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FUNCTIONS
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FU N CT I ON S

El e m e n t a r y N u m b e r Sy s t e m
The whole of calculus is based on the concepts of real numbers. So let us briefly discuss real
numbers.
Real Numbers

Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

Integers Fractions

Positive O Negative
Integers Integers

Term s & t heir definitions

Ć Integers : The numbers ă 4, ă 3, ă 2, ă 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 are called integers.
i.e. set of positive integers + zero + negative integers.
They are denoted by I or Z
Ć Natural numbers : They are a subset of integers & denoted by N
N = {1, 2, 3, .... }
i.e. all positive integers.
Ć Whole numbers : It is also a subset of integers. It contains positive integers + zero.
Denoted by W
W = {0, 1, 2, 3 ...}
Ć Zero : Zero is an integer but neither a positive nor a negative integer. But it
is non-negative as well as non-positive integer.

I nt e r va l s
1. Open Interval : For two real numbers a and b, where a < b, the set of all real numbers
lying strictly between a and b (i.e. not including a and b) is called an
open interval.
denoted by ( ) [round brackets]
i.e. a < x < b x  (a, b)

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2. Closed interval : Again for same 2 real numbers, if x can take values between a and
b, including a & b, then its a closed interval.
i.e. a  x  b x  [a, b] {square brackets are used}
3. Half Open Interval : It contains both type of intervals, open, closed interval & closed open
interval. In this type only one end point is included.
a < x  b x  (a, b]
a  x < b x  [a, b)
4. Infinite intervals : Before going to intervals let us discuss first about infinity, denoted
by .
By infinity we mean that it is a very big real number, larger than any
real number but how large, it is not fixed.
When we say x  R, we indirectly mean
ă  < x <  or x  (ă , )
coming to infinite intervals now,
whenever   is at one or both the end points we never include them;
i.e.
ă  < x <  or x  (ă , )
round brackets

Not square brackets
ă  < x < a or x  (ă , a)
ă  < x  a or x  (ă , a]
x a or x  (ă , a]

So m e B a s i c De f i n i t i o n s
Ć Domain : For a given function y = f (x), the set of values which x can take provided that
for those values y is well defined, is known as Domain of the function.

1
for ex. y  , here x can take all real values except 0 because at x = 0 the value
x
of y is invalid.
Ć Range : For a given function y = f (x), the set of values which y can take, corresponding
to each real number in the domain, is known as Range of function.
for ex. y = x2 , here x can take all real values but y can take only positive values.
Domain & Range can also be expressed as

Domain Range
function
The values which The values which
input can take output can take

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Ć Periodicity : A function is said to be periodic if it repeats itself after a certain interval.

for example

-2 -1 1 2 3
This graph is repeating
after every integeral interval.

We just covered the basic definitions of these terms, though their properties will be discussed later
on in detail.

Cl a s s i f ic a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n s :
(I) Algebraic functions :
Functions consisting of finite number of terms involving powers and roots of independent variable
with the operations +, ă, ï ,  are called algebraic functions.
x1
for example : f  x  x  x, x2  1,
x1

1. Po l y n o m i a l f u n c t i o n s
f (x) = a0 + a1x + a 2x2 + ... anxn , where a0 , a1... an R (i.e. real constants) and n is a non negative
integer, is said to be a polynomial function of degree n (given an  0)
for ex. f (x) = 3x3 + 2x2 + x + 1 (polynomial of degree 3)
f (x) = 1 (polynomial with degree 0)

f  x   x3  x 2  1 (not a polynomial function)

(a) Constant Function DOMAIN y

If the range of a function x R
f consists of only one
number than f is called a y=a f(x) = a
constant function RANGE
i.e. y = f (x) = a y {a}
ex. y = f (x) = 1
x

(b) Identity Function DOMAIN y

y= x
The function y = f (x) = x x R
is known as identify
function.
RANGE

y R
45Ĉ
x

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2. Ra t io n al fu nc t io n

P  x
They are of the form f  x  Q x (Q (x)  0)
 
where P (x) Q (x) are 2 polynomials in x & Q (x)  0 as it will make denominator 0.
Domain : Here domain is all real no. excepts when denominator is zero [i.e. Q (x)  0]

x 2  2x  1
for eg. f  x 
x  1  x  2
here domain  R ă {1, 2} because at 1 & 2 denominator becomes 0.

Irrat ional func t ions

Algebraic functions consisting of non integral rational powers of x are known as irrational functions.

x1 / 2  x1 / 3 x2  1
eg. f  x  x1 / 2 , ,
x2  1 x1 / 3  1

Tips for Algebraic func t ions

1. Denominator should not be zero.
2. Expression under even root should not be negative.
3. Odd roots of any real no is defined & atleast one odd root of a real number is real.

Illustration 1
x
y
Find the domain of the function
x2  3 x  2

Solution :
x
y
Given
x2  3x  2

for y to be valid, the value under root has to be greater than zero (here it cannot be zero because
it is in denominator)
 x2 ă 3x + 2 > 0
x2 ă 2x ă x + 2 > 0
(x ă 2) (x ă 1) > 0
 x< 1 & x> 2 ă
 domain  (ă , 1)  (2, ) 1 2

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T Y PE (I I ) EX PON EN T I A L & L OGA RI T H A M I C FU N CT I ON

1. Ex p o n e n t i a l Fu n c t i o n
The function g = f (x) = ax, a > 0, a  1 is said to be an exponential function.
It is divided into 2 parts depending on the value of a.
for 0 < a < 1, y decreases as x increases
a > 1, y increases as x increases
Y
Y

1
1

X
X
a>1
0<a<1
Shape of curve
as we can see from the graph that the value of y approaches zero but is never 0 (i.e. asymptote)
and can take all positive values.
Domain : x  R
Range : y  (0, )

2. L o g a r i t m i c Fu n c t i o n
The function y = f (x) = loga x is known as logarithmic function.
provided that
x> 0
a > 0
and a  1
So the domain is very clear from the constraints only
Domain : x  (0, )
Range : y  (ă, )
Here also the function depends on the value of a.
Y Y

