing another. A Trojan Horse can be used to set up a back door in a computer system so
intruders can gain access.

4. Spyware
A spyware is a type of malware. It is an unwanted software that steals Internet usage data and
information. It gathers information and relay same to other competitors and external users
without the knowledge of the user.

5. Ransomware
Ransomware is malicious software that infects your computer and displays messages
demanding a fee to be paid in order for your system to work again. This type of malware is a
criminal moneymaking software installed through deceptive links in an email message,
instant message or website.

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Adware
Adware is an advertising-supported software. It is a software that generates revenue for its
developer by automatically generating online advertisements in the user interface of the
software or on a screen presented to the user during the installation process. Adware can
sometimes be incorrectly labeled as malware or spyware. Not all adware are a threat because
some are perfectly safe and reputable. However, some adware does pose a risk that can
introduce a threat to your devices. When you‘re discussing adware, you might wonder ―what
is the difference between malware and adware,‖ or ―what is adware and spyware?‖

Bot
This type of malware is designed to perform a set of functions. Though created for harmless
purposes. It turned out to be harmful. They are used in botnets to perform Ddos attacks as
web spiders that extract server data. It distributes malwares that are masked as frequent
search items on download sites.

Prevention of Malware Infection

There are a number of ways to preventing your system from being infected with malwares.
These include;
1. Buy applications and software from only reputable sources.
2. Install anti-virus software
3. Regularly update software on the computer system
4. Do not click on suspicious links or down load attachments from unknown sources
5. Install fire walls prevent to block all malicious attacks by preventing unauthorized
access to the system
6. Use strong authentication methods such as passwords with at least eight characters
including an upper case, lower case, number and special character.
7. Implement e mail security and spam protection.
8. Educate users.
9. Do not attach removeable files from unknown sources.
10. Back up files in different locations with at least one offline copy.

Computer Security using Passwords and Usernames

A password is a string of characters used to verify the identity of a user during

65
the authentication process. Passwords are usually used with a username. Only the user knows
the password. Passwords allow users to gain access to a computer, application or website.
Passwords vary in length and can contain letters, numbers and special characters.

Creating a secure password

Some organisations set password policies. With these policies in place, employees can create
strong passwords and use best practices for their login details. Some of the best practices for
password requirements include:
i. A minimum length of eight characters.
ii. The inclusion of both uppercase and lowercase letters with case sensitivity;
iii. The use of at least one number; and
iv. The use of at least one special character.

Password blacklists are lists of passwords that are too easily cracked and thus are not secure
enough to use. Personal information such as birthdates, names of children, or favourite sports
teams should not be part of a password, as well as any words or phrases that are on a
password blacklist. Passwords must have a time limit when users are forced to change their
passwords. The policy may also require the user to create a password that is different from
any other they have used in the last six to 12 months.

Although strong passwords are ideal, users often forget them. As a result, password recovery
methods might vary depending upon access to an application, website or device. Methods
might include answering security questions, confirming emails asking if users want to reset
their passwords, or entering numerical security codes sent via text to a mobile phone to
authenticate users who need to reset passwords or recover the original one.

Alternative methods to Passwords

There are many authentication options available today so that users do not have to rely on
passwords that can be easily cracked or compromised.

These options include:

1. Two factor Authentication

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A two-factor authentication requires users to provide two authentication factors that include a
combination of something the user knows like a password or PIN and Something the user has
like an ID card, security token or smartphone number.

In text questions
1. What are the requirements for a strong password?
2. Differentiate between a virus and malware?

Answers
1.
i. A minimum length of eight characters.
ii. The inclusion of both uppercase and lowercase letters with case sensitivity;
iii. The use of at least one number; and
iv. The use of at least one special character.
2.A malware is a collective term used to describe harmful computer programs like
viruses and trojans designed purposely to destroy computers, networks and gain
access to sensitive information without permission from the owner; a virus is a type
of malware that replicates itself by attaching itself to executable files. Once
executed it spreads from one program to another.

2.Biometrics
Biometric technology is mainly used for identification and access control. Biometrics uses
physiological characteristics such as fingerprints or retinal scans, and behavioral
characteristics such as typing patterns and voice recognition.

3.Multifactor authentication
Multifactor authentication is similar to 2FA except that it is not limited to only two
authentication factors. It also uses something the user knows, something the user has and
something the user is.

4.Tokens
A security token is a physical hardware or electronic device that a user carries to authorize
access to a network.

5.One Time Password

An OTP is an automatically generated password that only authenticates a user for a single
transaction or session. These passwords change for every use and are typically stored on
security tokens.

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6.Social logins
This is when users can authenticate themselves on applications or websites by connecting to
their social media account such as Facebook or Google instead of using a separate login for
each and every site.

2.2 Computer Ergonomics and Security

Computer ergonomics is the study of how people interact with computers. Computer
ergonomics, attempt to find solutions to strain, fatigue, and injuries caused by poor product
design or workplace arrangement. Their goal is to create an overall comfortable and relaxed
workplace environment.

