DATABASE

MODELS
26-7- 2017
[“Looking at code you wrote more than two weeks ago is like
looking at code you are seeing for the first time.”] Swaingasky

[GROUP 5(R2) 1-50]

Tel 08138277890 GROUP LEADER
Name [DARLINGTON]
LETURER;MR IBEZIM CHIZOBER
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
What is a Database Model _____________________________________________________ 1
Types of database model ______________________________________________________ 2
Relational model ____________________________________________________________ 4
Hierarchical model ___________________________________________________________ 6
Network model ______________________________________________________________ 7
Object-oriented database model ________________________________________________ 8
Object-relational model _______________________________________________________ 9
This hybrid database model combines the simplicity of the relational model with some of the
advanced functionality of the object-oriented database model. In essence, it allows designers
to incorporate objects into the familiar table structure.............................................................. 9

Entity-relationship model .......................................................................................................... 9

Entity-relationship model _____________________________________________________ 10

Other database models ______________________________________________________ 11
Inverted file model............................................................................................................... 11

Flat model ........................................................................................................................... 11

Multidimensional model ...................................................................................................... 11

Semistructured model ......................................................................................................... 12

Context model ..................................................................................................................... 12

Associative model ............................................................................................................... 12

NoSQL database models _____________________________________________________ 14

Notes to Financial Statements _________________________________________________ 16
Accounts ................................................................................................................................. 16

Debt ........................................................................................................................................ 16

Going Concern ....................................................................................................................... 16

Contingent Liabilities .............................................................................................................. 16

Takeaways ............................................................................................................................. 16

Independent Auditor’s Report__________________________________________________ 17

Contact Information _________________________________________________________ 18
Company Information ________________________________________________________ 18
Table of Contents
Pg. 01 What is a Database Model

What is a Database Model

A database model shows the logical structure of a database,
including the relationships and constraints that determine how
data can be stored and accessed. According to
“Wikipedia” database model is a type of data model that
determines the logical structure of a database and fundamentally
determines in which manner data can be stored, organized and
manipulated.

Individual database models are designed based on the rules and

concepts of whichever broader data model the designers adopt.
Most data models can be represented by an accompanying
database diagram
Pg. 02 Types of database model

“We have three Types of database model

most common
types of database There are many kinds of data models. Some of the most
models” common ones include:

 Hierarchical database model

 Relational model

 Network model

 Object-oriented database model

 Entity-relationship model

 Document model

 Entity-attribute-value model

 Star schema

 The object-relational model, which combines the two that

make up its name

You may choose to describe a database with any one of these

depending on several factors. The biggest factor is whether the
database management system you are using supports a
particular model. Most database management systems are built
with a particular data model in mind and require their users to
adopt that model, although some do support multiple models.

In addition, different models apply to different stages of the

database design process. High-level conceptual data models are
Pg. 03 Types of database model

best for mapping out relationships between data in ways that

people perceive that data. Record-based logical models, on the
other hand, more closely reflect ways that the data is stored on the
server.

Selecting a data model is also a matter of aligning your priorities for

the database with the strengths of a particular model, whether those
priorities include speed, cost reduction, usability, or something else.

Let’s take a closer look at some of the most common database

models.

Use this section to give a brief summary of your financials,

highlighting important points.

This is also the perfect place for a few charts that demonstrate key
financial information. To add a chart, on the Insert tab, click Chart.
The chart will automatically coordinate with the look of your report.

Need some help choosing a chart type? No problem.

• To show values across categories, such as to compare the

revenues of different business units, try a column or bar chart.
• To show values over time, such as for revenue or profit trends,
try a line chart.
• To compare two sets of related values, such as to compare
executive salaries relative to number of years with the
company, try a scatter chart.

And when you’re ready to customize the look of your chart, just click
in the chart and then check out the icons you see on the right for
everything from style and layout to managing data.
Pg. 04 Relational model

Relational model
The most common model, the relational model sorts data into
tables, also known as relations, each of which consists of
columns and rows. Each column lists an attribute of the entity in
question, such as price, zip code, or birth date. Together, the
attributes in a relation are called a domain. A particular attribute
or combination of attributes is chosen as a primary key that can
be referred to in other tables, when it’s called a foreign key.

Each row, also called a tuple, includes data about a specific

instance of the entity in question, such as a particular employee.

The model also accounts for the types of relationships between

those tables, including one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-
many relationships. Here’s an example:
Pg. 05 Relational model

Within the database, tables can be normalized, or brought to

comply with normalization rules that make the database flexible,
adaptable, and scalable. When normalized, each piece of data is
atomic, or broken into the smallest useful pieces.

Relational databases are typically written in Structured Query

Language (SQL). The model was introduced by E.F. Codd in
1970.
Pg. 06 Hierarchical model

Hierarchical model
The hierarchical model organizes data into a tree-like structure,
where each record has a single parent or root. Sibling records
are sorted in a particular order. That order is used as the physical
order for storing the database. This model is good for describing
many real-world relationships.
Pg. 07 Network model

Network model
The network model builds on the hierarchical model by allowing
many-to-many relationships between linked records, implying
multiple parent records. Based on mathematical set theory, the
model is constructed with sets of related records. Each set
consists of one owner or parent record and one or more member
or child records. A record can be a member or child in multiple
sets, allowing this model to convey complex relationships.

It was most popular in the 70s after it was formally defined by the
Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL).

To be continue…..
Pg. 08 Object-oriented database model

Object-oriented database model

This model defines a database as a collection of objects, or
reusable software elements, with associated features and
methods. There are several kinds of object-oriented databases:

A multimedia database incorporates media, such as images,

that could not be stored in a relational database.

