MAT102 Tutorial Solutions

Exercises 2.2

• Determine the infinite limit

x+2
25. limx→−3+ x+3

Solution: We have x → −3+ which means that x > −3. It follows x + 3 > 0. As the
numerator of the quotient tends to −1, and the denominator tends to 0 through positive
numbers, the quotient is always negative, if x is close to −3. Hence our guess for the
limit is −∞. To prove this let K be arbitrary, and we should choose δ > 0 such that if
−3 < x < −3 + δ, then
x+2
< K.
x+3
We may assume that K < 0 and then the required inequality takes the form
x+2 x+3−1 1
K> = =1− ,
x+3 x+3 x+3
or
1 1 1
1−K < , or x + 3 < , or x < −3 + .
x+3 1−K 1−K
1 1
Let δ = 1−K
> 0 and we take any x with −3 < x < −3 + 1−K
. Then

1 1
0<x+3< , hence 1 − K < ,
1−K x+3
that is
x+2 1
=1− < K,
x+3 x+3
which was to be proved.
x−1
28. limx→0 x2 (x+1)

Solution: As x → 0, hence x − 1 → −1, the numerator is negative, and x2 → 0,

x + 1 → 1, hence the denominator is positive. Consequently, the quotient is always
negative if x is close to 0. Hence our guess for the limit is −∞. To prove this we apply
estimation and the Squeeze Theorem: we estimate the expression from above as follows:
1
x−1 2
−1 1 1
2
< 2
=− 2 < − 2.
x (x + 1) x (x + 1) 2x (x + 1) 4x

The explanation of this estimate is as follows: as x → 0, hence we may suppose that

x < 12 which proves the first inequality. For the second we observe that we have negative
1
numbers on both sides, hence to increase − 2x2 (x+1) we replace (x + 1) by 2. Finally,
the right hand side − 4x2 tends to −∞, and so does the smaller x2x−1
1
(x+1)
, by the Squeeze
Theorem.
 Exercises 2.3
• Evaluate the limit if it exists.
t2 −9
15. limt→−3 2t2 +7t+3

Solution: Both the top and the bottom is zero at −3, hence both expressions can be
factorized by t − (−3) = t + 3. We have
t2 − 9 (t − 3)(t + 3) t−3 6
lim = lim = lim = .
t→−3 2t2 + 7t + 3 t→−3 (2t + 1)(t + 3) t→−3 2t + 1 5
In the last step we apply the Limit Law for quotients: if the limit of the denominator is
different from zero, then the limit is obtained by substitution.
19. limx→−2 xx+2
3 +8

Solution: Both the top and the bottom is zero at −2, hence both expressions can be
factorized by x − (−2) = x + 2. We have
x+2 x+2 1 1
lim 3
= lim 2
= lim 2 = .
x→−2 x +8 x→−2 (x + 2)(x − 2x + 4) x→−2 x − 2x + 4 12
In the factorization we applied the identity
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
with the choice a = x, b = −2.
(2+h)3 −8
20. limh→0 h

Solution: Both the top and the bottom is zero at 0, hence both expressions can be
factorized by h − 0 = h. We have
(2 + h)3 − 8 8 + 12h + 6h2 + h3 − 8 12h + 6h2 + h3
lim = lim = lim = lim 12+6h+h2 = 12.
h→0 h h→0 h h→0 h h→0

In the first step we applied the identity

(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
with the choice a = 2, b = h.

Exercises 2.4
39. Find the limit, if it exists:
lim (2x + |x − 3|)
x→3

Solution: We check the left and right limits at 3: for the left limit let x < 3, then we have
x − 3 < 0, hence |x − 3| = −(x − 3) = 3 − x, and
lim (2x + |x − 3|) = lim− (2x + 3 − x) = lim− x + 3 = 6.
x→3− x→3 x→3

For the right limit let x > 3, then we have x − 3 > 0, hence |x − 3| = x − 3, and
lim (2x + |x − 3|) = lim− (2x + x − 3) = lim− 3x − 3 = 6.
x→3+ x→3 x→3

As both the left and right limit is 6, we have that the limit exists and
lim (2x + |x − 3|) = 6.
x→3
43. Find the limit, if it exists:
1 1

lim− −
x→0 x |x|

Solution: As x → 0− hence x < 0, and |x| = −x. We have then

1 1
1 1
2
lim− − = lim− + = lim− = −∞.
x→0 x |x| x→0 x x x→0 x

44. Find the limit, if it exists:

1 1

lim+ −
x→0 x |x|

Solution: As x → 0+ hence x > 0, and |x| = x. We have then

1 1
1 1

lim+ − = lim+ − = 0.
x→0 x |x| x→0 x x

49. If the symbol JxK denotes the greatest integer function, evaluate

(i) lim + JxK, (ii) lim JxK, (iii) lim JxK

x→−2 x→−2 x→−2.4

Solution:
(i) If x → −2+ , then x > −2, and we may assume that x < −1, hence JxK = −2. It follows

lim JxK = −2.

x→−2+

(ii) If x → −2− , then x < −2, and we may assume that x > −3, hence JxK = −3. It follows

lim JxK = −3.

x→−2−

As limx→−2− JxK 6= limx→−2+ JxK, the limit does not exist.

(iii) If x → −2.4, then we may assume that −3 < x < −2, hence JxK = −3. It follows

lim JxK = −3.

x→−2.4

51. If f (x) = JxK + J−xK, show that limx→2 f (x) exists but it is not equal to f (2).

Solution: As x → 2, we may assume that 1.5 < x < 2.5. We check the one-sided limits at 2. For
the left limit let x < 2, then −2 < −x < −1.5, hence

JxK = 1, J−xK = −2, and f (x) = JxK + J−xK = −1.

For the right limit let x > 2, then −2.5 < x < −2, hence

JxK = 2, J−xK = −3, and f (x) = JxK + J−xK = −1.

It follows that the limit exists, and it is −1. On the other hand, f (2) = 2 + (−2) = 0.
60. Evaluate √
6−x−2
lim √
x→2 3−x−1

Solution:
√ We√ apply the method of rationalization, multiplying both the top and bottom by
( 6 − x + 2)( 3 − x + 1) to get
√ √ √ √
6−x−2 ( 6 − x − 2)( 6 − x + 2)( 3 − x + 1)
lim √ = lim √ √ √ =
x→2 3 − x − 1 x→2 ( 3 − x − 1)( 6 − x + 2)( 3 − x + 1)
√ √ √
((6 − x) − 4)( 3 − x + 1) (2 − x)( 3 − x + 1) 3−x+1 1
lim √ = lim √ = lim √ = .
x→2 ((3 − x) − 1)( 6 − x + 2) x→2 (2 − x)( 6 − x + 2) x→2 6−x+2 2
In the last step we substitute x = 2, as th function is continuous at this point.

61. Is there a number a such that

3x2 + ax + a + 3
lim
x→−2 x2 + x − 2
exists? If so, find the value of a and the value of the limit.

Solution: For x 6= −2 can write the expression in the form

3x2 + ax + a + 3 a−3 15 − a
lim 2
= lim 3 + + .
x→−2 x +x−2 x→−2 x − 1 (x − 1)(x + 2)
The first two terms are continuous at −2, hence we can write, by substituting x = −2
3x2 + ax + a + 3 a−3 15 − a
lim 2
=3− + lim .
x→−2 x +x−2 3 x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
If a = 15, then the last expression is zero, hence we have, by substituting a = 15
3x2 + ax + a + 3 3x2 + 15x + 18 3(x + 3)(x + 2) 3(x + 3)
lim 2
= lim = lim = lim = −1.
x→−2 x +x−2 x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2) x→−2 x − 1

If a < 15, then 15 − a > 0, and x − 1 → −3, x + 2 → 0 as x → −1, hence

15 − a
lim − = +∞,
x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
and
15 − a
lim + = −∞,
x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
hence the limit does not exist. If a > 15, then 15 − a < 0, hence similarly
15 − a
lim − = −∞,
x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
and
15 − a
lim + = +∞,
x→−2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
and the limit does not exist. Hence the only number a for which the limit exists is a = 15, and in
that case the limit is −1.
 Exercises 2.5

11. Use the definition of continuity and the properties of limits to show that the function is
continuous at the given number a.

√
f (x) = x2 + 7 − x, a = 4

√
Solution: The function x 7→ x2 and the function x 7→ 7 − x is continuous at a = 4, hence their
limits√can be computed by substitution; then we apply the Limit Law for the sum: limx→a f (x) =
16 + 3 = f (a). It follows that f is continuous at a.

f (x) = (x + 2x3 )4 , a = −1

Solution: Argument is same as above, f can be obtained from the continuous function x 7→ x by
repeated application of the Limit Laws.

2t − 3t2
h(t) = , a=1
1 + t3

Solution: Argument is same as above, h can be obtained from the continuous function t 7→ t by
repeated application of the Limit Laws.

39. Find the numbers at which f is discontinuous. At which of these numbers is f continuous
from the right, from the left, or neither? Sketch the graph of f .

x + 2 if x < 0

f (x) = 2x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

2 − x if x > 1


Solution: We start with the graph of f :

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

-2 -1 1 2

The function is clearly continuous at any point a different from 0 and 1, as it is equal to a continuous
function in an open interval around a. At the point a = 0 we have

lim f (x) = lim− x + 2 = 2,

x→0− x→0
and
lim f (x) = lim− 2x2 = 0,
x→0+ x→0

further f (0) = 0. It follows that f is continuous from the right at 0, and it is discontinuous from
the left at 0. Hence the point a = 0 is a non-removable discontinuity.

At the point a = 1 we have

lim f (x) = lim− 2x2 = 2,
x→1− x→1

and
lim f (x) = lim+ 2 − x = 1,
x→1+ x→1

further f (1) = 2. It follows that f is continuous from the left at 1, and it is discontinuous from
the right at 1. Hence the point a = 1 is a non-removable discontinuity.

47. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that there is a root of the given equation in the
specified interval.
x4 + x − 3 = 0, (1, 2)

Solution: Let f (x) = x4 + x − 3, then f is a continuous function on the whole real line. We have
f (1) = −1 < 0, and f (2) = 15 > 0. By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f takes every value
between f (1) and f (2) in the interval (1, 2), hence there is a root c with 1 < c < 2 such that
c4 + c − 3 = 0.

61. Is there a number that is exactly 1 more than its cube?

Solution: Such a number must satisfy x = x3 + 1, or x3 − x + 1 = 0. Let f (x) = x3 − x + 1, then

f is a continuous function on the whole real line. Moreover, f (−2) = −5 < 0, and f (1) = 1 > 0.
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, f takes every value between f (−2) and f (1) in the interval
(−2, 1), hence there is a number c between −2 and 1 that is exactly 1 more than its cube.

63. Show that the function (

x4 sin(1/x) if x 6= 0
f (x) =
0 if x = 0
is continuous on (−∞, +∞).

Solution: The function f is continuous at every point a different from 0, as it is equal to a

continuous function in some open interval around a, by the Limit Laws.