After sitting at a computer for many hours a day, many people find themselves looking for a
better way to work. Peoples back hurts, neck gets tight, and legs fall asleep. So what can you
do when your workstation is ergonomically wrong?

Rules for Setting up the Workstation

i. The computer workstation should be adjusted to allow your arms to rest at a 90-
degree angle to the keyboard
ii. The monitor and keyboard must be separated
iii. A chair that supports your back in an upright seated position must be provided.
iv. The monitor must be positioned to be directly in front of you (at least 18 inches) and
at eye level
v. Keep feet flat on the floor with the legs in a parallel position, and for the vertically
challenged, a footrest may be needed
vi. If using a hard-copy document, use a document holder to keep it at eye level
vii. Since laptops are not designed for use over long periods of time, if possible, separate
the monitor and keyboard. Place the laptop on top of books or some other device to
raise it to eye level. Then, use an external keyboard that allows the elbows to retain
their 90-degree angle while typing.

Other Factors to Consider

Other factors such as body position, working for shorter periods of time before moving
around, and moving every 10 minutes, will help keep your back and neck from becoming

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stiff and sore. One study reported that workers who moved every seven minutes avoided
computer-related pain, even with extended computer use. Every 30 minutes to an hour, take a
short break to get up out of your chair and stretch or walk around.

Keeping physically fit can also help to avoid, and even treat, problems and pains related to
extended computer use. Build up core muscles to support the lower back while seated.

3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

At the end of this study session, we have learnt what malware is, how it affects the
computer system and how we can protect our computers from being infected. We have also
learnt how we can use usernames and password for authentication and other alternatives to
passwords. This study session also taught us how to set up the computer to protect our health.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

i. Whatis a computer malware?
ii. Mention the types of malware you know
iii. What do you understand by computer ergonomics?
iv. What are the other alternatives to password?

5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0Further Reading
https://www.thejoint.com/washington/renton/renton-42004/192602-science-computer-
ergonomics#:~:text=Computer%20ergonomics%20is%20the%20study,comfortable%20and%
20relaxed%20workplace%20environment.
https://www.kaspersky.com/resource-center/threats/trojans

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 STUDY MODULE 6
CONCEPT OF COMPUTER NETWORK
Study Session 1: Computer Networks
Study Session 2: Types of Computer Networks

STUDY SESSION 1
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1The Computer Network
2.2 Types of Computer Networks
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0Further Reading

Introduction
This study session is an introduction to computer networks. In this session, you will
familiarize yourself with the basic principles and the architecture of computer networks. You
will acquire the basic knowledge of the Internet architecture and of its evolution. You will
also learn the various network topologies.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:

1. define a computer network;
2. explain different types of network topologies.

2.0 Main Content

2.1 The Computer Network
You are welcome to the first study session of the sixth module in COMM 101. A computer

70
network is a group of devices connected with each other through a transmission medium such
as wires, cables etc. These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines,
routers, bridges etc.

The purpose of having computer network is for the devices to communicate with one another
and to send and receive data stored in other devices over the network. These devices are often
referred to as nodes. There are five basic components of a computer network.

Source: Beginnersbook.com

Message: It is the data or information which needs to be transferred from one device to
another device over a computer network.

Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data to other devices
connected to the network.

Receiver: A receiver is the device which is expecting the data from other devices on the
network.

Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed upon by both sender and receiver,
followed by all devices on a network. Without a protocol two devices can be connected to
each other but they cannot communicate. In order to establish a reliable communication or
data sharing between two different devices we need a set of rules that are called protocol. For
example, http and https are the two protocols used by web browsers to get and post the data
to internet, similarly smtp protocol is used by email services connected to the internet.

71
Tranmission media: These are chaannels through which data is tranfered from one device to
another in a network. They may be guided media eg. Coaxial cable or unguided media like
microwaves.

Functions of a Network
i. Communicating using email, video, instant messaging and other methods
ii. Sharing devices such as printers, scanners and photocopiers
iii. Sharing files
iv. Sharing software and operating system programs
v. Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information

Network Terminologies
Open system: An open system already connected to the network and prepared for
communication.
Closed system: A closed system is not yet connected to the network and so can't be
communicated with.
IP (Internet Protocol) address: The network address of the system across the network, which
is also known as the Logical Address.
MAC address: The MAC address or physical address uniquely identifies each host. It is
associated with the Network Interface Card (NIC).
Port: A port is a channel through which data is sent and received.
Nodes: A node is a term used to refer to any computing devices such as computers that send
and receive network packets across the network.
Network packets: The data that is sent to and from the nodes in a network.
Routers: Routers are pieces of hardware that manage router packets. They determine which
node the information came from and where to send it to. A router has a routing protocol
which defines how it communicates with other routers.
Network address translation (NAT): A technique that routers use to provide Internet service
to more devices using fewer public IPs. A router has a public IP address but devices
connected to it are assigned private IPs that others outside of the network can't see.
Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP): assigns dynamic IP addresses to hosts and is
maintained by the internet service provider.