O
X X
O 1 1

0<a<1 a>0

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Pr o p e r t i e s o f l o g a r i t h m i c f u n c t i o n s :
1. log e (ab) = loge a + log e b

b
2. l og e   = log b ă log a
a e e

3. log e am = m loge a
4. log a a = 1

1
5. log bm a = logb a
m

1
6. log b a = log
ab

log m a
7. log b a =
log m b
b
8. alog a = b
log b c a
9. a = c log b

 x  y, if a  1
10. If log a x > loga y   x  y
 , if 0  a  1

11. loga x = y  x = ay

x  a y , if a  1
12. loga x > y   y
x  a , if 0  a  1

 x  a , if a  1
y
13. logax < y   y
 x  a , if 0  a  1

Also, when we say log x = y, then we take log with base 10.
Similarly for log e x = y we write it as ln x = y (log with base e is also called natural log)

Illustration 2
Find domain of f (x) = ln (ă 2 + 3x ă x2)
Solution : for f (x) to be valid the log function should be valid and for that ă x2 + 3x ă 2 > 0
Now, ă x2 + 3x ă 2 > 0
 x2 ă 3x + 2 < 0
 x2 ă 2x ă x + 2 < 0
 (x ă 2) (x ă 1) < 0 ă
 x  (1, 2) 1 2
 domain  (1, 2)

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Illustration 3

1
2 1
Find the domain of e x 

Solution :
The function is valid for all real values except for those on which x2 ă 1 becomes zero.
 x2 ă 1  0
for x = ă 1, 1, x2 ă 1 is zero
 domain  R ă {ă 1, 1}

Illustration 4
Find the domain of the following functions :

 5x  x 2 
(a) y  log 10  
 4
 

(b) y = log10 {log10 log 10 log10 x}

Solution :

 5 x  x2 
(a) Given, y  log10  4

 

for this function to be valid, the term on R.H.S. has to valid. For that to be true there are 2
conditions i.e.

5 x  x2
1. 0
4

 5x  x 2 
2. log 10 
   0
 4 
First solving for part 1

5 x  x2
0
4

 5x ă x2 > 0
ă
 x2 ă 5x < 0
O 5
 x (x ă 5) < 0
 x  (0, 5) ......... (i)

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Now solving the second part

 5x  x2 
log 10 
   0
 4 

5 x  x2
  100
4

5 x  x2
 1
4 ă
2 1
 5x ă x  4 4
 x2 ă 5x + 4  0
 (x ă 4) (x ă 1)  0
 x  [1, 4] ................ (ii)
since both conditions have to be satisfied, we have to take the intersection of (i) & (ii)
 from (i) & (ii)
x  [1, 4]
 Domain  [1, 4]

(b) f (x) = log10 (log 10 log10 log10 x)

for function to be valid
log 10 (log10 log10 x) > 0 & x > 0
 log 10 (log10 x) > 10 0 & x > 0
 log 10 (log10 x) > 1 & x > 0
 log 10 x > 101 & x > 0
 x > 1010 & x > 0
combining both we get
Domain  (1010, )

Illustration 5
Find the domain of the function :

1
f x    x 1
log10  1  x 

Solution :
This question is a mix of algebraic & logarithmic functions.

1
Now, f  x    x1
log 10  1  x

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We will solve both the parts separately & then combine their results to get the final results.
log 10 (1 ă x) is valid when x < 1

1
& log 1  x is valid when 1 ă x  1 ( log a1 = 0) & x < 1
10  
 x < 1 except x = 0 (from 1 ă x  1 because at x = 0, denominator becomes 0)
 x  (ă  1) ă {0} ................ (i)
now solving the algebraic part

for x  1 to be valid x + 1  0

 x  ă 1 ................ (ii)
combining (i) & (ii)
we get x  [ă 1, 0)  (0, 1)
 The domain of the given functions is [ă 1, 0)  (0, 1)

T r i g o n o m e t r y /c i rc u l a r f u n c t i o n s :
Functions involving trigonometric ratios are called trigonometric functions.

(a) y = f (x ) = sin x
Domain : (ă , ); Range : [ă 1, 1] ;
Period : 2; Nature : odd ;

  
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained :   , 
 2 2
Y

(0, 1)

ă (0, 0) 2 3 4 X
ă3 ă2

(0, ă1)

(b) y = f (x) = cos x

Domain : (ă , ); Range : [ă 1, 1] ;
Period : 2; Nature : even;
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained : [0, ]
Y
1

ă2 ă /2 2
ă /2 X

ă1

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(c) y = f (x) = tan x

Domain : R ă (2n + 1) /2, n  I; Range : (ă , ),
Period : ; Nature : odd;

  
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained :   , 
 2 2

3
ă2 2 2 2 2
3 0
X
2

(d) y = f (x ) = cot x
Domain : R ă n, n  I Range : (ă , ),
Period : ; Nature : odd;
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained : (0, )
Y

ă2 0 2
3
X
2 2

(e) y = f (x) = sec x

Domain : R ă (2n + 1) /2, n  I; Range : (ă , ă 1]  [1, )
Period : 2; Nature : even ;

    
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained : 0, 2   2 ,  
   
Y

3
2 1 2 2
X
0 ă1

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(f) y = f(x ) = cosec x

Domain : R ă n, n  I; Range : (ă , ă 1]  [1, );
Period : 2; Nature : odd ;

    
Interval in which the inverse can be obtained :   , 0  0,
 2   2

3
1 2 2
0 X
2 ă1

I n v e r s e t r i g o n o m e t r i c /i n v e r s e c i r c u l a r f u n c t i o n s :
Functions involving inverse of trigonometric ratios are called inverse trigonometric or inverse
circular functions. y
ă1
(a) y = f(x) = sin x /2
Domain : [ă 1, 1]

   x
Range :  2 , 2  ă1 1
 
Nature : odd ;
/2
y = sină1x

(b) y = f (x) = cos ă1 x y

Domain : [ă 1, 1]
Range : [0, ] /2
Nature : neither even nor odd
x
ă1 0 1
y = cosă1x

(c) y = f (x) = tană1 x y

/2
Domain : (ă , ),

   x
Range :   2, 2 0
 
ă /2
Nature : odd;

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(d) y = f (x) = cosecă1 x y

Domain : (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) /2

    
  2 , 0   0, 2 
Range : x
ă1 0 1

Nature : odd; ă /2

y = cosec ă1 x

y
(e) y = f (x) = secă1 x
Domain : (ă , ă 1]  [1, )