We show that f is continuous at a = 0. For this it is enough to show that limx→0 f (x) = 0. We
apply the Squeeze Theorem: clearly, for each x 6= 0 we have
   
|f (x)| = x4 sin(1/x) = |x|4 · sin(1/x) ≤ |x|4 ,

that is
−|x|4 ≤ f (x) ≤ |x|4 ,
 
which implies our statement, as limx→0 |x|4 = 0. We used the fact that sin(1/x) ≤ 1.
 Chapter 2 Review – True-False quiz
Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain
why or give an example that disproves the statement.

•  2x 8  2x 8
lim − = lim − lim
x→4 x − 4 x−4 x→4 x − 4 x→4 x − 4

Solution: The statement is FALSE: the two limits on the right side do not exist.

•
x2 + 6x − 7 limx→1 x2 + 6x − 7
lim =
x→1 x2 + 5x − 6 limx→1 x2 + 5x − 6

Solution: The statement is FALSE: the right hand side makes no sense.

•
x−3 limx→1 x − 3
lim =
x→1 x2 + 2x − 4 limx→1 x2 + 2x − 4

Solution: The statement is TRUE: it follows from the Limit Law for quotients.

• If limx→5 f (x) = 2 and limx→5 g(x) = 0, then limx→5 [f (x)/g(x)] does not exist.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: if f (x) = 2 and g(x) = (x − 5)2 , then

f (x) 2
lim = lim = +∞.
x→5 g(x) x→5 (x − 5)2

• If limx→5 f (x) = 0 and limx→5 g(x) = 0, then limx→5 [f (x)/g(x)] does not exist.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: if f (x) = x − 5 and g(x) = x − 5, then

f (x) x−5
lim = lim = 1.
x→5 g(x) x→5 x − 5

• If limx→6 [f (x)g(x)] exists, then the limit must be f (6)g(6).

1
Solution: The statement is FALSE: if f (x) = x − 6 and g(x) = x−6
, then

f (x) x−6
lim = lim = 1,
x→6 g(x) x→6 x − 6

however g(6) is not defined.

• If p is a polynomial, then limx→b p(x) = p(b).

Solution: The statement is TRUE: every polynomial is continuous, hence the limit at every
point is obtained by substitution.
• If limx→0 f (x) = +∞ and limx→0 g(x) = +∞, then limx→0 [f (x) − g(x)] = 0.
1 1
Solution: The statement is FALSE: if f (x) = 1 + x2
and g(x) = x2
, then

lim [f (x) − g(x)] = lim 1 = 1.

x→0 x→0

• If the line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of y = f (x), then f is not defined at 1.

1
Solution: The statement is FALSE: if f (x) = (x−1) 2 for x 6= 1 and f (1) = 0, then

limx→1 f (x) = +∞, hence the line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of y = f (x), however, f
is defined at 1.

• If f (1) > 0 and f (3) < 0, then there exists a number c between 1 and 3 such that f (c) = 0.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: if f (x) = 1 for x ≤ 2 and f (x) = −1 for x > 2, then
there is no such c.

• If f is continuous at 5 and f (5) = 2 and f (4) = 3, then limx→2 f (4x2 − 11) = 2.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: the function

g(x) = f (4x2 − 11)

is a composition of the continuous function x 7→ 4x2 − 11 and the function f , which is

continuous at 5. On the other hand, if x → 2, then 4x2 − 11 → 5, hence the composite
function is continuous at 2, which implies that

lim f (4x2 − 11) = lim g(x) = g(2) = f (5) = 2.

x→2 x→2

• If f is continuous on [−1, 1] and f (−1) = 4 and f (1) = 3, then there exists a number r such
that |r| < 1 and f (r) = π.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: by the Intermediate Theorem, on the interval (−1, 1)
the continuous function f takes every value between 3 and 4. As 3 < π < 4, there is an r
with −1 < r < 1 such that f (r) = π. Observe, that −1 < r < 1 means |r| < 1.

• Let f be a function such that limx→0 f (x) = 6. Then there exists a number δ such that if
0 < |x| < δ, then |f (x) − 6| < 1.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: choose ε = 1 in the definition of the limit.

• If f (x) > 1 for all x and limx→0 f (x) exists, then limx→0 f (x) > 1.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = 1 + x2 for x 6= 0, and f (0) = 2. Then
f (x) > 1 for all x, and limx→0 f (x) = 1.

• The equation x10 − 10x2 + 5 = 0 has a root in the interval (0, 2).

Solution: The statement is TRUE: if f (x) = x10 − 10x2 + 5, then f (0) = 5 > 0, and
f (1) = −4 < 0 and f is continuous, hence f (c) = 0 for some c between 0 and 1.
Exercises 3.2

• Find the derivative of the function using the definition of derivative. State the
domain of the function and the domain of its derivative
√
23. g(x) = 1 + 2x

Solution: The domain of the function is the set of all x’s with 1 + 2x ≥ 0, that is
x ≥ − 12 . For the derivative we compute the limit
√ √
g(x) − g(a) 1 + 2x − 1 + 2a
lim = lim .
x→a x−a x→a x−a
Here a ≥ − 12 , and for a = − 12 the above limit is meant as right limit. We rationalize the
numerator:
√ √ √ √ √ √
1 + 2x − 1 + 2a 1 + 2x − 1 + 2a 1 + 2x + 1 + 2a
lim = lim ·√ √ =
x→a x−a x→a x−a 1 + 2x + 1 + 2a

(1 + 2x) − (1 + 2a) 2(x − a)

lim √ √ = lim √ √ =
x→a (x − a)( 1 + 2x + 1 + 2a) x→a (x − a)( 1 + 2x + 1 + 2a)
2 1
lim √ √ = .
x→a 1 + 2x + 1 + 2a 1 + 2a
Observe that this is not defined at a = − 21 . Hence the derivative of g is

1 1
g 0 (x) = , defined for x > − .
1 + 2x 2
4t
25. G(t) = t+1

Solution: The domain of the function is the set of all t’s with t + 1 6= 0, that is t 6= −1.
For the derivative we compute the following limit for a 6= 1:
4t 4a
G(t) − G(a) t+1
− a+1 4(t − a) 4 4
lim = lim = lim = lim = .
t→a t−a x→a t−a t→a (t + 1)(a + 1)(t − a) t→a (t + 1)(a + 1) (a + 1)2

Hence the derivative of G is

4
G0 (t) = , defined for t 6= −1.
(t + 1)2

49. Show that the function f (x) = |x − 6| is not differentiable at 6. Find a formula for
f 0 and sketch its graph.

Solution: We compute the left and right limits of

f (x) − f (6)
x−6
at the point 6. For the left limit we have x < 6, and |x − 6| = −(x − 6), hence

f (x) − f (6) −(x − 6)

lim− = lim− = −1,
x→6 x−6 x→6 x−6
and similarly, for the right limit we have x > 6, and |x − 6| = x − 6, hence

f (x) − f (6) x−6

lim+ = lim+ = 1.
x→6 x−6 x→6 x − 6

It follows that the limit

f (x) − f (6)
lim
x→6 x−6
does not exist, hence the function f is not differentiable at 6. We have
(
−1 for x < 6
f 0 (x) =
1 for x > 6.

The graph of f 0 is as follows:

1.0

0.5

5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0

-0.5

-1.0

51.
a) Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x|x|.
b) For what values of x is f differentiable?
c) Find a formula for f 0 .

Solution: a) The graph of f is as follows:

1.0

0.5

-1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0

-0.5

-1.0

b) We have to calculate the limit

x|x| − a|a|
lim .
x→a x−a
Suppose that a > 0, then if x is close to a, then x > 0 and |a| = a, |x| = x, hence

x|x| − a|a| x2 − a2 |a|

lim = lim = lim (x + a) = 2a = 2|a|.
x→a x−a x→a x−a x→a
 If a < 0, then, by the same argument x < 0 and we have |a| = −a, |x| = −x, hence

x|x| − a|a| −x2 + a2 |a|

lim = lim = lim −(x + a) = −2a = 2|a|.
x→a x−a x→a x−a x→a

Finally, if a = 0, then

x|x| − a|a| x|x|

lim = lim = lim |x| = 0 = 2|a|.
x→a x−a x→0 x x→0

Consequently, for all values of a we have that f 0 (a) exists and f 0 (a) = 2|a|.
c) In other words, f 0 (x) = 2|x|.

Exercises 3.3

• Differentiate.
 
1 3
25. F (y) = y2
− y4
(y + 5y 3 )

Solution: The easiest way is to expand the product and then differentiate the sum term
by term, applying the differentiation rule for general power functions:
1 3 5
F (y) = + 5y − 4 − = y −1 + 5y − 3y −4 − 5y −1 ,
y y y
hence
4 12
F 0 (y) = −y −2 + 5 + 12y −5 + 5y −2 = 5 + 2
+ 5.
y y
x
41. f (x) = x+ xc

Solution: Here we have a quotient, and also in the denominator there is another quo-
tient:
(x)0 (x + xc ) − x(x + xc )0 x + xc − x(1 − c
x2
) c
+ xc 2c
f 0 (x) = = = x
c 2 = .
(x + xc )2 (x + xc )2 (x + x ) x(x + xc )2

53. Find an equation of the tangent line and normal line to the curve at the given point:
√
y = x + x, (1, 2).

Solution: The equation of the tangent line at the point (a, f (a)) is

y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a),

and the equation of the normal line at the point (a, f (a)) is
1
y − f (a) = − (x − a),
f 0 (a)

assuming that f 0 (a) exists and is different from 0. We have

√
f (x) = y = x + x = x + x1/2 ,
 hence
1 1
f 0 (x) = 1 + x−1/2 = 1 + √ ,
2 2 x
and a = 1, f (a) = 2, consequently the two equations are:
1
3 1
y−2= 1+ (x − 1), or y = x + (tangent line),
2 2 2
and
1 2 8
y − 2 = − 1 + )−1 (x − 1), or y = − x + (normal line).
2 3 3
71. Find the points on the curve

y = 2x3 + 3x2 − 12x + 1

where the tangent is horizontal.

Solution: The tangent is horizontal at those points where the derivative is zero. We
have
y 0 = 6x2 + 6x − 12,
hence we need to solve the equation 6x2 + 6x − 12 = 0, or

x2 + x − 2 = 0,

the solutions are x = 1 and x = −2. The corresponding y values are y(1) = −6 and
y(−2) = 21, hence the tangent is horizontal at the points (1, −6) and (−2, 21).

Exercises 3.4

26.

a) Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve

y = sec x − 2 cos x

at the point (π/3, 1).

Solution: The equation of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) has
the form
y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a).
In our case we have f (x) = sec x, hence f 0 (x) = sec x tan x + 2 sin x, and a = π/3. Substituting
we have
√
f (a) = sec π/3 − 2 cos π/3 = 1, f 0 (a) = sec π/3 tan π/3 + 2 sin π/3 = 3 3,

and the equation for the tangent line at the given point is
√
y − 1 = 3 3(x − π/3).
b) Illustrate part a) by graphing the curve and the tangent line on the same screen.