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Internet service providers (ISP): companies that provide everyone with their internet
connection, both to individuals and to businesses and other organisations.

Devices on a Network
Network devices are devices required for communication on a computer network. These devices
include:

Hub
Hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting
devices because it connects LAN components with
identical protocols. Hubs do not perform packet filtering
or addressing functions; they just send data packets to
all connected devices. Hubs connect multiple computer
networking devices together. A hub also acts as a
repeater by amplifying signals that deteriorate after
traveling long distances over connecting cables.

Switches
Switches have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is
a multiport device that improves network
efficiency. Generally, switches can read the hardware
addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the
appropriate destination. Switches also improve network security.

Routers
Routers help transmit packets to their destinations. Routers are intelligent devices, and they
store information about the networks they‘re connected
to. Most routers can be configured to operate as packet-
filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs).
The router, with the help of a routing table, has
knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its destination. Upon receipt of a
packet, the router removes the packet headers and trailers and analyzes the IP header by
determining the source and destination addresses and data type, and noting the arrival time. It

73
also updates the router table with new addresses not already in the table.

Bridges
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role
of bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding
frames between the different segments that the bridge
connects. They use hardware Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at the
MAC address of the devices connected to each segment,
bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect
two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Gateway
Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and
more. In fact, a router with added translation
functionality is a gateway. The function that does the
translation between different network technologies is
called a protocol converter.

Modems
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital
signals over analog telephone lines. Thus, digital signals are
converted by the modem into analog signals of different frequencies
and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving
modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a digital
output to a device connected to a modem, usually a computer.

Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it
receives. You can think of repeater as a device which receives a
signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that
the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for
standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.

74
Access Point
An access point (AP) technically involve either a wired or
wireless connection, it commonly means a wireless device. It
can operate either as a bridge connecting a standard wired
network to wireless devices or as a router passing data
transmissions from one access point to another.

Network Architecture
Network architecture defines how computers are connected to get the maximum advantages
of a computer network such as better response time, security, scalability etc. The two most
popular computer architectures are P2P (Peer to Peer) and Client-Server architecture.

Peer-to-Peer architecture
In peer-to-peer architecture all the computers in a computer network are connected with every
computer in the network. Every computer in the network use the same resources as other
computers. There is no central computer that acts as a server rather all computers acts as
servers for the data that is stored in them.

Advantages of a Peer- to- Peer Architecture

i. Less costly as there is no central server that has
to take the backup.
ii. In case of a computer failure all other computers
in the network are not affected and they will
continue to work as same as before the failure.
iii. Installation of peer- to -peer architecture is quite
easy as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of a Peer-to-Peer Architecture

i. Each computer has to take the backup rather than a central computer and the security
measures are to be taken by all the computers separately.
ii. Scalability is an issue in a peer-to-Peer Architecture as connecting each computer to
every computer is a headache on a very large network.

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Client-Server Architecture
In Client Server architecture a central computer acts as a hub and serves all the requests from
client computers. All the shared data is stored in the server computer which is shared with the
client computer when a request is made by the client computer. All the communication takes
place through the server computer, for example if a client computer wants to share the data
with other client computer then it has to send the data to server first and then the server will
send the data to other client.

Advantages of Client Server Architecture

i. Data backup is easy and cost effective as
there is no need to manage the backup on each
computer‘
ii. Performance is better as the response time is
greatly improves because the server is more
powerful computer than the other computers in the
network.
iii. Security is better as unauthorised access are denied by server computer and all the
data goes through the server.
iv. Scalability is not an issue in this Architecture as large number of computers can be
connected with server.

Disadvantages of Client Server Architecture

i. In case of server failure entire network is down.
ii. Server maintenance cost is high as the server is the main component in this
Architecture.
iii. Cost is high as the server needs more resources to handle that many client requests
and to be able to hold large amount of data.

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 In text questions
1. Define computer network
2. What are the main components of a network?

Answers
1. A computer network is a group of devices connected with each other
through a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc. These devices can
be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines, routers, bridges etc.
2. Sender, Receiver, message, transmission media and Protocols.

Network Topologies
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology. It
transmits data in only one direction.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

77
 2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination no

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only
the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. Every node has
its own dedicated connection to the hub. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow. The hub Can be
used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

78
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
1. Routing 2. Flooding

79
Types of Mesh Topology
1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the
same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three
devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.Ideal if workstations
are located in groups and are used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

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Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

Hybrid Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For
example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is
used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star
topology).

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble-shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design. 2. Costly

81
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session, we discussed computer networks, its components,

architecture and topologies and how all these are put to use for better management.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the following questions
1. Define transmission media
2. What are the functions of a network?
3. Explain network topologies
4. Differentiate between peer-to-peer network and a client/server network?