     /2
Range :  0, 2    2 , 
   
ă1 0 1 x
Nature : neither even nor odd
y = sec ă 1 x

(f) y = f (x) = cotă1 x y

Domain : (ă , ),
Range : (0, ) /2
Nature : neither even or odd.
0 x
y= cot ă 1 x

Illustration 6
Find the domain for the following :

  x 2 
(a) f (x )  cos  sin x  (b) y  f  x   sin 1  log 2   
 
  2 

Solution :

(a) f (x )  cos  sin x  is defined if

value under root is non-negative

i.e. cos (sin x)  0
but we know that sin x lies between ă 1 & 1
 ă 1  sin x  1
& for [ă 1, 1] cosine function is always + ve

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   
because cos x  0 for  ,  & >1
 2 2 2
 cos (sin x)  0 for all x
 x  R
 Domain  R
  x2 
(b) for function, f(x) = sin ă1  log 2    to be valid
 
  2 

x2
firstly 0 &
2

x2
then ă 1 < log2 1
2

x2
for the first part  0  x2 > 0
2
because log can not be 0
 x  R ă {0} ........... (i)

x2
for second part ă 1 < log2 1
2

x2
 2 ă1 <  21
2

1 x2
  2
2 2
 1  x2  4
 ă 2  x   ă 1 or 1  x  2 ........... (ii)
though we can also solve the inequality taking cases & combing to get (ii)
from (i) & (ii)
x  [ă 2, ă 1]  [1, 2]

Illustration 7
Find the domain of the definition of function :

(a) f  x   log10 sin  x  3  16  x 2

 2 
(b) y  cos 1  
 2  sin x 
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Solution :

(a) Given f (x) = log10 sin (x ă 3) + 16  x2

for f(x) to be well defined

sin (x ă 3) > 0
& we know sin x is positive in (0, ). So generalising it, sin x will be positive in (2n  + 0,
2n + ) as 2 is the period of sin x.
 2n + 0 < (x ă 3) < 2n + 
 2n + 3 < x < (2n + 1) + 3 .......... (i)
for the under root part
16 ă x2  0
 x2 ă 16  0
 (x ă 4) (x + 4)  0
 x  [ă 4, 4] ................ (ii)
combining (i) & (ii)
from (i) x  (2n + 3, (2n + 1) where n = 0,  1,  2
(ii) x  [ă 4, 4]

for n = ă1 n =0

ă4 +3

 The common region is (ă 2 + 3, ă  + 3)  (3, 4]

 Domain is (ă 2 + 3, ă  + 3)  (3, 4]

1  2 
(b) given y  cos  2 sin 
  x

for y to be defined.

2
1  1
2  sin x

2
solving first  1 
2  sin x

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denominator here can never be negative or zero because sin x  [ă 1, 1], cross multiplying
 ă (2 + sin x)  2
 ă 2 ă sin x  2
 sin x  ă 3
which is true for all values of x as min. value of sin x is ă 1. ............. (i)
now solving the second part
2
1
2  sin x

 2  2 + sin x
 sin x  0
 2n + 0  x  2n + 
 2n  x  (2n + 1)  ............... (ii)
 combining (i) & (ii)
Domain  (2n, (2n + 1) )

So m e o t h e r f u n c t i o n s
1. Absolute Value / Modulus function
By absolute / modulus function we mean only the numerical value of the function, irrespective of
its sign, from origin.
This concept is analogous to distance. We can also say that modulus function is distance with
respect to origin.
Though, modulus function is defined as
f : R  R, f (x) = |x|
here,

Domain : x  R Range : [0, )

Period : Non periodic Nature : even

y = –x y=x

X
O

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The |x| can be defined as follows : |x|

  x , x  0
x  
 x , x 0

for ex. |ă 1| = 1, |2.8| = 2.8, |ă 7.9| = 7.9

here we can understand this as distance, for ex. take |ă 7.9|

ă7.9 O

On number line the distance of ă 7.9 from origin is 7.9. So the value of modulus function is 7.9
So if you are given
if a > 0 a < 0

1. | f(x) | = a  f(x) = a No solution

2. | f(x) | < a  ă a < f(x) < a No solution

3. | f(x) | > a  f(x) < ă a or True for all x

f (x) > a

B a s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f |x |
Ć ||x|| = |x|
Ć |xy| = |x||y|

x x
Ć  , y 0
y y

Ć |x + y|  |x| + |y|,
Ć |x ă y|  |x| ă |y|
last two properties are intersecting ones, you can prove them by putting values.

Illustration 8
Find the domain of the following function :

2 x 1
(a) 1 (b) 0
x4 x 2

x 3 x
(c) |x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4 (d) 1
x2

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Solution :

2
(a) We have 1
x4

we can see that x  4

2  a a 
 1   & 2  2
x 4  b b 

 2 > |x ă 4| {we can do this because mod function is always positive}

 |x ă 4| < 2
 ă 2 < xă 4 < 2
 2< x< 6
x  (2, 6) ă {4} (Note : Remember to remove 4 from domain students generally
miss this step)

x 1
(b) we have, 0
x 2

let |x| = y

y 1
 0 ă
y 2
1 2
 y  2 or y  1
Note : we cannot include y = 2.
 |x| > 2 or |x|  1
(x > 2 or x < ă 2) or (ă 1  x  1)
 Domain  (ă , ă 2)  [ă 1, 1]  (2, )

(c) we have |x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
we will solve this by finding the critical points & checking for values greater or smaller about
these critical points. Here critical points are 1 & 2

 x  1  , x  1 
|x ă 1| =  
  x  1 , x  1 

 x  2  , x  2 
& x 2   
  x  2  , x  2 

we can divide the values in 3 region i.e. < 1, between 1 & 2, & greater than 2.