Solution:

10

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

-5

-10

33. For what values of x does the graph of f (x) = x + 2 sin x have a horizontal tangent?

Solution: The tangent is horizontal at x, if its slope, i.e. the derivative at x is zero. We have

f 0 (x) = 1 + 2 cos x,

hence we have to solve the trigonometric equation

1
1 + 2 cos x = 0, that is cos x = − .
2
It follows x = 2π/3 ± 2kπ or x = 4π/3 ± 2kπ (k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ).

39. Find the limit

sin 3x
lim .
x→0 x

Solution: We have
sin 3x 3 sin 3x sin 3x
lim = lim = 3 lim = 3,
x→0 x x→0 3x x→0 3x

as x → 0 implies 3x → 0, hence
sin 3x
lim = 1.
x→0 3x

48. Find the limit

sin(x − 1)
lim .
x→1 x2 + x − 2

Solution: We have
sin(x − 1) sin(x − 1) 1 sin(x − 1)
lim 2
= lim = lim .
x→1 x + x − 2 x→1 (x − 1)(x + 2) x→1 x + 2 x−1
sin(x−1)
Here limx→1 x−1
= 1, as x − 1 → 0 if x → 1. Hence we have

sin(x − 1) 1 sin(x − 1) 1
lim = lim lim = ,
x→1 x2 + x − 2 x→1 x + 2 x→1 x−1 3
1
by continuity of x+2
at x = 1.
Exercises 3.5

• Find the derivative of the function.

40. f (x) = sin(sin(sin x))

Solution: We apply the Chain Rule: here f = a ◦ b ◦ c, with a(x) = b(x) = c(x) = sin x.
We have
f 0 (x) = cos(sin(sin x)) · cos(sin x) · cos x.
p √
41. f (x) = 1 + x
√ √
Solution: We apply the Chain Rule: here f = a ◦ b, with a(x) = x and b(x) = 1 + x.
As √
d x 1
= √ ,
dx 2 x
we have
1 1 1
f 0 (x) = p √ · √ = p √ .
2 1+ x 2 x 4 x+x x
• Find the first and second derivatives of the function.

49. H(t) = tan 3t

Solution: By the Chain Rule

1 1
H 0 (t) = 3 2
=3 = 3(cos 3t)−2 ,
cos 3t (cos 3t)2
and
sin 3t
H 00 (t) = 3 · (−2) · (cos 3t)−3 · (− sin 3t) · 3 = 18 .
cos3 3t
50. y = √4x
x+1

Solution: We write y = √4x = 4x(x + 1)1/2 , hence, by the Chain Rule

x+1

1
y 0 = 4 · (x + 1)1/2 + 4x · (x + 1)−1/2 = 4(x + 1)1/2 + 2x(x + 1)−1/2 ,
2
and
1 1

y 00 = 4 · · (x + 1)−1/2 + 2 · (x + 1)−1/2 + 2x · − · (x + 1)−3/2 =
2 2
3x + 4
4(x + 1)−1/2 − x(x + 1)−3/2 = p .
(x + 1)3

51. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = (1 + 2x)10 at the point (0, 1).

Solution: The equation has the form

y − y(0) = y 0 (0) · (x − 0), or y = y 0 (0)x + 1.

We have y 0 = 10(1 + 2x)9 · 2 = 20(1 + 2x)9 , hence y 0 (0) = 20, and the equation is

y = 20x + 1.
68. Suppose f is differentiable on R and α is a real number. Let F (x) = f (xα ) and
G(x) = [f (x)]α . Find expressions for F 0 (x) and G0 (x).

Solution: We apply the Chain Rule in both cases. In the first case

F 0 (x) = f 0 (xα ) · α · xα−1 ,

and in the second case

G0 (x) = α · [f (x)]α−1 · f 0 (x).
71. If F (x) = f (3f (4f (x))), where f (0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = 2, find F 0 (0).

Solution: By the Chain Rule, we have

F 0 (x) = f 0 (3f (4f (x))) · 3 · f 0 (4f (x)) · 4f 0 (x),

hence

F 0 (0) = f 0 (3f (4f (0))) · 3 · f 0 (4f (0)) · 4f 0 (0) = 12 · f 0 (0) · f 0 (0) · f 0 (0) = 12 · 8 = 96.

74. Find the given derivative by finding the first few derivatives and observing the pattern
that occurs:
d35 (x sin x)
.
dx35

Solution: We start with computing the successive derivatives:

d(x sin x)
= sin x + x cos x,
dx
d2 (x sin x)
= cos x + cos x − x sin x = 2 cos x − x sin x,
dx2
d3 (x sin x)
= −2 sin x − sin x − x cos x = −3 sin x − x cos x
dx3
d4 (x sin x)
= −3 cos x − cos x + x sin x = −4 cos x + x sin x
dx4
d5 (x sin x)
= 4 sin x + sin x + x cos x = 5 sin x + x cos x.
dx5
Now we can see the pattern which shows that after four steps we have ”almost” the
same expression, the only difference is the coefficient in the first term, which is always
the order of the actual derivative. Otherwise, the sin and cos alternate, in the first term
starting with sin, in the second term with cos, the latter multiplied by x. Finally, the
signs follow the pattern +, +, −, − in the first term, and +, −, −, + in the second term.
Hence, by 35 = 32 + 3 we guess the following formula for the 35-th derivative

d35 (x sin x)
= −35 sin x − x cos x.
dx35
Exercises 3.6
dy
• Find dx
by implicit differentiation.

18.
y
tan(x − y) =
1 + x2

Solution: We differentiate both side with respect to x:

1 0 y 0 · (1 + x2 ) − y · 2x
· (1 − y ) = .
tan2 (x − y) (1 + x2 )2
dy
We can express dx
= y 0 from this equation by elementary calculation:

dy  2xy tan2 (x − y)  tan2 (x − y) + 1 −1

= 1+ .
dx (1 + x2 )2 1 + x2

20.
sin x + cos y = sin x cos y

Solution: We differentiate both side with respect to x:

cos x − sin y · y 0 = cos x cos y − sin x sin y · y 0 ,

dy
or with dx
= y0
dy
sin y(sin x − 1) = cos x(cos y − 1),
dx
hence
dy cos x(cos y − 1)
= .
dx sin y(sin x − 1)
21. If f (x) + x2 [f (x)]3 = 10 and f (1) = 2, find f 0 (1).

Solution: By implicit differentiation we have

f 0 (x) + 2x · [f (x)]3 + x2 · 3[f (x)]2 · f 0 (x) = 0,

then putting x = 1 it follows

f 0 (1) + 2 · 8 + 3 · 4 · f 0 (1) = 0, or 13f 0 (1) = −16,

hence
16
f 0 (1) = − .
13
22. If g(x) + x sin g(x) = x2 , find g 0 (0).

Solution: Putting x = 0 in the equation we get g(0) = 0. By implicit differentiation we

have
g 0 (x) + sin g(x) + x cos g(x) · g 0 (x) = 2x,
then putting x = 0 it follows

g 0 (0) + sin g(0) = 0, or g 0 (0) = 0.

• Regard y as the independent variable and x as the dependent variable and use
implicit differentiation to find dx
dy
.

23. x4 y 2 − x3 y + 2xy 3 = 0

Solution: We differentiate both sides with respect to y, then we have

dx 2 dx dx 3
4x3 · · y + x4 · 2y − 3x2 · · y − x3 + 2 · · y + 2x · 3 · y 2 = 0.
dy dy dy
dx
We factor dy
out to get

dx
(4x3 y 2 − 3x2 + 2y 3 ) = x3 − 2x4 y − 6xy 2 ,
dy
hence
dx x3 − 2x4 y − 6xy 2
= 3 2 .
dy 4x y − 3x2 + 2y 3
24. y sec x = x tan y

Solution: We differentiate both sides with respect to y, then we have

dx dx
sec x + y sec x tan x · = tan y + x sec2 y.
dy dy
Re-ordering the terms gives
dx
(tan y − y sec x tan x) = sec x − x sec2 y,
dy
or
dx sec x − x sec2 y
= .
dy tan y − y sec x tan x

• Use implicit differentiation to find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at
the given point.
27. x2 + y 2 = (2x2 + 2y 2 − x)2 , (0, 12 ) (cardioid)

Solution: Implicit differentiation gives y 0 = y 0 (x):

2x + 2y · y 0 = 2(2x2 + 2y 2 − x) · (4x + 4y · y 0 − 1).

1
Substituting x = 1, y = 2
we have

y 0 (0) = 2y 0 (0) − 1, or y 0 (0) = 1.

Hence the equation of the tangent line is

1 1
y− = x, or y = x + .
2 2
. 2

-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

-1

-2

√
28. x2/3 + y 2/3 = 4, (−3 3, 1) (astroid)

Solution: Implicit differentiation gives y 0 = y 0 (x):

2 −1/3 2 −1/3 0 y 1/3

x + y y = 0, y0 = − .
3 3 x1/3
√
Substituting x = −3 3, y = 1 we have
√
√ 3
y 0 (−3 3) = .
3
Hence the equation of the tangent line is
√ √
3 √ 3
y−1= (x + 3 3), or y = x + 4.
3 3

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4
 • Find y 00 by implicit differentiation.
√ √
34. x + y = 1

Solution: First we compute y 0 : as x1/2 + y 1/2 = 1, hence

1 −1/2 1 −1/2 0
x + y y = 0, or x−1/2 + y −1/2 y 0 = 0 (1)
2 2
and we differentiate once more with respect to x:
1 1 1 1
− x−3/2 − y −3/2 (y 0 )2 + y −1/2 y 00 = 0, or y 00 = x−3/2 y 1/2 + y −1 (y 0 )2 . (2)
2 2 2 2
From equation (1) we have
y 0 = −y 1/2 x−1/2 ,
which gives, by substitution into (2),
1 1 1 1 1
y 00 = x−3/2 y 1/2 + x−1 = x−3/2 (1 − x1/2 ) + x−1 = √ .
2 2 2 2 2x x

36. x4 + y 4 = a4

Solution: First we compute y 0 :

x3
4x3 + 4y 3 y 0 = 0, or x3 + y 3 y 0 = 0, or y 0 = − .
y3
It follows
3x2 + 3y 2 y 0 = 0, or x3 + y 3 (y 0 )2 + y 3 y 00 = 0,
hence
x6
x3 − + y 3 y 00 = 0, or y 6 y 00 = x6 − x3 y 3 ,
y3
which implies
x6 x3
y 00 = − 3.
y6 y

Chapter 3 Review – True-False quiz

Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain
why or give an example that disproves the statement.

• If f is continuous at a, then f is differentiable at a.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at a = 0, but its
left derivative at this point is −1, and its right derivative at this point is 1, hence it is not
differentiable at a = 0.

• If f and g are differentiable, then

d
[f (x) + g(x)] = f 0 (x) + g 0 (x).
dx

Solution: The statement is TRUE, by the Sum Rule for differentiation.

• If f and g are differentiable, then
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f 0 (x)g 0 (x).
dx

Solution: The statement is FALSE: for f (x) = g(x) = x we have f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) = 1, hence
d d 2
[f (x)g(x)] = [x ] = 2x 6= 1 = 1 · 1 = f 0 (x)g 0 (x).
dx dx
• If f and g are differentiable, then
d
[f g(x) ] = f 0 (g(x) g 0 (x).



dx

Solution: The statement is TRUE, by the Chain Rule.