5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0Further Reading
https://sites.google.com/site/mrstevensonstechclassroom/home/strand-3-it-systems/3-3-
networks/client-server-networks

82
 STUDY SESSION 2
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1 Types of Computer Networks
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0Further Reading
Introduction
You are welcome to the second study session of the sixth module in COMM 101. There are
different types of computer networks used for sharing data, resources and application.
Computer networks are grouped based on size and function. Some are wired and some are
wireless. In this study session we are going to look at different types of computer networks
and their characteristics.

1.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. define different types of network;
2. describe various LAN Components.

2.0Main Content
2.1 Types of Computer Networks
There are basically four types of computer networks. These include:

Source: guru99.com

83
Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is limited to a specific person or location such as home network. This network is usually
setup for sharing resources such as Internet and printer within personal computers.

Source: networkstraning.com

Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a computer network which spans over a small geographical area such as home,
building, office, etc. In LAN, computers are placed relatively close. Since computers are
located within small distance, they do not need special devices and cables to connect with
each other.

Source: freepik.com

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is a computer network which connects two or more LAN networks within same city.
When due to distance connecting two LANs is not
possible, MAN network is used.
It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It deploys
special devices and cables to connect the LANs.

84
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a computer network which spans over a large geographical area such as state, region,
country etc. WANs are typically used to connect two or more LANs or MANs which are
located relatively very far from each other. To provide
connectivity, this network uses special devices, cables
and technologies

Source: Networkencyclopedia.com

Campus Area Network

A Campus Area Network (CAN) is created to allow users share resources over a closed area
of multiple buildings such as a hospital or a college campus.

Source:Networkstraining.com

Specialized Networks
These are networks with specific purposes or unique security needs. These include:
Storage Area Network or System Area Network (SAN). Storage area network is a
dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to several
servers. These types of networks don‘t rely on a LAN or WAN. Instead, they move storage
resources away from the network and place them into their own high-performance network.
SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a server.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A virtual private network extends a private network across a public network, and enables
users to send and receive data across shared or public networks as if their computing devices
were directly connected to the private network. Applications running across the VPN may

85
therefore benefit from the functionality, security, and management of the private network.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to securely connect its
various locations to share computer resources.

Components of a Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link. Typically, connected devices share the
resources of a single processor or server within a small geographic area.

Components of LAN:
A LAN is made up of three basic elements; the hardware, the software (or programs) and the
users, who create, work with and manage the various files. Each of these elements can be
divided into a number of components.

A. LAN Hardware Components:

The basic hardware components of LAN‘s are:

1. Networking Interface Card (NICs)

A network interface card (NIC) is a card installed on the mother board to connect the system
to a network.

2. Server
A network server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other (client)
computers over a local network or the Internet. A server may be three types:
i. File Server: A file server is a computer that stores files, attached to a network, and
provides shared access of those files to multiple workstations.
ii. Print Server: A print server is a device that connects printers to client computers
over a network. It accepts print request from the computers and sends the jobs to the
appropriate printers over the LAN.
iii. Communication Server: A communication server is a computer system designed to
handle a wide range of communications-based applications.

86
In text questions
What are specialized networks? Mention 3 of them
Differentiate between a LAN and a WAN.

Answers
These are networks with specific purposes or unique security needs. They include:
SAN, VPN and EPN.
2. A LAN is a computer network which spans over a small geographical area such
as home, building, office, etc. In LAN, computers are placed relatively close. Since
computers are located within small distance, they do not need special devices and
cables to connect with each other; while a WAN is a computer network which spans
over a large geographical area such as state, region, country etc. WANs are
typically used to connect two or more LANs or MANs which are located relatively
very far from each other.

3. Station
A station is a computer that is connected with a server computer over the LAN, and
communicate with other devices connected with it.

4. HUB
Hubs are used to connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet
arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all-
packets.

5. Switch
A switch is like a hub in that it is a central point for connecting network cables; however, a
switch is able to receive a packet and transmit it to only the destination computer.

6. Router
Routers make the connection to the Internet for LANs. They use a configuration table to
decide where packets should go.

7. Access point
A hardware device or a computer‘s software that acts as a communication hub for users of a
wireless device to connect to a wired LAN.

87
8. Power Supply
Both wired and wireless networks need a power supply. A wireless network uses the current
to generate radio waves. A cabled network sends data interpreted as an electronic pulse.

9. Connector
A network connector refers to any device that used to connect many LAN connection with
the hardware of the computer.

10. Shared Peripheral Device:

A peripheral device is any device that is connected to and controlled by a computer. Any or
all of these devices can be accessed by multiple users when connected to a LAN in the proper
manner.

B. LAN Software:
Once the physical building blocks of the LAN are put into place, the next step is to make
them functional. Software is needed for devices to function properly and effectively on the
LAN. There are three categories of software found on a LAN:
i. The operating system of each server
ii. The operating system of each attached station
iii. Applications software accessed by LAN users

Groupware is a application software for the LAN environment. Groupware are programs that
help people work together collectively while located remotely from each other.

C. The People
Among the most important elements of a LAN are the people. The purpose of a LAN is to
allow the sharing of resources. This sharing is done by people, making them an integral part
of the structure. With any LAN there are two groups of people involved. Those who use the
resources and those who manage the resources called network administrators.