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Case 1 : when ă  < x < 1

i.e. in this region |x ă 1| = ă (x ă 1)
& |x ă 2| = ă (x ă 2)
|x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
 ă (x ă 1) ă (x ă 2)  4
 ă 2x + 3  4
 2x ă 1  0
 x  ă ó ............. (i)
Case 2 : when 1  x  2
here in this region |x ă 1| = x + 1
& |x ă 2| = ă (x ă 2)
|x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
 x ă 1 ă (x ă 2)  4
 1  4
 no solution for this solution ............. (ii)
Case 3 : when x > 2
here both are positive i.e. |x ă 1| = x ă 1
& |x ă 2| = x ă 2
|x ă 1| + |x ă 2|  4
 xă 1 + xă 2  4
 2x ă 3  4
 x  7/2 ............. (iii)
 combining (i), (ii) & (iii)

 1   7 
Domain    , 2   2 ,  
   

x 3  x
(d) 1
x 2
x 3x
 1  0
x 2

x  3  x   x  2
 0
x2

x 3 2
 0 ................ (i)
x 2
we know that x  (ă2)
now 2 cases arise for |x + 3|

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Case 1 : x + 3 < 0 
|x + 3| = ă (x ă 3)
putting these values in (i)

  x  3  2
 0
x 2

 x5 ă
 0
x 2 ă5 ă2

x5
 0
x2

[Now here note that we are getting answer (ă 5, ă 2) but do not forget that this case is for
x < ă 3.
So the answer for this part is (ă 5, ă 3] ............. (ii)

Case : x + 3  0, for x  ă 3
 |x + 3| = x + 3

 x  3  2
i.e. 0
x 2 ă
ă2 ă1
x 1
0
x2
 x  (ă , ă 2]  [ă 1, )
but again this region is for x  ă 3
 x  [ă 3, ă 2)  [ă 1, ) ............. (iii)
combining (ii) & (iii)
Domain  (ă 5, ă 3)  [ă 3, ă 2)  [ă 1, )
 [ă 5, ă 2)  [ă 1, )

Gre a t e st I nt e g e r f un c t io n/St e p f un c t io n
The function y = [x] is known as greatest Integer function & is defined as greatest integer less than
equal to x.
i.e. y = [x] = a if a  x < a + 1
for example
[2.3] = 2, [5.9] = 5, [7] = 7,
take special care of negative values
[ă 7.9] = ă 8, [ă 5] = ă 5
y = f(x) = [x]

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 22 MARKS

{
Points notincluded

1 Point included

ă3 ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3

ă1

ă2

Domain : R Range : I (i.e. set of ingtegers)

Period : Non-periodic Nature : neither odd/nor even

The function is called step function as we can see from the graph that it follows a step like curve

Fr a c t i o n p a r t o f x :
for example if x = 5.9
then fractional part of x is .9
It is denoted by {x} y

Thus, {x} = x ă [x]

& 0  {x} < 1
y = f(x) = {x}
x
ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3

Domain : R Range : [0, 1)

Period : 1 Nature : neither even nor odd

So m e p r o p e r t i e s o f g r e a t e s t i n t e g e r f u n c t i o n & f r a c t i o n a l p a r t
(i) [[x]] = [x]
(ii) [x + n] = [x] + n, if n is an integer
(iii) [{x}] = 0, {[x]} = 0

0 ; if x  integer 
(iv) [x] + [ă x] =  
 1 ; if x integer 

0 ; if x  integer 
(v) {x} + {ă x} =  
 1 ; if x  integer 

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 [ x] ; if x integer
(vi)  x    [ 
 x]  1 ; if x integer 

[ x]  [ y] ,  either one of x or y is integer


(vii) [x + y] =   x   y  1

[ x]  [ y]  1 when x   y  1

 [x ]   x 
(viii)      , n  N
 n  n 

n  1
x    x  n   x  n 
1 2
 ......   x   nx , n N
n 
(ix)
    

(c ) Si g n u m f u n c t i o n
The function is defined as
y = f (x) = sgm (x) 1

 1 x 0
 O
y  sgn  x  0 x 0
1 x 0
 ă1

Domain : R Range : {ă 1, 0, 1}
Period : non-periodic Nature : odd

Illustration 9
Find the domain of the following :
(a) [x] 2 ă 3[x] + 2  0
(b) 4 [x] = x + {x}
Solution :
(a) given [x]2 ă 3 [x] + 2  0
 ([x] ă 1) ([x] ă 2)  0
 1  [x]  2
Here the value of greatest integer function is 1 & 2.
for value 2, x can lie b/w 2 & 3
 Domain  [1, 3)
TIP : if [x]  n where n  I
x  [n, n + 1)

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(b) given the function, 4 [x] = x + {x}

but x = [x] + {x}
putting this
4 [x] = [x] + {x} + {x}
4 [x] = [x] + 2 {x}
3 [x] = 2 {x}

3 2
 {x} = [x] or  x   x
2 3

we know 0  {x} < 1

2
 0  [x] <
3

 [x] = 0
 0  x< 1 ............. (i)

3
but x 
2
x 

& for 0  x < 1, [x] = 0

 {x} = 0 . ............ (ii)
combining (i) & (ii)
The only value to satisfy the question is x = 0

Illustration 1 0
Find the domain of the following :

sin  x  2
(a) x2 ă 4x + [x] + 3 = 0 (b) f ( x) 
 x  2  x  3
Solution : (a) given that x2 ă 4x + [x] + 3 = 0
 x2 ă 4x + (x ă {x}) + 3 = 0
 x2 ă 3x + 3 = {x}
 0  x2 ă 3x + 3 < 1

9 9
But x2 ă 3x + 3 = x2 ă 3x + + 3ă
4 4

2
 3 3
= x   
 2  4

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which is always greater than 0

solving now x2 ă 3x + 3 < 1
 x2 ă 3x + 2 < 0
 (x ă 2) (x ă 1) < 0
 x  (1, 2) ............... (i)
 [x] = 1
putting back the value in the original equation
 x2 ă 4x + 4 = 0
 (x ă 2)2 = 0
 x = 2
but from (i) x  (1, 2)
 Thus equation has no solution.

sin  x  2
(b) Given that f  x 
 x  2  x  3
there, there are 2 critical points ă 3 & 2 which divides the number line in 3 region.
1. ă 3  x < 2
[x ă 2] give negative values but there are no problem
but for [x + 3], if x  (ă 2, ă 3]
the function becomes invalid for these values as denominator becomes 0.
 x  [ă 2, 2) ........... (i)
2. x< ă 3 in this region there is no problem as the function is valid for all values
 x  (ă , ă 3) .......... (ii)
3. x 2 for x  [2, 3), the function [x ă 2] returns 0, which makes the function
invalid but for x  3 there is no problem.
 x  [3, ) .......... (iii)
combining (i), (ii) & (iii)
x  (ă , ă 3)  [ă 2, 2)  [3, )

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DOMA I N
Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
In order to find the domain of the function defined by y = f (x), find the real values of x for which y
is defined i.e. y is real. The set of all these values of x will be the domain.
Use the following informations whichever is required.
1. (a) sin x and cos x are defined for all real x.