• If f is differentiable, then
dp f 0 (x)
f (x) = p .
dx 2 f (x)

Solution: The statement is TRUE, by the Chain Rule (assuming that f (x) > 0 for each x).
• If f is differentiable, then
d √ f 0 (x)
f ( x) = √ .
dx 2 x
√ d √
Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = x2 for x > 0, then f ( x) = x, dx f ( x) = 1.
0 √
On the other hand, f 0 (x) = 2x, and f2√(x)
x
= 2x
√ =
2 x
x, hence the equality does not hold.
•
d 2
|x + x| = |2x + 1|.
dx

Solution: The statement is FALSE: the right side is 1 at x = 0, and the left side is not
2
defined at x = 0. Indeed, the difference quotient of f (x) = |x2 + x| at 0 is |x x+x| , and we have
|x2 + x| |x|
lim− = lim− · |x + 1| = lim− −|x + 1| = −1,
x→0 x x→0 x x→0

however
|x2 + x| |x|
lim+ = lim+ · |x + 1| = lim+ |x + 1| = 1.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0

• If f 0 (r) exists, then limx→r f (x) = f (r).

Solution: The statement is TRUE: if f 0 (r) exists, then f is differentiable at r, hence it is

also continuous at r, which implies the statement.
g(x)−g(2)
• If g(x) = x5 , then limx→2 x−2
= 80.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: we have g 0 (x) = 5x4 , and g 0 (2) = 80. On the other hand,
g(x) − g(2)
g 0 (2) = lim .
x→2 x−2
•
d2 y  dy 2
= .
dx2 dx

d2 y dy 2


Solution: The statement is FALSE: let y(x) = x, then dx2
= 0, and dx
= 1.

• An equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x2 at (−2, 4) is y − 4 = 2x(x + 2).

Solution: The statement is FALSE: The given equation is not an equation of a line, as it is
quadratic.

•
d d
(tan2 x) = (sec2 x).
dx dx

Solution: The statement is TRUE:

tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x.

Exercises 4.1

• Find the critical numbers of the function

34. g(t) = |3t − 4|.

Solution: The function g is defined on the whole real line, it is not differentiable at
x1 = 43 , hence x1 is a critical number. As g 0 (t) = −3 for t < 43 and g 0 (t) = 3 for t > 43 ,
there is no other critical number.
39. F (x) = x4/5 (x − 4)2 .

Solution: The function F is defined on the whole real line, it is not differentiable at
2
x1 = 0, hence x1 is a critical number. As F 0 (x) = 2(7x −36x+32)
√
55x
for x 6= 0, x 6= 0 is another
critical number if and only if 7x − 36x + 32 = 0, which gives x2 = 78 , or x3 = 4. There
2

is no other critical number.

• Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f on the given interval.

47. f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 1, [−2, 3]

Solution: First we find the critical points in (−2, 3). The function is differentiable,
hence the critical points satisfy f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 120, that is x1 = −1, x2 = 2. We
also consider the two endpoints x3 = −2 and x4 = 3 as possible extremal points. The
corresponding function values are:

f (−1) = 8, f (2) = −19, f (−2) = −3, f (3) = −8,

hence the absolute maximum is 8 at x1 = −1, and the absolute minimum is −19 at
x2 = 2 on the given interval.
 55. f (t) = 2 cos t + sin 2t, [0, π/2]

Solution: First we find the critical points in (0, π/2). The function is differentiable,
hence the critical points satisfy f 0 (t) = −2 sin t + 2 cos 2t = 0, that is cos 2t = sin t, that
is
cos2 t − sin2 t = sin t,
which can be written as
2 sin2 t + sin t − 1 = 0.
From this we have sin t = 21 , that is t1 = π6 , or sin t = −1, which gives no solution in
the given interval. We also consider the two endpoints t2 = 0 and t3 = π/2 as possible
extremal points. The corresponding function values are:
π √ π
f ( ) = 3 3, f (0) = 2, f ( ) = 0,
6 2
√
hence the absolute minimum is 0 at t3 = π/2, and the absolute maximum is 3 3 at
t1 = π6 on the given interval.

Exercises 4.2

• 17. Show that the equation 1 + 2x + x3 + 4x5 = 0 has exactly one real root.

Solution: The derivative of the function f (x) = 1 + 2x + x3 + 4x5 is f 0 (x) = 2 + 3x2 + 20x4 ,
which is never zero, in fact, it is always at least 2. If f had two real roots x1 < x2 , then it
would satisfy all conditions of Rolle’s theorem on the interval [x1 , x2 ], hence f 0 would be zero
at some point between x1 and x2 , which is not the case.
√
• 27. Show that 1 + x < 1 + 21 x if x > 0.
√
Solution: We apply the Mean Value Theorem for the function f (t) = 1 + t on the interval
[0, x]. Clearly, all the conditions are satisfied: the function f is continuous on [0, x] and is
differentiable on (0, x). Hence there exists a c such that 0 < c < x and
√
f (x) − f (0) = f 0 (c)(x − 0), that is 1 + x − 1 = f 0 (c)x.

We have f 0 (t) = √1 ,
2 1+t
hence, by substitution

√ 1 1
1+x=1+ √ x < 1 + x,
2 1+c 2
as c > 0.

Exercises 4.3

• (a) Find the intervals on which f is increasing or decreasing. (b) Find the local maximum
and minimum values of f . (c) Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points.

11. f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3

Solution: The function is defined everywhere. The derivative is

f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 4x = 4x(x2 − 1) = 4x(x − 1)(x + 1).

 The critical numbers are x1 = −1, x2 = 0, x3 = 1. If x < −1, then all the three factors
are negative, hence f 0 (x) < 0 and f is decreasing on (−∞, −1). If −1 < x < 0, then two
factors are negative and one is positive, hence f 0 (x) > 0 and f is increasing on (−1, 0).
It follows that −1 is a local minimum, with value f (−1) = 2. If 0 < x < 1, then one
factor is negative and two are positive, hence f 0 (x) < 0 and f is decreasing on (0, 1). It
follows that 0 is a local maximum, with value f (0) = 3. Finally, if x > 1, then all three
factors are positive, hence f 0 (x) > 0 and f is increasing on (1, +∞). It follows that 1 is
a local minimum, with value f (1) = 2.
For concavity we consider the second derivative:
√ √
f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 4 = 4(3x2 − 1) = 4( 3x − 1)( 3x + 1).
√ √ √
√1 3 3 3
The zeros are x1 = 3
= 3
, and x2 = − √13 = − 3
. If x < − 3√
, then both factors are
√ √
00 3
negative, hence f (x) > 0, and f is concave upward on (−∞, − If − 33 < x < 33 ,
3
).
then one factor is√ negative,
√
the other is positive,
√
hence f 00 (x) < 0, and f is concave
downward
√
on (− 33 , 33 ). It follows that at − 33 we have an inflection point. Finally, if
x√> 33 , then both factors are √
positive, hence f 00 (x) > 0, and f is concave upward on
( 33 , +∞). It follows that at 33 we have another inflection point.
13. f (x) = sin x + cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π

Solution: The derivative is

√ π
f 0 (x) = cos x − sin x =


2 sin − x .
4
The critical numbers are x1 = π4 , x2 = 5π 4
. If 0 < x < π4 , then 0 < π4 − x < π4 , hence
f 0 (x) > 0 and f is increasing on (0, π4 ). If π4 < x < 5π 4
, then −π < π4 − x < 0, hence
0 π 5π π
f (x) < 0 and f is decreasing on ( 4 , 4 ). It follows that 4 is a local maximum, with value
√
f ( π4 ) = 2. Finally, if 5π < x < 2π, then − 7π < π4 − x < −π,, hence f 0 (x) > 0 and f is
4 4 √
increasing on ( 5π
4
, 2π). It follows that 5π
4
is a local minimum, with value f ( 5π
4
) = − 2.
For concavity we consider the second derivative:
√ π
f 00 (x) = − 2 cos − x .


4
The zeros are x1 = 3π 4
, and x2 = 7π 4
. If 0 < x < 3π 4
, then − π2 < π4 − x < π4 , hence
f 00 (x) < 0, and f is concave downward on (0, 3π 4
). If 3π4
< x < 7π4
, then − 3π
2
< π4 − x < π2 ,
hence f 00 (x) > 0, and f is concave upward on ( 3π 4
, 7π
4
). It follows that at 3π 4
we have an
inflection point. Finally, if 4 < x < 2π, then − 4 < π4 − x < − 3π
7π 7π
2
, hence f 00 (x) < 0,
and f is concave downward on ( 7π 4
, 2π). It follows that at 7π 4
we have another inflection
point.

• Find the local maximum and minimum values of f using both the First and Second Derivative
Tests.
x
16. f (x) = x2 +4

Solution: The function is defined everywhere. The derivative is

−x2 + 4
f 0 (x) = ,
(x2 + 4)2
 hence the critical points are x1 = −2, x2 = 2. The second derivative is

2x(x2 − 12)
f 00 (x) = .
(x2 + 4)3

We have f 00 (x1 ) = f 00 (−2) > 0, hence f has a local minimum at −2 with value f (−2) =
− 41 . Further, f 00 (x2 ) = f 00 (2) < 0, hence f has a local maximum at 2 with value f (2) = 14 .
√
17. f (x) = x + 1 − x

Solution: The function is defined on (−∞, 1]. The derivative is

1
f 0 (x) = 1 − √ for x < 1,
2 1−x
hence the critical points are are obtained from the equation
√ 1
2 1 − x = 1, or 1 − x = ,
4
and x = 43 . Also x2 = 1 is a critical point but as an endpoint, it does not provide a local
extremum.
The second derivative is
1
f 00 (x) = − for x < 1,
4(1 − x)3/2
3
which is always negative. It follows that the function has a local maximum at 4
with
value f ( 43 ) = 54 .

• (a) Find the intervals of increase or decrease. (b) Find the local maximum and minimum
values. (c) Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points. (d) Use the information
from parts (a)–(c) to sketch the graph. Check your work with a graphing device if you have
one.
√
38. G(x) = x − 4 x

Solution: The domain is the set of nonnegative real numbers. The derivative is
2
G0 (x) = 1 − √ for x > 0.
x

The critical points are obtained from the equation G0 (x) = 0, hence x = 4. Also x = 0
is a critical point, as G0 (0) does not exist. If 0 < x < 4, then G0 (x) < 0, hence G is
decreasing on [0, 4). If 4 < x < +∞, then G0 (x) > 0, hence G is decreasing on (4, +∞).
It follows that G has a local minimum at x = 4 with value G(4) = −4.
The second derivative is
1
G00 (x) == x−3/2 = for x > 0.
x3/2
This is always positive, hence the function is concave downward on the whole domain.
There is no inflection point. The graph of the function is given below.
 -1.5

-2.0

-2.5

-3.0

-3.5

2 4 6 8 10

40. f (t) = t + cos t, −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π

Solution: The derivative is

f 0 (x) = 1 − sin t.
The critical points are obtained from the equation sin t = 1, hence x1 = − 3π 2
and x2 = π2
in the given domain. As sin t ≤ 1 for each t, we have f 0 (t) ≥ 0, hence f is increasing on
the whole domain. Consequently, f has no local extrema.
The second derivative is
f 00 (t) = − cos t.
If −2π < t < − 3π 2
, or − π2 < t < π2 , or 3π 2
< t < 2π, then f 00 (t) < 0, hence f is
concave upward on the intervals (−2π, − 3π 2
), (− π2 , π2 ) and ( 3π
2
, 2π). If − 3π
2
< t < − π2 , or
π
2
< t < 3π 2
, then f 00 (t) > 0, hence f is concave downward on the intervals (− 3π 2
, − π2 )
π 3π π 3π
and ( 2 , 2 ). The points ± 2 and ± 2 are inflection points. The graph of the function is
given below.