88
3.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
Int his study session, we learnt that, there are four major types of computer networks- PAN,
LAN, MAN and WAN. Other types include SAN, CAN and EPN. We also learnt that that
there three main components of LAN. These are the hardware components, software
components and the Users.

4.0Self-Assessment Questions
1. Mention the three types of server files and explain them.
2. Differentiate between a LAN and a WAN
3. What are the 3 components of LAN software.

5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0Further Reading
https://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/six-required-components-lan-8409.html
http://www.fiber-blog.de/en/95-transceivers/145-what-are-the-main-components-of-a-local-
area-network-lan.html

89
 STUDY MODULE 7
USE OF THE INTERNET AND CONTEMPORARY COMPUTING
Contents
Study Session 1: The Internet and its Resources
Study Session 2: Electronic Mail and Cloud Computing

STUDY SESSION 1
THE INTERNET AND ITS RESOURCES
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1The Internet and its Resources
2.2 Browsing and Searching the Internet
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the first study session of the last module in COMM 101. The early
Internet was proposed, designed and implemented by American research institutes,
universities, and telecommunication companies. Many believe the Internet today is the initial
prototype of what is often called the National Information Infrastructure. It is a widespread
information infrastructure with rich history that entails many aspects - technological,
organisational, and community. It has a tremendous impact upon society with its influence
transcending beyond the technical fields of computer communications.

1.0Learning Outcome
At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. define the Internet and explain its Resources;
2. browsing and Searching the Internet.

90
2.0 Main Content
2.1 Internet and its Resources
The Internet is a global network of computer networks utilizing a suite of protocols called the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) that supports interconnection of a
number of different computer networks. The Internet supports communication and sharing of
data, and offers a vast amount of information through a variety of services and tools.

Origin of the Internet

The history of the Internet started in the United States in the early 1960s. It begun with the
development of electronic computers in the 1950s. It started as a project of the United States
government‘s Department of Defense, to create a non-centralized network. This project was
called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network), created by the Pentagon‘s
Advanced Research Projects Agency established in 1969 to provide a secure and survivable
communications network for organisations engaged in defense-related research. In order to
make the network more global a new sophisticated and standard protocol was needed. They
developed IP (Internet Protocol) technology which defined how electronic messages were
packaged, addressed, and sent over the network. The standard protocol was invented in 1977
and was called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). TCP/ IP allowed
users to link various branches of other complex networks directly to the ARPANET, which
soon came to be called the Internet.

Researchers and academics in other fields began to make use of the network, and eventually
the National Science Foundation (NSF), which had created a similar and parallel network,
called NSFNet, took over much of the TCP/IP technology from ARPANET and established a
distributed network of networks capable of handling far greater traffic. In 1985, NSF began a
program to establish Internet access across the United States. They created a backbone called
the NSFNET and opened their doors to all educational facilities, academic researchers,
government agencies, and international research organisations.

By the 1990‘s the Internet experienced explosive growth. It is estimated that the number of
computers connected to the Internet was doubling every year. Businesses rapidly realized
that, by making effective use of the Internet they could tune their operations and offer new
and better services to their customers, so they started spending vast amounts of money to

91
develop and enhance the Internet. This generated violent competition among the
communications carriers and hardware and software suppliers to meet this demand. The
result is that bandwidth (i.e., the information carrying capacity of communications lines) on
the Internet has increased tremendously and costs have dropped. It is widely believed that the
Internet has played a significant role in the economic success.

Internet Resources
The Internet has several tools and services that make it ideal as an information resource. Each
of these features has its own merits and therefore should be utilized depending on the type of
information one needs to access.

E-Mail
By far the most popular service available on the Internet, e-mail as a form of correspondence
has revolutionized the way we communicate with each other. It stands for ―electronic mail, a
way of sending messages from one computer to another. Its ability to send files through
attachments also factors in its popularity. Readily available, and in most cases free of charge,
this speedy alternative to postage mail comprises the bulk of traffic on the Internet. Almost
all ‗Net users have at least one e-mail address, and in some cases, several addresses. It has
also become the most basic form of identification on the Internet, with a lot of websites
requiring an e-mail address before offering services.

Newsgroups
These are an online forum for discussion of related topics, accessible by a newsreader. Some
newsgroups allow postings or messages from anyone, while others are moderated (postings
are screened). Several university departments have also set up newsgroups for specific issues
and class use. On the Internet, there are literally thousands of newsgroups covering every
conceivable interest.

Internet Relay Chat

Using chat is like "talking" to other people who are online at the same time as you are.
Special software allows typed-in messages to be viewed by everyone taking part at that time.
Chats can be ongoing or scheduled for a particular time and duration. Most chats are focused
on a particular topic of interest and some involve guest experts or famous people who "talk"

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to anyone joining the chat.