(b) tan x and sec x are not defined at odd multiples of
2
(c) cot x and cosec x are not defined at multiples of .

 1  sin x  1     tan x   sec x   1 or sec x  1 

(d)   
 1  cos x  1    cot x    cos ecx   1 or cosecx  1

2. (a) sină1x and cosă1 x are defined if and only if ă 1  x  1.

(b) tană1 x and cotă1 are defined for all real x.
(c) secă1 x and cosecă1 x are defined if and only if x  ă 1 or x  1.

  
  sin 1 x   0  cos 1 x  
2 2
 
  tan 1 x   0  cot 1 x  
2 2
  0  sec 1 x  
(d)   cos ec 1 x 
2 2

But cos ec x  0 
1
But sec  1 x 
2

3. (a) log ba is defined if and only if a > 0, b > 0 and b  1 & a  0

a  bc , if b  1
(b) log b a  c 
a  bc , if b  1

(c) If a > 0, then ax is defined for all real x.

4. For any function Denominator should never be zero.
5. For an algebraic function.
(a) Denominator should never be zero.
(b) an expression under even root should be  0.
6. Use sign scheme for a rational function if required.
7. Find solution of Trigonometrial inequality if required

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So m e u s e f u l t i p s t o f i n d d o m a i n
(a) Domain of (f (x)  g (x)) = Domain of f (x)  Domain of g (x)
(b) Domain of (f (x) . g (x)) = Domain of f (x)  Domain of g (x)

 f x  
(c) Domain of  g x  = Domain of f (x)  Domain of g (x) {x; g (x)  0}
  

(d) Domain of f  x = Domain of f (x) such that f (x)  0

(e) Domain of loga f (x) = Domain of f (x) such that f (x) > 0

Illustration 1 1
If [x] denotes the integral part of x , find the domain of definition of the function.
sec 1 x
f x  
x  x
Solution : For f (x) to be defined,
(i) x ă [x] > 0  x > [x]
 [x] < x
 x  an integer ... (1)
(ii) secă1 x should be defined,
 x  ă 1 or x  1 .... (2)
From (1) and (2), common values of x are given by
(ă  < x < ă 1 or 1 < x < ) and x  I
 Domain = R ă ((ă 1, 1)  I)

Illustration 1 2
Find the domain of the function
f (x) = log {a x3 + (a + b)x 2 + (b + c )x + c}, if b 2 ă 4a c < 0 and a > 0
Solution : Given, f (x) = log {ax3 + (a + b)x2 + (b + c)x + c} .............. (i)
For f (x) to be defined,
ax3 + (a + b)x2 + (b + c)x + c > 0
 (ax3 + bx2 + cx) + (ax2 + bx + c) > 0
 x(ax2 + bx + c) + ax2 + bx + c > 0
 (x + 1) (ax2 + bx + c) > 0
 x+ 1 > 0 [. .. b2 ă 4ac < 0 and a > 0
 ax2 + bx + c > 0 for all real x]
 x> ă 1
Hence domain of f = (ă 1, )

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Illustration 1 3
Find the domain of definition of the following functions :

f x  log 1  2x  3
(i) f(x) = sin ă1 (x2 ă 4x + 4) (ii)
2

 x  1 x  2 
(iii) f  x   (iv) f (x) = cosă1[2x 2 ă 3]
x  3  x  4
([.] denotes the greatest integer function).
Solution :
(i) For f (x) to be defined ă 1  x2 ă 4x + 4  1
 ă 1  (x ă 2)2  1  |x ă 2|  1  ă 1  x ă 2  1  1  x  3
Hence the domain of definition of f(x) is the set x  [1, 3].

(ii) For f(x) to be defined log1/2 (2x ă 3)  0

 2x ă 3  1  x  2 .... (1) [logab   0 when

3
Also 2x ă 3 > 0  x > .... (2) 0 < a < 1, b  1]
2
Combining (1) and (2) we get the required values of x. Hence the domain of definition of
3 
f(x) is the set  2 , 2 
 
ă ă
x  1  x  2  ă2 1 3 4
(iii) For f(x) to be defined  0 and x  3, 4.
x  3 x  4 
By wayy-curve method the domain of definition of f(x) is the set
x  (ă , ă 2]  [1, 3)  (4, )

(iv) For f(x) to be defined ă 1  [2x 2 ă 3]  1

 ă 1  2x2 ă 3 < 2  2  2x2 < 5  1  x2 < 5/2
If x2  1 then x  (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) ..... (1)

5  5 5
If x2 < then x   2
, 
2  ..... (2)
2 

 5   5 
Combining (1) and (2), x     1  1, 
 2   2 

which is the domain of definition of f(x).

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RAN GE

Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
First of all, find the domain.
1. If domain does not contain an interval, find the value of x putting the values of x from the
domain. The set of all these values of y will be the range.
2. If function is continuous and domain contains only finite intervals, find the least and greatest
values of y for values of x in the domain. If  and  be the least and greatest values of y
for values of x in the domain, then range f = [, ]. In order to find the least and greatest
dy
values of y, write down the sign scheme for .
dx
This method of finding the range of f (x) can also be used when domain is R or contains an
infinite interval provided f (x) is continuous in the domain.
3. If domain is R or the set of all real numbers except a few points, then express x in terms
of y and from this, find the value of y for which x is real and belongs to the domain. The
set of all these values of y will be the range. But if domain does not contain some points
say  and , then find y when x = , and x =  and exclude these values of y.