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4

Exercises 4.4

• Determine the limit at infinity

1−x−x2
11. limx→−∞ 2x2 −7

Solution: As the degrees of the numerator and denominator are equal, we expect a
finite limit. Indeed, we simplify the expression by dividing both the top and the bottom
by the highest degree term: x2 to get
1
1 − x − x2 x2
− x1 − 1 1
lim = lim 7 =− .
x→−∞ 2x2 − 7 x→−∞ 2 − x2 2

The explanation of this conclusion is as follows: in the numerator of the quotient (marked
with red circle) the terms x12 and x1 tend to zero as x → −∞, and the same holds for
the term x72 in the denominator. Consequently, by the Limit Laws, we conclude that the
quotient tends to
0−0−1 1
=− .
2−0 2
We can get this result immediately by referring the rule: if in a rational function the
degrees of the polynomials in the top and in the bottom are equal, then the limit at
±∞ is equal to the ratio of the leading coefficients.
x3 +5x
13. limx→∞ 2x3 −x2 +4

Solution: By the previous rule, the limit is 21 .

√
9x6 −x
18. limx→−∞ x3 +1

Solution: We want to use common square root for the top and the bottom. However,
as the denominator is negative for large negative values of x, hence we can write
p √
x3 + 1 = − (x3 + 1)2 = − x6 + 2x3 + 1,

and √ s r
9x6
−x 9x6 − x 9x6 − x
3
=− = − .
x +1 (x3 + 1)2 x6 + 2x3 + 1
9
Under the square root, by the previous rule about leading coefficients, the limit is 1
= 9,
and by the Limit Laws, the limit is equal to −3.
√
19. limx→∞ 9x2 + x − 3x
√
2
Solution: We multiply the expression by 1 = √9x +x+3x and apply the identity (a −
9x2 +x+3x
b)(a + b) = a2 − b2 to get
√
√ √ 9x2 + x + 3x
lim 9x + x − 3x = lim ( 9x + x − 3x) · √
2 2 =
x→∞ x→∞ 9x2 + x + 3x
√ √
( 9x2 + x − 3x)( 9x2 + x + 3x) (9x2 + x) − 9x2
lim √ = lim √ =
x→∞ 9x2 + x + 3x x→∞ 9x2 + x + 3x
x 1 1
lim √ = lim q = .
x→∞ 9x2 + x + 3x x→∞ 9 + 1 + 3 6
x

In the last step we simplify the quotient (marked by red circle) by dividing both the top
and bottom by x which appears under the square root as division by x2 , and finally we
apply the Limit Laws.
 Exercises 4.5
Use the guidelines of this section to sketch the curve.
1
11. y = x2 −9

Solution:
A. Domain The domain is the set of those real numbers, where the denominator is different from
zero, that is, x2 6= 9, consequently x 6= ±3, hence Dom = (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
B. Intercepts The y-intercept is f (0) = − 91 , and there are no x-intercepts: the function never
takes the zero value.
C. Symmetry If we put −x for x in the formula for f we have
1 1
f (−x) = = = f (x),
(−x)2 − 9 x2 − 9
hence f is an even function, its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis. The function is not
periodic as it has limits zero at infinities.
D. Asymptotes Horizontal asymptotes appear if the limits at infinities are finite. We have
1
lim = 0,
x→±∞ x2 −9
hence the line y = 0, i.e. the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
Vertical asymptotes appear if the function has infinite limit, or one-sided limit at some finite
points. We have
1 1
lim − 2 = +∞, lim + 2 = −∞,
x→−3 x − 9 x→−3 x − 9

1 1
lim− 2 = −∞, lim+ 2 = +∞,
x→3 x − 9 x→3 x − 9

hence the lines x = ±3 are vertical asymptotes.

Slant asymptotes do not appear, as – in case of rational functions – they appear if and only if the
degree of the numerator is one greater than that of the denominator, which is not the case here.
E. Intervals of increase or decrease The derivative of f is
2x
f 0 (x) = − .
(x2 − 9)2
The critical points are obtained from the equation
2x
f 0 (x) = − = 0,
(x2 − 9)2
which gives x = 0 as the only critical point. If x < 0, then f 0 (x) > 0, hence f is increasing on the
intervals (−∞, −3) and (−3, 0). Observe that it DOES NOT MEAN that f is increasing on
the whole interval (−∞, 0)! If x > 0, then we have similarly – or using the evenness of f – that f
is decreasing on the intervals (0, 3) and (3, +∞).
F. Local maximum and minimum values For finding local maximum and minimum values we
may use the First Derivative Test, or the Second Derivative Test. Using the First Derivative Test
we argue as follows: at the only critical point x = 0 the derivative changes the sign from positive
to negative, as we have seen above, hence x = 0 is a local maximum with value f (0) = − 91 .
G. Concavity and points of inflection The second derivative of the function is

6(x2 + 3)
f 00 (x) = ,
(x2 − 9)3

whose sign depends on the sign of the denominator only. If x < −3 or x > 3, then f 00 (x) > 0,
hence f is concave upward on the intervals (−∞, −3) and (3, +∞). If −3 < x < 3, then f 00 (x) < 0,
hence f is concave downward on the interval (−3, 3). The function has no inflection point.
Using the second derivative we can verify again our statement in the previous paragraph about
local extrema, by the Second Derivative Test: f 00 (0) = − 18
93
< 0, hence x = 0 is a local maximum.
H. Sketch the curve The graph of f is given below:
0.6

0.4

0.2

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

sin x
37. y = 1+cos x

Solution:
A. Domain The domain is the set of real numbers, where the denominator is different from
S is, cos x 6= −1, consequently
zero, that
x 6= ±(2k + 1)π where k = 0, ±1 ± 2, . . . , hence we have
Dom = ∞ k=−∞ (2k − 1)π, (2k + 1)π .
B. Intercepts The y-intercept is y(0) = 0. The x-intercepts are the solutions of the equation
sin x
y(x) = = 0, or sin x = 0.
1 + cos x
It follows that the x-intercepts are at x = 2kπ with k = 0, ±2π, ±4π, . . . .
C. Symmetry If we put −x for x in the formula for y we have
sin(−x) − sin x
y(−x) = = = −y(x),
1 + cos(−x) 1 + cos x
hence f is an odd function, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. The function is
periodic with smallest positive period 2π.
D. Asymptotes Horizontal asymptotes appear if the limits at infinities are finite. As the function
is periodic and not constant, it has no limits at infinities.
Vertical asymptotes appear if the function has infinite limit, or one-sided limit at some finite
points. We have
sin x sin x
lim = −∞, lim = ∞,
x→π+2kπ + 1 + cos x x→π+2kπ − 1 + cos x

hence the lines x = (2k + 1)π are vertical asymptotes for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . .
There are no slant asymptotes.
E. Intervals of increase or decrease The derivative of y is
1
y 0 (x) = for x 6= (2k + 1)π.
1 + cos x
As y 0 6= 0, there are no critical points. As 1 + cos

x ≥ 0 on the whole domain, the function is
increasing on each interval (2k − 1)π, (2k + 1)π (k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ). Observe that it DOES
NOT MEAN that y is increasing on the whole domain!
F. Local maximum and minimum values By the previous paragraph, there are no local
extrema.
G. Concavity and points of inflection The second derivative of the function is
sin x
y 00 (x) = for x 6= (2k + 1)π,
(1 + cos x)2

whose sign depends on the sign of the numerator only. If (2k − 1)π < x < 2kπ, then f 00 (x) < 0,
hence f is concave downward on the intervals ((2k − 1)π, 2kπ) (k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ). If 2kπ <
x < (2k + 1)π, then f 00 (x) > 0, hence f is concave upward on the intervals (2kπ, (2k + 1)π)
(k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ). The points x = 2kπ are inflection points (k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . ).
H. Sketch the curve The graph of f is given below:

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2

-4

-6

Exercises 4.7

13. If 1200 cm2 of material is available to make a box with a square base and an open top, find
the largest possible volume of the box.

Solution:
1. Understand the problem We want to maximize the volume of box which has square base
and open top: the side of the square base and the height of the box are the unknowns, given is
the material we can use, that is the total surface area of the box. The box is open on the top.
We want to choose the side of the square base and the height of the box in such a way that the
volume is maximal.
2. Draw a diagram The side of the square base and the height of the box determine the surface
area:
{side of the square base + the height of the box} → {surface area},
and also the volume:

{side of the square base + the height of the box} → {volume}.

3. Introduce notation The unknown quantity is the volume V which should be maximized, and
it is completely determined by the side x of the square base and the height h of the box. The
given quantity is the surface area A = 1200. We can drop the dimension notation cm2 if we agree
that we use cm for all length data, then we’ll obtain the volume in cm3 .
4. We can express V in terms of x and h:

V = x2 h.

5. However, we have a relation between x and h determined by A: clearly,

A = x2 + 4xh = 1200.

So, we can eliminate h as it is completely determined by A and x:

1200 − x2
h= ,
4x
hence
1200 − x2 1 x3
V = x2 · = x(1200 − x2 ) = 300x − .
4x 4 4
Now V is expressed as a function of one variable: V = V (x). We choose for its domain the set of
all positive real numbers, as in our problem no non-positive values for x make any sense.
6. We find the global maximum of V on its domain. Local extremum can be attained at critical
points. The derivative is
3x2
V 0 (x) = 300 −
4
3x2
hence we solve 4
= 300 getting x = 20. The second derivative is

3x
V 00 (x) = − , V 00 (20) < 0,
2
hence at x = 20 we have a local maximum. As V 0 (x) > 0 for 0 < x < 20 and V 0 (x) < 0 for x > 20
we have that x = 20 is a global maximum with value V (20) = 4000. Hence the largest possible
volume of the box is 4000 cm3 .

29. A right circular cylinder is inscribed in a sphere of radius r. Find the largest possible surface
area of such a cylinder.

Solution: Possible cross-sections about the position of the inscribed cylinder can be seen below:
As on the picture above we denote the radius of the circular base of the cylinder by x and let h
denote its height. The surface area A of the cylinder is to be maximized and we have

A = 2πx2 + 2πxh.