Telnet
Telnet is client software allowing a user to login from a local desktop computer to a remote
server (the Telnet host) and use its resources. Usually access is controlled by passwords given
to each individual or group. Once access is given, the remote user can issue commands or use
the resources of the host, depending on the level of access given the user. Mainly used by
libraries to allow access to information stored in their computers.

File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol or FTP is an Internet utility that allows the transfer of files from one
location to another. In order to do this, one must have an FTP program to connect to other
servers and be able to download files. These FTP programs are available both commercially
and for free, and offer various features. Most modern web browsers have built in FTP
capabilities enabling downloads through websites.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is a vast collection of interconnected files and programs spanning the
globe and retrievable via a client-server system utilizing HTML (Hyper Text Markup
Language) enabled documents called webpages. It is responsible for the so called Internet
boom, transforming it from a largely academic domain into a commercial one. It has grown
to encompass not only its native http protocol, but also ftp, newsgroups, e-mails, chat and
telnet. In fact, because of this most people equate the Web with the Internet. The Web is
accessed by programs called browsers (e.g., Netscape Navigator or Internet Explorer). These
browsers enable webpages and websites containing multimedia content and applications to be
accessed anytime, anywhere. Users navigate the Internet by following links from one
document to other documents on computers located anywhere on the globe. These links are
called hyperlinks, and connect the contents of Webpages to each other as well as to other
Webpages identified by their URLs.

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In text questions and answers
1. Define the Internet
2. What does the acronym ARPANET stand for?
3. Mention some resources of the Internet.

Answers
1. The Internet is a global network of computer networks utilizing a suite of
protocols called the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) that supports interconnection of a number of different computer
networks
2. Advance Research Project Agency Network
3. Newsgroup, Telnet, E mail, File Transfer Protocol etc.

Browsing and Searching the Internet

A browser is an application designed specifically to access and display webpages, including
the webpage's content such as text, images and videos. Examples are
i. Google Chrome
ii. Mozilla Firefox
iii. Microsoft internet Explorer
iv. Microsoft Edge
v. Apple Safari.

In order to open your web browser, select your web browser icon. Once your browser is
open, you need to decide which website you would like to visit. This is done by either
browsing to the correct website or searching for the correct website

Browsing
To browse a website, you must know its unique web address. Once you know the address,
you can visit the website as follows:
i. Open your web browser.
Enter the website‘s address or URL in the address bar at the top of your browser.
ii. As soon as you press Enter, the webpage should begin to load
iii. Once loaded, you can browse the website by clicking on buttons, links or following
the instructions on the page.

Search Engines
Search engines are software tools that search documents for specified keywords and returns a

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list of the documents where the keywords were found. A search engine is a general class of
programs, however, the term is often used to specifically describe systems like Google, Bing
and Yahoo search that enable users to search for documents on the World Wide Web. Search
engines are special sites on the Web that are designed to help people find information stored
on other sites.

There are differences in the ways various search engines work, but they all perform three
basic tasks:
i. They search based on words
ii. They keep an index of the words they find, along with where they find them.
iii. They allow users to look for words or combinations of words found in that index.

Millions of people around the world use search engines almost on regular basis. The benefit
of search engines to both individuals and society is huge. They have made the web a very
critical resource repository of our time. They are the most popular and widely used tool to
find information online.
Search engines search through billions of webpages stored on hundreds of millions of
websites to find information matching your search. Most search engines try to place the best
options near the top of the search results, with the results becoming worse as you move to the
second and third pages. Since the first search results are usually the best, if you do not find
what you are looking for on the first page or two of the results, you should try a different
search phrase or try to use an advanced search technique.

Meta-search engines: Meta-search engines send your search query to several search engines
simultaneously and give you a consolidated report of their findings. They do not maintain a
database of their own. Examples:
• Metacrawler – http://www.metacrawler.com
• Dogpile – http://www.dogpile.com
• ProFusion – http://www.profusion.com

3.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. Define the World Wide Web
2. What is the difference between a browser and a search engine?

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3. Mention 3 examples of a browser
4. What does a meta search engine do?

5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)

6.0Further Reading
https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/internet-searching.htm

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 STUDY SESSION 2
ELECTRONIC MAIL AND CLOUD COMPUTING
Section and Subsection Headings
Introduction
1.0Learning Outcomes
2.0Main Content
2.1The Electronic Mail
2.2 Cloud Computing
3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion
4.0Self-Assessment Questions
5.0Additional Activities(videos/audios)
6.0Further Reading

Introduction
You are welcome to the second study session of the last module in COMM 101. Email
provides a great way of communicating with colleagues, business associates, friends and
family. However, this comes with certain responsibilities such as knowing how to protect
yourself and others from viruses, understanding etiquette, dealing with spam and more. In
this study session, we are going to learn how e mails are sent and received, who Internet
Service Providers are, what cloud computing is and its relation to IoT.

1.0Learning Outcomes
At the end of this study session, you should be able to:
1. explain e mail and how to send and receive an e mail;
2. explain Internet Service Providers and their functions;
3. define cloud computing in relation to IoT.