Illustration 1 4
Find domain and range of the function y = log e (3x 2 ă 4x + 5).
Solution :
y is defined if 3x2 ă 4x + 5 > 0
where D = 16 ă 4 (3) (5) = ă 44 < 0
and coefficient of x2 = 3 > 0
Hence, (3x2 ă 4x + 5) > 0  x  R
Thus, Domain is R
Now, y = loge (3x2 ă 4x + 5)
We have 3x2 ă 4x + 5 = ey
or 3x2 ă 4x + (5 ă e y) = 0
Since, x is real thus, discriminant  0
 12 ey  44

 11 
So, y  log  
 3

  11  
Hence, range is  log   ,  
  3 

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Illustration 1 5


Find the range of the function f (x) =  ln sin

1
 

x 2  x  1  , where [.] denotes the greatest

integer function.
Solution :



Given, f (x) =  log e sin

1
x2  x  1 

 .... (1)

Domain of f :
For f (x) to be defined,
(i) x2 + x + 1  0  ă  < x<  ... (A)

x2 + x + 1  1  x  x  1  0
2
(ii)  1  x2  x  1  1 

 x2 + x + 1  1  x 2 + x  0
 ă 1  x  0 ... (B)

(iii) sin 1 x2  x  1  0

 sin1 x2  x  1  sin1 0

ă1
 x2  x  1  0 [ sin x is an increasing function]

 x2 + x + 1 > 0
 ă  < x<  ... (C)
From (A), (B) and (C), ă 1  x  0
 Domain f = [ă 1, 0]
Range of f :

2
 1 3 3 1
Least value of x + x + 1 =  x    
2 at x 
 2  4 4 2

3
 least value of x2  x  1 
2

 Since sin 1 x2  x  1 should be defined 

Also x2  x  1  1 ,  

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 MARKS 31

3
Thus  x2  x  1  1
2

 3
 sin1    sin
1
x2  x  1  sin1  1
 2 
[ sină1 x is an increasing function]
 
  sin 1 x2  x  1 
3 2


 

log e    loge sin1
3 
  
x2  x  1  log e  
2 

  
     
0  loge sin 1 x 2  x  1  1  loge    1 & log e  0 
  
2   3 




loge sin
1


x2  x  1   0

 f (x) = 0 for all x  [ă 1, 0]

Hence range f = {0}
Note : Here f is a many-one function.

Illustration 1 6

1
Find the range of f  x   log e  cos x    sin x  where [x] denotes the integral part of x.

Solution :

1
Given, f  x  log e cos x  sin x
    ... (1)

Domain of f :
>

For f (x) to be defined, [cos x] = 0, [sin x] = 1

[cos x] ă [sin x] > 0 [cos x] = ă 1 [cos x] = 0
[sin x] = 0 [sin x] = 0
 [cos x] > [sin x] [cos x] = ă 1, [sin x] = 0 [cos x] = 1, [sin x] = 0
>

  x0 [cos x] = ă 1 [cos x] = 0
2
  
Domain =   , 0 [sin x] = ă 1 [sin x] = ă 1
 2 
[cos x] = 0, [sin x] = ă 1

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  
Range of f : In   , 0 , [cos x] ă [sin x] = 1
 2 
 from (1), f (x) = loge1 = 0
Hence range f = {0}
Note : Here f is a many-one function.

Illustration 1 7
Find the range of the following functions :

 
(i) f  x   ln x 2  4x  5 (ii) f ( x )  3 sin x  8 cos  x    5
 3

1  1 2 2x  2
(iii) f  x   sin   x  (iv) f x  2
 2  x  2x  3
([.] denotes the greatest integer function)
Solution :

2
(i) Here f(x) = ln x 2  4x  5  ln x  2  1

i.e. x2 + 4x + 5 takes all values in [1, )  f(x) will take all values in [0, ).
Hence range of f (x) is [0, ).

 
(ii) Here f (x) = 3 sin x + 8 cos  x    5
 3

= 3 sin x + 4 (cos x + 3 sin x) + 5 = (3 + 4 3 ) sin x + cos x + 5.

Put 3 + 4 3 = r cos  and 4 = r sin  so that

1 4
r  73  24 3 and   tan 3  4 3  f x   73  24 3 sin (x + ) + 5

 
 Range of f(x) is 5  73  24 3 , 5  73  24 3 
 

 1 1 2
(iii) Here f x   sin  2  x 
 

1 2
For any value of x,   x  is a non-negative integer and sină1 x is defined only for two
2 
non-negative integers 0 and 1.

 
 the range of f  0, 
 2

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2x  2
(iv) Here f  x  2
x  2x  3
2x  2
Let y = f (x) i.e. y =  yx2 ă 2 (y + 1) x + 3y + 2 = 0
2
x  2x  3
which is a quadratic in x. For above quadratic to have real roots   0
 4(y + 1)2 ă 4y (3y + 2)  0
1 1
 y2  y 
2 2

 1 1 
Hence the range of f(x) is   , .
 2 2

Na t ur e of Fu n c t io n
Wo r k i n g Ru l e :
1. (a) A function f (x) is odd if f (ă x) = ă f (x) i.e. f (ă x) + f (x) = 0
(b) A function f (x) is even if f (ă x) i.e. f (ă x) ă f (x) = 0
(c) Graph of an even function is symmetrical about y-axis.
(d) Graph of an odd function has the property that its part in first and third quadrants are
symmetric about the origin and its part in second and fourth quadrants are symmetrical
about the origin.
2. Properties of odd and even functions.
(a) a constant function is an even function
(b) a zero function is both an odd and an even function.
(c) For two functions, the following are the rules for their respective operations.
Functions Sum Difference Product Division
even ă even even even even even
even ă odd neither even neither even odd odd
nor odd nor odd
odd ă even neither even neither even odd odd
nor odd nor odd
odd ă odd odd odd even even
(d) (i) if f (x) + f (ă x) = 0  f is odd function.
(ii) if f (x) ă f (ă x) = 0  f is odd function.
(e ) The derivative of an odd function is an even function and derivative of an even function is
an odd function.
(f) The square of even or an odd Function is always an even Function.
(g) Any function y = f (x) can written as y = f (x) = [odd part of f (x)] + [even part of f (x)]

 f  x   f   x    f  x   f  x  
i.e. y  f  x     
 2   2 
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Illustration 1 8

t t
If f  t   t
  1 , show that f (t) is an even function.
e 1 2
Solution :
1 t
Since f t   t
 1 ... (i)
e 1 2

t t
Now, f  t   t
 1
e 1 2

tet t
 t
 1 ... (ii)
e 1 2

Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get

f t   f   t  
t
1  e   t
t

 e 1t

= ă t+ t= 0
 f (ă t) ă f (t) = 0. Hence f (t) is an even function.