As the cylinder is inscribed in the sphere there is a relation between x and h: we have

h2
x2 + = r2 ,
4
√
as it can be seen on the pictures above – by the Pythagorean Theorem. It follows h = 2 r2 − x2 ,
and √
A(x) = 2πx2 + 4πx r2 − x2 .
For obvious reason we choose the domain of A to be 0 < x < r.
The derivative of A is
√
0
√ x 4π(x( r2 − x2 − 2x) + r2 )
A (x) = 4πx + 4π r2 − x2 − 4πx √ = √ ,
r 2 − x2 r 2 − x2
and the critical points are obtained from the equation A0 (x) = 0, which gives the only positive
value p √
5+ 5
x=r √ .
10
It follows that p √
5− 5
h = 2r √ .
10
As limx→0 A(x) = 0 and A(r)√= 2πr2 , hence A must have a maximum on (0, r), hence it can be
√
5+ 5 √
taken only at the point x = r √10 with value A = r2 π(1 + 5).

33. A piece of wire 10 m long is cut into two pieces. One piece is bent into a square and the other
is bent into an equilateral triangle. How should the wire be cut so that the total area enclosed is
(a) a maximum? (b) A minimum?

Solution: The piece forming the square is denoted by x and the other is 10 − x. The area of the
square is
x2
A1 = ,
16
and the length of the sides of the equilateral triangle is a = 10−x
3
. Hence the area of the equilateral
triangle is √
3(10 − x)2
A2 = .
36
The total area is a function of x:
√
x2 3(10 − x)2
A(x) = A1 + A2 = + .
16 36
As the domain of A we consider the interval [0, 10], hence we allow the possibility that the whole
wire is used to form a square or a triangle. The derivative of A is
x 10 − x
A0 (x) = − √
8 6 3
 √
and the only critical point is obtained from A0 (x) = 0. We have x = 40 √3
9+4 3
. As A0 is increasing,
√
40 √3
we have that x = 9+4 3
≈ 4.35 is a global minimum, a piece of that length is bent to a square,
and the remaining part is bent into a triangle. The maximum, however, is attained at one of the
endpoints:
100
A(10) = = 6.25, A(0) ≈ 4.81,
16
hence the maximum is attained, if all the wire is used for a square.

50. Find an equation of the line through the point (3, 5) that cuts off the least area from the first
quadrant.

Solution: We look for the equation of the line in the form y = mx + b, see the picture below:
12

10

2 4 6 8

-2

5−b
The blue point is (3, 5). The y-intercept is b, and the slope is m = 3
, hence the x-intercept is
3b
a = b−5 . The area of the triangle cut off from the first quadrant is

1 3b2
A(b) = ab = .
2 2(b − 5)

Hence we are looking for the global minimum of the function

3t2
A(t) =
2(t − 5)

on the interval (5, +∞). The derivative of A is

3t(t − 10)
A0 (t) = ,
2(t − 5)2

hence the only critical point in the domain is at t = 10. The second derivative of A is
75
A00 (t) = ,
(t − 5)3

which is always positive in the domain, hence t = 10 is a local minimum. As A0 (t) < 0 for
5 < t < 10 and A0 (t) > 0 for t > 10 the point t = 10 is a global minimum. Hence b = 10, and an
equation for the line is
5−b 5
y= x + b = − x + 10.
3 3
Exercises 4.9

• Find the most general antiderivative of the function. (Check your answer by differentiation.)

5. f (x) = (x + 1)(2x − 1)

Solution: We have
2 1
f (x) = 2x2 + x − 1, hence F (x) = x3 + x2 − x + c.
3 2
√
4
√
3
10. f (x) = x3 + x4

Solution: We have
4 3 4√4 3√3
f (x) = x3/4 + x4/3 , hence F (x) = x7/4 + x7/3 + c = x7 + x7 + c.
7 7 7 7
5−4x3 +2x6
12. g(x) = x6

Solution: We have
5 −5 4 −2
g(x) = 5x−6 − 4x−3 + 2, hence G(x) = x − x + 2x + c =
−5 −2
1 2
−x−5 + 2x−2 + 2x + c = − 5
+ 2 + 2x + c.
x x
16. f (θ) = 6θ2 − 7 sec2 θ

Solution: We have
6
F (θ) = θ3 − 7 tan θ + c = 2θ3 − 7 tan θ + c.
3
• Find f .

21. f 00 (x) = 6x + 12x2

Solution: We have
6 12 6 3 12 4
f 0 (x) = x2 + x3 + c, and f (x) = x + x + cx + d =
2 3 2·3 3·4
x3 + x4 + cx + d.
√
29. f 0 (x) = x(6 + 5x), f (1) = 10

Solution: We have
6 · 2 3/2 5 · 2 5/2
f 0 (x) = 6x1/2 + 5x3/2 , hence f (x) = x + x + c,
3 5
and
10 = f (1) = 4 + 2 + c, hence c = 4.
Finally
√
2
√
2 √
f (x) = 4x3/2 + 2x5/2 + 4 = 4 x3 + 2 x5 + 4 = 2 x(x2 + 2x) + 4.
 35. f 00 (θ) = sin θ + cos θ, f (0) = 3, f 0 (0) = 4

Solution: We have
f 0 (θ) = − cos θ + sin θ + c,
and 4 = f 0 (0) = − cos 0 + sin 0 + c = −1 + c, hence c = 5. Further, we have

f (θ) = − sin θ − cos θ + 5θ + d,

and 3 = f (0) = − sin 0 − cos 0 + d = −1 + d, hence d = 4. Finally,

f (θ) = − sin θ − cos θ + 5θ + 4.

38. f 00 (x) = 20x3 + 12x2 + 4, f (0) = 8, f (1) = 5

Solution: We have
20 4 12 3
f 0 (x) = x + x + 4x + c,
4 3
and
20 5 12 4 4 2
f (x) = x + x + x + cx + d = x5 + x4 + 2x2 + cx + d.
4·5 3·4 2
Further, we have 8 = f (0) = d, and 5 = f (1) = 4 + c + d = c + 12, hence c = −7, d = 8.
Finally,
f (x) = x5 + x4 + 2x2 − 7x + 8.

Chapter 4 Review – True-False quiz

Determine whether the statement is true or false. If it is true, explain why. If it is false, explain
why or give an example that disproves the statement.

• If f 0 (c) = 0, then f has a local maximum or minimum at c.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: The function f (x) = x3 has derivative 0 at 0: f 0 (0) = 0,
however at 0 there is neither local maximum, nor local minimum.

• If f has an absolute minimum value at c, then f 0 (c) = 0.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, then f has an absolute
minimum value at 0, but f 0 (0) = 1.

• If f is continuous on (a, b), then f attains an absolute maximum value f (c) and an absolute
minimum value f (d) at some numbers c and d in (a, b).

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = x for 0 < x < 1, then f is continuous, and
it has no absolute minimum value and no absolute maximum value at any point in (0, 1).

• If f is differentiable and f (−1) = f (1), then there is a number c such that |c| < 1 and
f 0 (c) = 0.

Solution: The formulation of the statement is not precise enough: we assume that ”f is
differentiable” means that ”f is differentiable on some open interval which includes [−1, 1]”.
In this case the statement is TRUE: this is exactly Rolle’s Theorem applied on the interval
[−1, 1].
• If f 0 (x) < 0 for 1 < x < 6, then f is decreasing on (1, 6).

Solution: The statement is TRUE, by the Increasing-Decreasing Test.

• If f 00 (2) = 0, then 2, f (2) is an inflection point to the curve y = f (x).

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = (x − 2)4 , then f 00 (x) = 12(x − 2)2 , hence
f 00 (2) = 0, however f is concave upward everywhere, it has no inflection point.

• If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for 0 < x < 1, then f (x) = g(x) for 0 < x < 1.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = 0, g(x) = 1.

• There exists a function f such that f (1) = −2, f (3) = 0, and f 0 (x) > 1 for all x.

Solution: If ”for all x” means that ”for all x in an open interval which includes [1, 3]”, then
the statement is FALSE: by the Mean Value Theorem we have

2 = f (3) − f (1) = f 0 (c)(3 − 1) = 2f 0 (c)

holds for some c with 1 < c < 3. It follows f 0 (c) = 1 which contradicts to f 0 (x) > 1 for all x.

• There exists a function f such that f (x) > 0, f 0 (x) < 0 and f 00 (x) > 0 for all x.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: let f (x) = e−x . This function is always positive, strictly
decreasing and concave upward.

• If f and g are increasing on an interval I, then f + g is increasing on I.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: let x < y in I, then f (x) ≤ f (y) and g(x) ≤ g(y), and
adding the two inequalities we have (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) ≤ f (y) + g(y) = (f + g)(y).

• If f and g are increasing on an interval I, then f − g is increasing on I.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = x, g(x) = 2x, then f, g are increasing and
(f − g)(x) = −x, hence f − g is not increasing (in fact, it is decreasing).

• If f and g are increasing on an interval I, then f g is increasing on I.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = g(x) = −e−x , then f, g are increasing, and
(f g)(x) = e−2x , hence f g is not increasing (in fact, it is decreasing).

• If f and g are positive increasing functions on an iterval I, then f g is increasing on I.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: let x < y in I, then f (x) ≤ f (y) and g(x) ≤ g(y), and
multiplying the two inequalities we have (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) ≤ f (y)g(y) = (f g)(y). Observe,
that we can multiply inequalities side by side with POSITIVE terms on both sides.

• If f is increasing and f (x) > 0 on I, then g(x) = 1/f (x) is decreasing on I.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: let x < y in I, then 0 < f (x) ≤ f (y), consequently
1/f (x) ≥ 1/f (y), hence g(x) ≥ g(y).
• If f is even, then f 0 is even.

Solution: The statement is FALSE: let f (x) = cos x, then f 0 (x) = − sin x, and f is even,
however f 0 is not even (in fact, f 0 is odd).

• If f is periodic, then f 0 is periodic.

Solution: The statement is TRUE: let f (x + p) = f (x) for each x with some p > 0; then
f 0 (x + p) = f 0 (x), hence f 0 is the periodic with all the periods of f .

• The most general antiderivative of f (x) = x−2 is

1
F (x) = − + C.
x

Solution: The statement is TRUE: by definition.

• If f 0 (x) exists and is nonzero for all x, then f (1) 6= f (0).

Solution: The statement is TRUE: if f is differentiable, then it is continuous everywhere,

hence, by Rolle’s Theorem applied on [0, 1], the assumption f (0) = f (1) would imply that f 0
is zero somewhere between 0 and 1.

Exercises 5.3

• Use Part 1 of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the derivative of the function.
Ry
9. g(y) = 2 t2 sin t dt

Solution: g 0 (y) = y 2 sin y.