2.0Main Content
2.1The Electronic Mail
Email is an acronym for electronic mail. It is a message sent from one computer to another
which are connected over a local area network or over the Internet through a communication
system‘s be able to send an email, certain things must be put in place. These include:

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1.Email application
To send an email, you need an application called email client. This software application
allows you to send and receive messages to and from other people. The two most common
email clients are Microsoft Outlook from Microsoft Office and Windows Mail on Windows.

2.Email server
An email server is like a post office. It sends the messages through appropriate electronic
channel to their destinations. It ensures all emails are delivered to the appropriate recipients.
It also collects emails meant for you and delivers them to the email client on your computer.
Emails sent through the Internet are managed by Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Two main
protocols are used when sending and receiving emails. The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) which handles out going mails and Post Office Protocol (POP) which handles in
coming mails.

3.Email account
To be able to send and receive email messages, you require an email account which is
synonymous to having a box at the local post office. This must include a user to identify you
and a password to prevent others from having access to your email.

The Email Address

This is unique address on the Internet that allows you to send and receive mails. It has a
special format which must be adhered to: [email protected]
for example; [email protected]. Email addresses, though not case sensitive are mostly written
in lowercase.

Parts of an Email Address

The Username: this describes the actual name of the owner of the email address. There are no
rules to how the user name must appear. Some use their first names, some their surnames,
others a combination of both. Others even use nicknames. In the example given above the
username is ukis.

The Domain Name: This identifies the location of the email server, the ISP or a person‘s
workplace. In the example above this is kd

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The Top-Level Domain:this normally consists of three letters and identifies the type of
organisation associated with the host name. It is usually preceeded by a full stop; in this case
.edu. examples of top-level domain names include:
.com for private or public company
.gov for government department or organisation
.edu for educational institution
.net for networks usually reserved for Internet service providers
.org for non-commercial organisations

Country identifier
The Country Identifier Email addresses outside the United States are usually identified with
an additional two letters at the end. Some of the more common ones are au for Australia, uk
for United Kingdom, nz for New Zealand, de for Germany, fr for France, and so on.

Advantages of the Email

i. Emails are extremely fast when compared to traditional post mails.
ii. Emails can be sent 24/7 throughout the year.
iii. Webmail means emails can be sent and received from any computer, anywhere in
the world, with an internet connection.
iv. They are very cheap; almost free.
v. Emails can be sent to one person or several people at the same time i.e., bulk
SMS.
vi. It enable a user to keep records of correspondences with clients and other people.

Disadvantages
i. To receive an email, one must be connected to the Internet.
ii. Viruses are easily spread via email attachments.
iii. Phishing - sending an email to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate company
to scam the user into providing information, such as personal information and
bank account numbers on a bogus website. The details are then used for identity
theft.
iv. No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their email.
v. Spam - receipt of unsolicited email, i.e., junk mail.

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Etiquettes of sending Emails.
1. Keep emails short and precise.
2. Spell check and proof read your emails before dispatching.
3. Avoid shouting i.e., composing emails completely in uppercases. Use uppercases only
where needed.
4. Protect the privacy of others. If you are sending a message to many people and it is
not necessary for the recipients to know who else received the message, put their
addresses in the Bcc field and put your own address in the To field. Don‘t put peoples
addresses on the To or Cc fields to protect their privacy.
5. Double check email attachments to ensure they are available.
6. Use digital signatories. While email and the Internet provide a cheap, convenient and
very fast way of transmitting information, they are relatively easily accessed. One
way to ensure messages sent and received are secure is to use digital signatures.
Digital signatures help to validate your identity and they can be used to sign important
documents electronically.

In text questions
1. Define email
2. What must be put in place to be able to send and receive email.
3. Mention the parts of an email

Answers
1.Email is an acronym for electronic mail. It is a message sent from one computer
to another which are connected over a local area network or over the Internet
through a communication system.
2. Email client, email server and email account
3. Username, domain name, top-level domain name and country identifier

Internet Service Provider

An Internet service provider (ISP) is a company that provides Internet access to customers.
Data may be transmitted using several technologies, including dial-up, DSL, cable modem,
wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects. ISPs also provide their customers with the
ability to communicate with one another by providing Internet email accounts with numerous
email addresses at the customer‘s discretion.

Functions of the Internet Service Provider

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 1. They provide Internet services to users through dial up service, DSL
service and cellular data service.
2. Provide direct connection from the company‘s network to the Internet.
3. Provides internet services like email, access to software tools, security
service and web hosting.

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is the storing and accessing data and programs over the Internet
instead of the computer's hard drive. In Cloud computing the information being
accessed is found remotely in the cloud or a virtual space. Companies that provide
cloud services enable users to store files and applications on remote servers and then
access all the data via the Internet. This means the user is not required to be in a
specific place to gain access to it, allowing the user to work remotely anywhere and at
any time.

Source: Wikimedia Commons

Cloud computing is the delivery of different services through the Internet, including data
storage, servers, databases, networking, and software. Cloud-based storage makes it possible
to save files to a remote database and retrieve them on demand.Services can be both public
and private. Public services are provided online for a fee while private services are hosted on
a network to specific clients.