Illustration 1 9
Find out whether the given function is even, odd or neither even nor odd.

x x , x  1 
 
where, f  x   1  x   1  x  ,  1  x  1
 
 x x , x1 
where || and [ ] represents modulus & greatest integer function.
Solution : The given function can be written as :

 x 2 , x  1 
 
f  x   2  x    x  , 1  x  1 
 2 
 x , x1 

 x2 , x 1 
 
2  1  0 , 1  x 0 
 
f  x   2 , x 0 
2  0  1 , 0  x  1
 
 x2 , x  1 

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  x2 , x  1 
 
1 ,  1  x 0 
 
f  x   2 , x 0 
1 , 0  x  1
 
 x2 , x  1 


which is clearly even as if f (ă x) = f (x)

Thus, f (x) is even.

Illustration 20
Find out whether the given function is even or odd function, where
x  sin x  tan x 
f x 
x   1 , where x  n

    2
 
[ ] denotes greatest integer function.
Solution :

x  sin x  tan x  x  sin x  tan x 

f  x  
 x    1  x  1
   2    1 2
 

x  sin x  tan x 
f  x 
x 
    0.5
 

 x  sin   x  tan   x  
f   x 
 x 
    0.5
 

 x sin x  tan x 
 , x  n 
  x 
f   x    1      0.5 
   
0 , x n 
 

 
 x  sin x  tan x  
f   x    
  x 1 
    2 
   
f(ă x) = ă f(x)
 It is an odd function (if x  n)

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Ident ic al func t ion

Two functions f and g are identical if
(i) domain f = domain g
(ii) f(n) = g(n)  n  domain f or domain g.

Illustration 21
Find for what values of x the following functions are identical

(i) f (x) = x and g  x   x 2

x2
(ii) f  x  , g  x  x
x

Solution :
(i) Domain of g = ] ă , [
Domain of f = ] ă , [

g  x   x2 = positive square root of x = |x| = x, if x  0

2

and f (x) = x
 f (x) and g (x) are identical  x  [0, [
(ii) Domain of f = R ă {0} = ] ă , 0 [] 0, [
Domain of g = ] ă ,  [= R

x2
f  x   x , when x  0
x

 f (x) and g (x) are identical  x  0

Ex p l i c i t Fu n c t i o n
If x and y are two variables connected by a relation such that y is expressed explicitly in terms
of x or x is expressed explicitly in terms of y, i.e., y = f(x) or f(x) = y. Such functions are known as explicit
functions.
For examples y = x + 2, xy + y ă 5 = 0, x2 + y2 = 5 are explicit functions.

I m p l i c i t Fu n c t i o n
If the variables x and y are connected by a relation such that neither y is expressed explicitly as
a function of x nor x is expressed explicitly as a function of y. Such functions are known as implicit
functions. These functions are expressed in the form
f (x, y) = 0
For example, x 3 + y3 + 3axy = 0, tan (x2 + y2 ) + cos (x + y) = ex are implicit functions, of x, y.

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y
PERIODI C FU N CT I ON
A function f : D  R is said to be a periodic
function if there exists a positive real number p
such that
f (x + p) = f (x) for all x D. The least of all x
ă2 ă1 0 1 2 3
such positive numbers p is called the principal
period of f. In general, the principal period is called
the period of the function e.g. sin x and cos x are
periodic functions, each having period 2.
{x} = x ă [x] is a periodic function, the period being 1. The graph of x ă [x] is as shown in the figure.

Ru l e s f o r f i n d i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e p e r i o d i c f u n c t i o n s :
(i) If f (x) is periodic with period p, then a f (x)  b, where a, b  R (a  0) is also a periodic
function with period p.

(ii) If f (x) is periodic with period p, then f (ax  b), where a  R ă {0} and b R, is also periodic

p
with period a .

(iii) Let us suppose that f (x) is periodic with period p and g (x) is periodic with period q. Let r
be the LCM of p and q, if it exists.

(a) If f (x) and g (x) cannot be interchanged by adding a least positive number k, then
r is the period of f (x) + g(x).

(b) f (x) and g (x) can be interchanged by adding a least positive number k and if k < r,
then k is the period of f (x) + g (x). Otherwise r is the period.

(iv) If f (x), g (x) are periodic functions with periods T1, T 2 respectively then; we have,

h (x) = a f (x)  b g (x) has period as,

LCM of T1 , T2  ; if h  x  is not an even function


1
 LCM of T 1, T 2 ; if h  x  is an even function
2

 a c e  LCM of  a, c, e
Note : (1) LCM of  , ,   HCF of , ,
b d f b d f 
(2) LCM of rational with rational is possible
LCM of irrational with irrational is possible
But LCM of rational and irrational is not possible.

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Fo l l o w i n g r e s u l t s m a y b e d i r e c t l y u s e d
(i) sin x, cos x, sec x and cosec x are periodic functions with period 2.
(ii) tan x and cot x are periodic functions with period .
(iii) |sin x|, |cos x|, |tan x|, |cot x|, |sec x|, |cosec x| are periodic functions with period .
(iv) sinnx, cos nx, sec n x and cosecnx are periodic functions with period 2 and  according as n is
odd or even respectively.
(v) tan nx and cot nx are periodic functions with period , whether n is odd or even.

Illustration 22

1  sin x cos x 
Find the period of the function f  x     
2  cos x sin x 

Solution : Period of |sin x|, |cos x| = 

Period of sin x, cos x = 2

sin x
Period of = L.C.M. of  and 2 = 2
cos x

cos x
Period of = L.C.M. of  and 2 = 2
sin x

1  sin x cos x 
Period of 2  cos x  sin x  = L.C.M. 2 and 2 = 2
 

Illustration 23
Find the period of the following functions :

x
(i) f (x) = sin x + {x} (ii) f  x   tan  sin 2x
3
(iii) f (x) = |sin x| + |cos x|
Solution :
(i) Here f (x) = sin x + {x}
Period of sin x is 2 and that of {x} is 1. But the L.C.M. of 2 and 1 does not exist. Hence
sin x + {x} is not periodic.
(ii) Here f (x) = tan x/3 + sin 2x. Here tan (x/3) is periodic with period 3  and and sin 2x is
periodic with period . Hence f (x) will be periodic with period 3 .