R1 u3
17. y = 1−3x 1+u 2 du

Solution: We have
1−3x
u3
Z
y=− du,
1 1 + u2
hence, by the Chain Rule

(1 − 3x)3 3(1 − 3x)3

y0 = − · (−3) = .
1 + (1 − 3x)2 1 + (1 − 3x)2
R0
18. y = 1/x2
sin3 t dt

Solution: We have Z 1/x2

y=− sin3 t dt,
0
hence, by the Chain Rule
2 1

y 0 = − sin3 (1/x2 ) · (−2/x3 ) = 3
sin3 2 .
x x
• Evaluate the integral.
R1
22. 0 (1 + 12 u4 − 25 u9 ) du

Solution: We have, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Z 1
1 4 2 9 h 1 1 5 2 1 10
i1 53
1 + u − u du = u + · · u − · ·u = = 1.06.
0 2 5 2 5 5 10 0 50
R2
27. 0
x(2 + x5 ) dx

Solution: We have, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Z 2 Z 2
5 6
h
2 1 7 i2 128 156
x(2 + x ) dx = 2x + x dx = x + x =4+ = .
0 0 7 0 7 7
R2
30. 0
(y − 1)(2y + 1) dy

Solution: We have, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Z 2 Z 2 h2 1 i2 16 4
(y − 1)(2y + 1) dy = (2y 2 − y − 1) dy = y 3 − y 2 − y = −2−2= .
0 0 3 2 0 3 3
R π/4
32. 0
sec θ tan θ dθ

Solution: We have, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Z π/4 Z π/4
sin θ h 1 iπ/4 2 √
sec θ tan θ dθ = dθ = = √ − 1 = 2 − 1.
0 0 cos2 θ cos θ 0 2
R2
36. −2
f (x) dx, where
(
2 if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) =
4 − x2 if 0 <≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution: We have, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Z 2 Z 0 Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = 2 dx + (4 − x2 ) dx =
−2 −2 0 −2 0

h i0 h x3 i2 8 28
2x + 4x − =4+8− = .
−2 3 0 3 3
• Evaluate the integral.
R9 1
69. 1 2x dx

Solution: We have
Z 9 Z 9
1 1 1 1h i9 1
dx = dx = ln x = ln 9 = ln 3.
1 2x 2 1 x 2 1 2
 R1
70. 0
10x dx

Solution: We have
Z 1 h 10x i1 10 − 1 9
10x dx = = = .
0 ln 10 0 ln 10 ln 10
R √3/2
71. √ 6 dt
1/2 1−t2

Solution: We have
Z √3/2 Z √3/2 i√3/2
6 1 h
√ dt = 6 √ dt = 6 arcsin t = 6(π/3 − π/6) = π.
1/2 1 − t2 1/2 1 − t2 1/2

R1 4
72. 0 t2 +1
dt

Solution: We have
Z 1 Z 1
4 1 h i1
2
dt = 4 2
dt = 4 arctan t = 4(arctan 1 − arctan 0) = π.
0 t +1 0 t +1 0

R1
73. −1
eu+1 du

Solution: We have
Z 1 h i1
u+1 u+1
e du = e = e2 − e0 = e2 − 1.
−1 −1

R2 4+u2
74. 1 u3
du

Solution: We have
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
4 + u2 4 u2  −3 −1
h
−2
i2 3
du = + du = (4u + u ) du = −2u + ln u = + ln 2.
1 u3 1 u3 u3 1 1 2

Exercises 5.4

• Find the general indefinite integral.

R √ √3
6. ( x3 + x2 ) dx

Solution: We have
Z √ √ 2√ 5 3√
Z
3 2 3 3
( x + x ) dx = (x3/2 + x2/3 ) dx = x5/2 + x5/3 + C =
3 2 x + x5 + C.
5 5 5 5
R 2 1

12. u +1+ u2
du

Solution: We have
Z  Z
1 1 1 1
u + 1 + 2 du = (u2 + 1 + u−2 ) du = u3 + u − u−1 + C = u3 + u − + C.
2
u 3 3 u
 R
15. (1 + tan2 α) dα

Solution: We have
sin2 α
Z Z Z
(1 + tan α) dα = (cos α + sin α + tan α) dα = (cos2 α + sin2 α +
2 2 2 2
) dα =
cos2 α

cos4 α + sin2 α cos2 α + sin2 α cos2 α(cos2 α + sin2 α) + sin2 α

Z Z
dα = dα =
cos2 α cos2 α
cos2 α + sin2 α
Z Z
1
2
dα = dα = tan α + C.
cos α cos2 α
• Evaluate the integral.
R1 √ √
29. 0 x( 3 x + 4 x) dx

Solution: We have
Z 1 1 1
√ √
Z Z
1/3 1/4
3 4
x( x + x) dx = x(x +x ) dx = (x4/3 + x5/4 ) dx =
0 0 0
h3 4 9/4 i1 3 4 55
7/3
x + x = + = .
7 9 0 7 9 63
R π/4 1+cos2 θ
35. 0 cos2 θ
dθ

Solution: We have
Z π/4 Z π/4 
1 + cos2 θ 1  h iπ/4 π
2
dθ = 2
+ 1 dθ = tan θ + θ =1+ .
0 cos θ 0 cos θ 0 4
R2
41. −1
(x − 2|x|) dx

Solution: We have
Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
(x − 2|x|) dx = (x − 2|x|) dx + (x − 2|x|) dx =
−1 −1 0
Z 0 Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
(x − 2(−x)) dx + (x − 2x) dx = 3 x dx − x dx =
−1 0 −1 0
h x 2 i0 h x2 i2 3 1
3 + =− +2= .
2 −1 2 0 2 2
 Exercises 6.1

1-4. Find the area of the shaded region:

Solution: 1. The area can be expressed by the following integral:

Z 4 Z 4
2 2
h
2 1 3 i4 1
32
[(5x − x ) − x] dx = (4x − x ) dx = 2x − x = (2 · 16 − · 64) − 0 = .
0 0 3 0 3 3

2. The area can be expressed by the following integral:

√ √
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
1  1 1/2 1
( x + 2) − dx = x + 2 dx − dx = (x + 2) dx − dx =
0 x+1 0 0 x+1 0 0 x+1
h2 i2 h i2 4 √
(x + 2)3/2 − ln(x + 1) = (4 − 2) − ln 3.
3 0 0 3
3. The area can be expressed by the following integral:
√
Z 0 Z 1 Z 0 Z 1
2 1/2
x + 1 dx − (1 − x ) dx = (x + 1) dx − (1 − x2 ) dx =
−1 0 −1 0

h2 i0 h 1 i1 2 2 4
(x + 1)3/2 + x − x3 = + = .
3 −1 3 0 3 3 3
4. The area can be expressed by the following integral:
Z 3 Z 3
2 2
[(2y − y ) − (y − 4y)] dy = (6y − 2y 2 ) dy =
0 0
h
2 2 3 i3
3y − y = 27 − 18 = 9.
3 0
• Find the area of the region enclosed by the given curves.
6. y = sin x, y = x, x = π/2, x = π
Solution: The area can be expressed by the following integral:
Z π h1
2
iπ 3π 2
(x − sin x) dx = x + cos x = − 1.
π/2 2 π/2 8

14. y = cos x, y = 2 − cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π

Solution: The area can be expressed by the following integral:
Z 2π Z 2π h i2π
(cos x − (2 − cos x)) dx = (2 cos x − 2) dx = 2 sin x − 2x = 4π.
0 0 0

26. y = |x|, y = x2 − 2, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution: By symmetry, the area can be expressed by the following integral:
Z 2 Z 2 h1
2 1 i2
2 (x − (x − 2)) dx = 2 (x − x2 + 2) dx = 2 x2 − x3 + 2x = 4π.
0 0 2 3 0
48. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola y = x2 , the tangent line to this parabola
at (1, 1), and the x-axis.

Solution: See the picture:

An equation of the tangent line is:

y − 1 = y 0 (1)(x − 1), or y = 2(x − 1) + 1.

The intersection with the x-axis is at y = 0, that is x = 21 . The area A of the given region is
obtained by subtracting the area A1 of the triangle with vertices ( 12 , 0), (1, 0) and (1, 1) from the
area A2 under the parabola over the interval (0, 1): A = A2 − A1 . We have
Z 1 h x3 i1 1
A2 = x2 dx = = ,
0 3 0 3
and
1 1 1
A1 = · ·1= ,
2 2 4
1
hence A = A2 − A1 = 12
.

Exercises 6.2

• Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by the given curves
about the specified line.

3. y = 1/x, x = 1, x = 2, y = 0; about the x-axis

Solution: A cross-section is a disk with radius 1/x, so its area is

A(x) = π(1/x)2 .
 Then the volume is
Z 2 Z 2 h 1 i2 π
V = A(x) dx = π(1/x)2 dx = π − = .
1 1 x 1 2
√
5. x = 2 y, x = 0, y = 9; about the y-axis
√
Solution: A cross-section is a disk with radius 2 y, so its area is
√
A(y) = π(2 y)2 = 4πy.

Then the volume is

Z 9 Z 9 h1 i9
V = A(y) dy = 4π y dy = 4π y2 = 162π.
0 0 2 0

7. y = x3 , y = x, x ≥ 0; about the x-axis

Solution: A cross-section is a washer (annulus) with inner radius x3 and outer radius
x, so its area is
A(x) = πx2 − π(x3 )2 = πx2 − πx6 .
Then the volume is
Z 1 Z 1 h1
2 6 1 7 i1 4π 3
V = A(x) dx = π (x − x ) dx = π x − x = .
0 0 3 7 0 21

Exercises 6.3

• Use the method of cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the
region bounded by the given curves about the x-axis.
√
10. x = y, x = 0, y = 1

Solution: We use the cylindrical shell formula

Z b
V = 2π xf (x) dx.
a

The region being rotated is the shaded domain below:

Clearly, f (x) = x2 , hence the volume is

Z 1 Z 1 h1
2
i1 π
V = 2π x · x dx = 2π x3 dx = 2π x4 = .
0 0 4 0 2
 11. y = x3 , y = 8, x = 0

Solution: We use the cylindrical shell formula

Z b
V = 2π xf (x) dx.
a

The region being rotated is the shaded domain below:

Clearly, f (x) = x3 , hence the volume is

Z 2 Z 2 h1
3
i2 64π
V = 2π x · x dx = 2π x4 dx = 2π x5 = .
0 0 5 0 5

• The region bounded by the given curves is rotated about the specified axis. Find the volume
of the resulting solid by any method.

37. y = −x2 + 6x − 8, y = 0; about the y-axis

Solution: By the shell method we have

Z b
V = 2π xf (x) dx,
a

and f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8, a = 2, b = 4 (see below).

Hence the volume is

Z 4 Z 4
2
V = 2π x(−x + 6x − 8) dx = 2π (−x3 + 6x2 − 8x) dx =
2 2
h 1 i4
4 3 2
2π − x + 2x − 4x = 8π.
4 2
 38. y = −x2 + 6x − 8, y = 0; about the x-axis

Solution: By the washer method we have

Z b
V =π f (x)2 dx,
a

and f (x) = −x2 + 6x − 8, a = 2, b = 4 (see above).

Hence the volume is
Z 4 Z 4
2 2
V =π (−x + 6x − 8) dx = π (x4 − 12x3 + 52x2 − 96x + 64) dx =
2 2
h1 52 3 i4 16π
π x5 − 3x4 + x − 48x2 + 64x = .
5 3 2 15
Exercises 7.2

• Find the limit.

e3x −e−3x
25. limx→+∞ e3x +e−3x

Solution: We have
e3x − e−3x 1 − e−6x
lim = lim = 1,
x→+∞ e3x + e−3x x→+∞ 1 + e−6x

as limx→+∞ e−6x = 0.