A hypertext database allows any object to link to any other

object. It’s useful for organizing lots of disparate data, but it’s not
ideal for numerical analysis.

The object-oriented database model is the best known post-

relational database model, since it incorporates tables, but isn’t
limited to tables. Such models are also known as hybrid database
models.
Pg. 09 Object-relational model

Object-relational model

This hybrid database model combines the simplicity of the

relational model with some of the advanced functionality of

the object-oriented database model. In essence, it allows

designers to incorporate objects into the familiar table

structure.

Languages and call interfaces include SQL3, vendor languages,

ODBC, JDBC, and proprietary call interfaces that are extensions
of the languages and interfaces used by the relational model.

Entity-relationship model
This model captures the relationships between real-world entities
much like the network model, but it isn’t as directly tied to the
physical structure of the database. Instead, it’s often used for
designing a database conceptually.

Here, the people, places, and things about which data points are
stored are referred to as entities, each of which has certain
attributes that together make up their domain. The cardinality, or
relationships between entities, are mapped as well.
Pg. 10 Entity-relationship model

Entity-relationship model
This model captures the relationships between real-world entities
much like the network model, but it isn’t as directly tied to the
physical structure of the database. Instead, it’s often used for
designing a database conceptually.

Here, the people, places, and things about which data points are
stored are referred to as entities, each of which has certain
attributes that together make up their domain. The cardinality, or
relationships between entities, are mapped as well.

A common form of the ER diagram is the star schema, in which a

central fact table connects to multiple dimensional tables.
Pg. 11 Other database models

Other database models

A variety of other database models have been or are still used
today.

Inverted file model

A database built with the inverted file structure is designed to
facilitate fast full text searches. In this model, data content is
indexed as a series of keys in a lookup table, with the values
pointing to the location of the associated files. This structure
can provide nearly instantaneous reporting in big data and
analytics, for instance.

This model has been used by the ADABAS database

management system of Software AG since 1970, and it is still
supported today.

Flat model
The flat model is the earliest, simplest data model. It simply lists
all the data in a single table, consisting of columns and rows. In
order to access or manipulate the data, the computer has to read
the entire flat file into memory, which makes this model inefficient
for all but the smallest data sets.

Multidimensional model
This is a variation of the relational model designed to facilitate
improved analytical processing. While the relational model is
Pg. 12 Other database models

optimized for online transaction processing (OLTP), this model is

designed for online analytical processing (OLAP).

Each cell in a dimensional database contains data about the

dimensions tracked by the database. Visually, it’s like a collection
of cubes, rather than two-dimensional tables.

Semistructured model
In this model, the structural data usually contained in the
database schema is embedded with the data itself. Here the
distinction between data and schema is vague at best. This
model is useful for describing systems, such as certain Web-
based data sources, which we treat as databases but cannot
constrain with a schema. It’s also useful for describing
interactions between databases that don’t adhere to the same
schema.

Context model
This model can incorporate elements from other database
models as needed. It cobbles together elements from object-
oriented, semistructured, and network models.

Associative model
This model divides all the data points based on whether they
describe an entity or an association. In this model, an entity is
anything that exists independently, whereas an association is
something that only exists in relation to something else.
Pg. 13 Other database models

The associative model structures the data into two sets:

 A set of items, each with a unique identifier, a name, and a

type

 A set of links, each with a unique identifier and the unique

identifiers of a source, verb, and target. The stored fact has
to do with the source, and each of the three identifiers may
refer either to a link or an item.

Other, less common database models include:

 Semantic model, which includes information about how the

stored data relates to the real world

 XML database, which allows data to be specified and even

stored in XML format

 Named graph

 Triplestore
Pg. 14 NoSQL database models

NoSQL database models

In addition to the object database model, other non-SQL models
have emerged in contrast to the relational model:

The graph database model, which is even more flexible than a

network model, allowing any node to connect with any other.

The multivalue model, which breaks from the relational model

by allowing attributes to contain a list of data rather than a single
data point.

The document model, which is designed for storing and

managing documents or semi-structured data, rather than atomic
data.
Pg. 15
Pg. 16 Notes to Financial Statements

Notes to Financial Statements

Accounts
When you have a document that shows a lot of numbers, it’s a good idea to have a little text
that explains the numbers. You can do that here.

Debt
Of course, we would all prefer to just have profits. But if you’ve got any debt, this is the place to
make notes about it.

Going Concern
Okay, you get the idea. If you’ve got notes to add about your financials, add them here.

Contingent Liabilities
Keep in mind that some of these headings might not apply to your business (and you might
have others to add). This one, for example, is about potential liabilities that could arise if
something happens in the future, such as a pending legal decision.

Takeaways
What would you like your readers to understand? Add notes on key takeaways here.

Type caption here.

To replace the
picture with your
own, select it and
then press Delete.
You will see a
placeholder that
you can click to
select your image.
Pg. 17 Independent Auditor’s Report

Independent Auditor’s Report

1.1 Unqualified Opinion
1.2 Qualified Opinion Report
1.3 Adverse Opinion Report
1.4 Disclaimer of Opinion Report
1.5 Auditor’s Report on Internal Controls of Public Companies
1.6 Going Concern
Pg. 18 Contact Information

Contact Information
To replace a photo with your own, right-click it and then choose Change Picture.

Name Name
Title Title
Tel [Telephone] Tel [Telephone]
Fax [Fax] Fax [Fax]
[Email Address] [Email Address]

Name
Title
Tel [Telephone]
Fax [Fax]
[Email Address]

Company Information
[GROUP 5(R2) 1-50]
LETURER
MR IBEZIM
Tel 08138277890
Fax [DARLINGTON]
GROUP LEADER