Types of Cloud Services

i. Email
ii. Storage, backup, and data retrieval
iii. Creating and testing apps

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 iv. Analyzing data
v. Audio and video streaming
vi. Delivering software on demand

Types of Cloud Computing

1. Software-as-a-service (SaaS)
This provides a license software application to customers. Licenses are provided through a
pay-as-you-go or on-demand. This type of system can be found in Microsoft Office's 365.

2.Infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS)
Is a method for delivering everything from operating systems to servers and storage through
IP-based connectivity as part of an on-demand service. Clients avoid the need to purchase
software or servers, and instead procure these resources in an on-demand service. Popular
examples of the IaaS system include IBM Cloud and Microsoft Azure.

3.Platform-as-a-service (PaaS)
This is considered the most complex of the three layers of cloud-based computing. PaaS
shares some similarities with SaaS, the primary difference being that instead of delivering
software online, it is actually a platform for creating software that is delivered via the
Internet. This model includes platforms like Salesforce.com and Heroku.

Major Cloud service Providers include

i. Google Cloud
ii. Amazon Web Services (AWS)
iii. Microsoft Azure
iv. IBM Cloud
v. Alibaba Cloud

Cloud Deployment Models

Clouds are deployed in three major ways
1. Public clouds provide their services on servers and storage on the Internet. These are
operated by third-party companies, who handle and control all the hardware, software,

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 and the general infrastructure. Clients access services through accounts that can be
accessed by just about anyone.
2. Private clouds are reserved for specific clients, usually one business or organisation.
The firm's data service center may host the cloud computing service. Many private
cloud computing services are provided on a private network.
3. Hybrid clouds are, as the name implies, a combination of both public and private
services. This type of model allows the user more flexibility and helps optimize the
user's infrastructure and security.

Advantages of Cloud Computing

1. No huge cost of hardware in cloud computing.
2. Cloud services are available 24/7.
3. Cloud computing can be used anywhere in the globe.
4. Cloud computing offers great security when sensitive data is lost.
5. Only the amount of resources needed by companies are used and no resource is
wasted.

Disadvantage of Cloud Computing

1. To use the cloud, you need an Internet connection
2. Not all cloud providers are as secure as they claim so they can not all be trusted.

Internet of Things (IoT)

This is the technology involving connecting devices with an on and off switch to the each
other and then to the Internet without requiring any human-to-human interaction or human-
to-computer interaction. This includes everything from cellphones to washing machines, and
anything. If it has an on and off switch then chances are it can be a part of the IoT. The IoT is
a giant network of connected "things" (which also includes people). IoT also refers to the
billions of physical devices around the world that are now connected to the internet, all
collecting and sharing data. Thanks to the arrival of super-cheap computer chips and the
ubiquity of wireless networks.

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There are four main components of IoT
Low-power embedded systems
Made up of less battery consumption and high performance technology.

Cloud Computing
Data collected through IoT devices is massive and this data has to be stored on a reliable
storage server. This is where cloud computing comes into play. The use of cloud computing
gives more room to discover where things like electrical faults/errors are within the system.

Availability of big data

The usage of real time sensors triggers a massive flux of big data.

Network Connection
In order to communicate, internet connectivity is a must where each physical object is
represented by an IP address. However, there are only a limited number of addresses
available according to the IP naming. Due to the growing number of devices, this naming
system will not be feasible anymore. Therefore, researchers are looking for another
alternative naming system to represent each physical object.

There are two ways of building IoT:

1. Form a separate internetwork including only physical objects.
2. Make the Internet ever more expansive, but this requires hard-core technologies
such as rigorous cloud computing and rapid big data storage.

Characteristics of IoT
i. It is very scalable and efficient
ii. IP-based addressing will no longer be suitable in the upcoming future.
iii. An abundance of physical objects is present that does not use IP, so IoT is made
possible.
iv. Devices typically consume less power. When not in use, they are automatically
programmed to sleep.
v. A device that is connected to another device right now may not be connected in
another instant of time.

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vi. Intermittent connectivity – IoT devices aren‘t always connected. In order to save
bandwidth and battery consumption, devices will be powered off periodically when not in
use. Otherwise, connections might turn unreliable and thus prove to be inefficient.

3.0Study Session Summary and Conclusion

In this study session, we have learnt how e mails are sent and received, who Internet Service
Providers are, what cloud computing is and its relation to IoT.

4.0 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is the function of an ISP?

2. Define cloud computing in your own words
3. What are the three major ways of deploying a cloud?
4. Mention the components of IoT

5.0 Additional Activities(videos/audios)

Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New
Roman, 14 pt, Bold

6.0 Further Reading

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-to-internet-of-things-iot-set-
1/#:~:text=Internet%20of%20Things%20(IoT)%20is,respect%20to%20the%20external%20e
nvironment.
https://www.edureka.co/blog/iot-tutorial/

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