27. limx→2+ e3/(2−x)

3
Solution: We have x → 2+ , which means x > 2, hence 2−x
→ +∞. It follows

lim+ e3/(2−x) = +∞.

x→2

28. limx→2− e3/(2−x)

Solution: We have x → 2− , which means x < 2, hence 3

2−x
→ −∞. It follows

lim e3/(2−x) = 0.
x→2+

• Differentiate the function.

ex
32. y = 1+x

Solution: We apply the Quotient Rule:

ex (1 + x) − ex xex
y0 = = .
(1 + x)2 (1 + x)2

37. F (t) = et sin 2t

Solution: We apply the Chain Rule:

F 0 (t) = et sin 2t (sin 2t + 2t cos 2t).

 2
46. f (t) = sin2 (esin t )

Solution: We apply the Chain Rule:

2 2 2
f 0 (t) = 2 sin(esin t ) cos(esin t ) · esin t · 2 · sin t cos t.

• Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
47. y = e2x cos πx, (0, 1)

Solution: The equation of the tangent line through the given point (a, y(a)) has the
general form:
y − y(a) = y 0 (a)(x − a).
We calculate y 0 :
y 0 = 2e2x cos πx − e2x · π sin πx,
hence
y 0 (0) = 2, and the equation is y − 1 = 2(x − 0),
or
y = 2x + 1.
ex
48. y = x
, (1, e)

Solution: We calculate as above:

xex − ex
y0 = , hence y 0 (1) = 0,
x2
consequently, the equation of the tangent line is

y − e = 0, or y = e.
2y
49. Find y 0 if ex = x + y.

Solution: We apply Implicit Differentiation:

2 2 2
ex y · (2xy + x2 y 0 ) = 1 + y 0 , or y 0 (x2 ex y − 1) = 1 − 2xyex y ,

hence 2
0 1 − 2xyex y
y = 2 x2 y .
x e −1
50. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve xey + yex = 1 at the point (0, 1).

Solution: By Implicit Differentiation, we have

ey + xey · y 0 + y 0 ex + yex = 0, or y 0 (xey + ex ) = −ey − yex ,

hence
ey + yex
y0 = − .
ex + xey
Substituting x = 0, y = 1 we get
y 0 (0) = −e − 1,
hence the equation of the tangent line is

y − 1 = −(e + 1)x.
54. Find the values of λ for which y = eλx satisfies the equation y + y 0 = y 00 .

Solution: We have y 0 = λeλx and y 00 = λ2 eλx , hence the equation states

eλx + λeλx = λ2 eλx , or eλx (1 + λ) = eλx λ2 .

As eλx is never
√ zero, we√ have 1 + λ = λ2 , or λ2 − λ − 1 = 0. We solve this quadratic equation to
1+ 5
get λ1 = 2 , λ2 = 1−2 5 . It is easy to check that both values satisfy the condition.

55. If f (x) = e2x , find a formula for f (n) (x).

Solution: We have f 0 (x) = 2e2x , f 00 (x) = 22 e2x , etc. Our guess is f (n) (x) = 2n e2x , which can
easily be verified by mathematical induction.

56. Find the thousandth derivative of f (x) = xe−x .

Solution: We have
f 0 (x) = e−x − xe−x ,
f 00 (x) = −e−x − e−x + xe−x = −2e−x + xe−x ,
f 000 (x) = 2e−x + e−x − xe−x = 3e−x − xe−x , ...
Following this pattern our guess is

f (1000) (x) = −1000e−x + xe−x ,

which can easily be verified by mathematical induction.

Exercises 7.3

• Find the limit.

45. limx→3+ ln(x2 − 9)

Solution: As x → 3+ we have x > 3 and x2 > 9, and x2 − 9 → 0+ . Hence

lim ln(x2 − 9) = −∞.

x→3+

47. limx→0 ln(cos x)

Solution: As x → 0, by continuity, cos x → 1, and, by continuity of ln, we have

lim ln(cos x) = ln 1 = 0.
x→0

49. limx→+∞ [ln(1 + x2 ) − ln(1 + x)]

Solution: By the properties of the logarithm, we have

1 + x2
lim [ln(1 + x2 ) − ln(1 + x)] = lim ln = +∞,
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1+x
1+x2
as limx→+∞ 1+x
= +∞.

Exercises 7.4
• Differentiate the function.

3. f (x) = sin(ln x)

Solution: By the Chain Rule, we have

1
f 0 (x) = cos(ln x) · .
x
3
11. F (t) = ln (2t+1)
(3t−1)4

Solution: Using the properties of the logarithm, we have

F (t) = 3 ln(2t + 1) − 4 ln(3t − 1),

hence, by the Chain Rule

2 3 6 12
F 0 (t) = 3 −4 = − .
2t + 1 3t − 1 2t + 1 3t − 1
1
25. y = 5− x

Solution: We apply logarithmic differentiation:

1 y0 1
ln y = − ln 5, hence = 2 ln 5,
x y x
consequently
y 1 −1
y0 = ln 5 = 5 x ln 5.
x2 x2
18. y = 10tan θ

Solution: We apply logarithmic differentiation:

y0 1
ln y = tan θ ln 10, hence = ln 10,
y cos2 θ
consequently
y 1
y0 = 2
ln 10 = 2
10tan θ ln 10.
cos θ cos θ
x2
26. y = 23

Solution: We apply logarithmic differentiation:

2 1 y0
ln y = 3x ln 2, ln(ln y) = x2 ln 3 + ln(ln 2), hence · = 2x ln 3,
ln y y
hence
x2 +1 2
y 0 = 2xy ln y ln 3, or y 0 = 23 3x x ln 2 ln 3.

• Find y 0 and y 00 .
 27. y = x2 ln(2x)

Solution: We have
2
y 0 = 2x ln(2x) + x2 = 2x ln(2x) + x,
2x
and
2
y 00 = 2 ln(2x) + 2x + 1 = 2 ln(2x) + 3.
2x
30. y = ln(sec x + tan x)

Solution: We have (sec x)0 = sec x tan x, and (tan x)0 = sec2 x, hence

sec x tan x + sec2 x sec x(tan x + sec x)

y0 = = = sec x,
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
and
y 00 = sec x tan x.

• Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the given point.
2
37. y = ln(xex ), (1, 1)

Solution: We have y = ln x + x2 , hence y 0 = 1

x
+ 2x. The slope of the tangent line is
y 0 (1) = 3, and the equation is

y − 1 = 3(x − 1), or y = 3x − 2.

38. y = ln(x3 − 7), (2, 0)

Solution: We have
3x2
y0 = , and y 0 (2) = 12,
x3 − 7
hence the equation is

y − 0 = 12(x − 2), or y = 12x − 24.

Exercises 7.4

• Find the derivative of the function. Simplify where possible.

25. y = sin−1 (2x + 1)

Solution: We have d
dx
sin−1 x = √ 1
1−x2
, hence

2
y0 = p .
1 − (2x + 1)2

24. f (x) = x ln(arctan x)

d
Solution: We have dx
ln x = x1 , d
dx
arctan x = 1
1+x2
, hence
x
f 0 (x) = + ln(arctan x).
(1 + x2 ) arctan x
√
27. G(x) = 1 − x2 arccos x
d 1
Solution: We have dx
arccos x = − √1−x 2 , hence

x arccos x
G0 (x) = − √ − 1.
1 − x2
q
1−x
30. y = arctan 1+x

d 1
Solution: We have dx
arctan x = 1+x2
, hence

1
y0 = − √ .
2 1 − x2

• Find the limit.

43. limx→−1+ sin−1 x

Solution: As sin(− π2 ) = −1, hence

π
lim + sin−1 x = − .
x→−1 2
1+x2


44. limx→+∞ arccos 1+2x2

Solution: We have
1 + x2
 1 + 1/x2  1 π
lim arccos 2
= lim arccos 2
= arccos = .
x→+∞ 1 + 2x x→+∞ 2 + 1/x 2 3

45. limx→+∞ arctan(ex )

π
Solution: We have limx→+∞ arctan x = 2
and limx→+∞ ex = +∞, hence
π
lim arctan(ex ) = .
x→+∞ 2
 46. limx→0+ tan−1 (ln x)

Solution: We have limx→−∞ tan−1 x = − π2 and limx→0+ ln x = −∞, hence

π
lim+ tan−1 (ln x) = − .
x→0 2

57. Find the most general antiderivative of the function

2 + x2
f (x) = .
1 + x2

Solution: We have
2 + x2 1 + 1 + x2 1
f (x) = = = + 1.
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2
1
An antiderivative of x 7→ 1+x 2 is arctan x, and an antiderivative of x 7→ 1 is x, hence an antiderivative

of f is arctan x + x, and the most general antiderivative of the function f is

F (x) = arctan x + x + c (c is an arbitrary constant).

Exercises 7.8
Find the limit. Use l’Hospital’s Rule where appropriate. If there is a more elementary method,
consider using it. If l’Hospital’s Rule doesn’t apply, explain why.
x2 +x−6
6. limx→2 x−2

Solution: L’Hospital’s Rule can be applied and we have

x2 + x − 6 2x + 1
lim = lim = lim 2x + 1 = 5.
x→2 x−2 x→2 1 x→2

We can solve the problem by factorization, too:

x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2)
lim = lim = lim x + 3 = 5.
x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2 x→2

et −1
11. limt→0 t3

Solution: L’Hospital’s Rule can be applied and we have

et − 1 et
lim = lim = +∞.
t→0 t3 t→0 3t2

ex
19. limx→+∞ x3

Solution: L’Hospital’s Rule can be applied three times and we have

ex ex ex ex
lim = lim = lim = lim = +∞.
x→+∞ x3 x→+∞ 3x2 x→+∞ 6x x→+∞ 6
 ex −1−x
21. limx→0 x2

Solution: L’Hospital’s Rule can be applied twice and we have

ex − 1 − x ex − 1 ex 1
lim = lim = lim = .
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2
1−cos x
29. limx→0 x2

Solution: L’Hospital’s Rule can be applied twice and we have

1 − cos x sin x cos x 1
lim = lim = lim = .
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2
x 1


47. limx→1 x−1
− ln x

Solution: We take common denominators then apply l’Hospital’s Rule:

x 1
x ln x − x + 1 ln x x ln x
lim − = lim = lim = lim .
x→1 x − 1 ln x x→1 (x − 1) ln x x→1 ln x + (x − 1)/x x→1 x ln x + x − 1

Now we can apply l’Hospital’s Rule again:

x 1
x ln x ln x + 1 1
lim − = lim = lim = .
x→1 x − 1 ln x x→1 x ln x + x − 1 x→1 ln x + 2 2

51. limx→+∞ (x − ln x)

Solution: We have x = ln ex , hence

ex
lim (x − ln x) = lim (ln ex − ln x) = lim ln .
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x
We compute the last limit using l’Hospital’s Rule:
ex ex
lim = ln lim = +∞,
x→+∞ x x→+∞ 1

and limx→+∞ ln x = +∞, hence

lim (x − ln x) = +∞.
x→+∞