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(iii) Here f (x) = |sin x|+ |cos x|.

2 1  cos2 x
Now, sin x  sin x  , which is periodic with period .
2

Similarly, |cos x| is periodic with period .

Hence, according to rule of LCM, period of f (x) must be .

   
But sin   x   cos x and cos   x   sin x [see rule (3) part (b)]
 2   2 

Since /2 < , period of f (x) is /2.

Illustration 24
Which of the following functions are periodic ? Also find the period if function is periodic.
(i) f (x) = 10 sin3x (ii)  x + b cos
f (x) = a sin x (iii) f (x) = sin3x

(iv) f (x) = cosx 2 (v) f (x) = sin x (vi) f x   tan x

(vii) f (x ) = x ă [x] (viii) f (x) = xcosx

where x is integral part of x
Solution :
(i) f (x) = 10sin3x
Let f (T + x) = f (x)
 10sin {3T + 3x)} = 10 sin3x  sin (3T + 3x) = sin3x
 3T + 3x = n + (ă 1)n3x, where n = 0,  1,  2, .......
The positive values of T independent of x are given by
3T = n, where n = 2, 4, 6, .......


 least positive value of T  2
3

2
Hence f (x) is a periodic function with period
3

(ii) f (x) = asinx + bcosx

 a b 
= a 2 b2  sin x  cos x 
 a2  b2 a2  b2 
 

b
= a2  b2 cos  sin  x  sin  cos  x , where tan  
a

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= a2  b2 sin  x   

2
Which is a periodic function of period 

3sin x  sin 3 x 3 1
(iii) f(x) = sin3x =  sin  sin3 x
4 4 4

2
Sin x is a periodic function of period 2  and sin 3x is a periodic function of period .
3

2 2  L.C.M. of 2  and 2 
Now L.C.M. of and 
1 3 H.C.F. of 1 and 3

2
=  2
1
Hence f (x) is a periodic function of 2.

(iv) f (x) = cosx 2

Let f (T + x) = f (x)  cos (T + x)2 = cosx2
 (T + x)2 = 2n  x2
From this no positive value of T independent of x is possible because x2 on R.H.S. can be
cancelled out only when T = 0
 f (x) is a non periodic function.

(v) f (x) = sin x

Let f (T + x) = f (x)             sin T  x  sin x

n
 T  x  n     1 x

This will give no positive value of T independent of x because x on R.H.S. can be cancelled
out only when T = 0.
 f (x) is a non periodic function.

(vi) f  x   tan x

Let (T + x) = f(x)  tan T  x  tan x

 tan (T + x) = tan x
 T + x = n + x, = 0,  1,  2, .....

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From this positive values of T independent of x are given by

T = n, n = 1, 2, 3
 least positive value of T independent of x is .
 f (x) is a periodic function of period .

(vii) f (x) = x ă [x], where [x] is the integral part of x.

Let f (T + x) = f (x)
 (T + x) ă [T + x] = x ă [x]
 T = [T + x] ă [x] = an integer
Hence, least positive value of T independent of x is 1.
Hence f (x) is a periodic function of period 1.

(viii) f (x) = xcosx

Let f (T + x) = f (x)  (T + x) cos (T + x) = xcosx
 Tcos (T + x) = x [cos x ă cos (T + x)]
From this no value of T independent of x is possible becase on R.H.S. one factor is x which is
an algebraic function and on L.H.S. there is no algebraic function in x and hence x cannot be
cancelled out.
Hence f (x) is a non periodic function.

Illustration 25
Let f (x, y) be a periodic function satisfying f (x, y) = f (2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x) for all x, y. Let g (x)
= f (2x, 0). Show that g (x) is a periodic function with period 12.
Solution : Given, f (x, y) = f(2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x) ... (1)
 f (x, y) = f (2x + 2y, 2y ă 2x)
= f [2(2x + 2y) + 2(2y ă 2x), 2(2y ă 2x) ă 2(2x + 2y)]  putting x = 2x + 2y 
 
= f (8y, ă 8x)  & y = 2y ă 2x 
Thus f (x, y) = f (8y, ă 8x)
= f (ă 64x, ă 64y)
= f [(ă 64) (ă 64x), (ă 64) (ă 64y)]
= f (2 12x, 212y)
 f (x, 0) = f (2 12x, 0)
Now, g (x) = f (2 x, 0)
= f (212.2x, 0)
= f (2x+12, 0)
= g (x + 12)
Hence g (x) is a periodic function with period 12.
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Illustration 26
Let f be a real valued function defined for all real numbers x such that for some fixed

1
f  x    f  x   for all real x. Show that f (x) is a periodic function. Also
2
a > 0, f  x  a   
2

find its period.

1
f  x   f  x   x  R
2
Solution : Given, f  x  a   ... (1)
2

2
 1
 f  x  a     f  x   f  x  
2

 2

2
 1 1
=   f  x   
 2 4

2 2
 1  1 1
 f x  a     f x    ... (2)
 2  2 4

2 2
 1  1 1
  f  x  2a      f  x  a     ... (3)
 2  2 4

2 2
 1  1
(3) ă (2)   f  x  2a     f  x    0
 2  2

1 1
 f  x  2a    f  x 
2 2

1
[ from (1), f (x + a) ă  0  xR
2

1 1
 f (x ă a + a) ă  0 or, f (x) ă  0  x R
2 2

 f (x + 2a) = f (x)  x  R and fixed a > 0

Hence f (x) is a periodic function with period 2a.

Find the range of the following functions

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T RA N SFORM A T I ON S
Transform at ion 1 :
Drawing the graph of y = f (x)  a, from the graph of y = f(x)
(a) To draw the graph of y = f (x) + a,
shift the graph of y = f (x), a units in upward direction.
(b) To draw the graph of y = f (x) ă a
shift the graph of y = f (x), units in downward direction.
Logic : The graph can be taken as
y  a = f (x), so we are just changing the value of y here.

Illustration 27
Plot the following :
(a) y = |x| ă 2 (b) y = sină1 x ă 1
Solution :
(a) y = |x| ă 2
we know the graph of y = |x| (i.e. modulus function) and the given function can be written
as y + 2 = |x| also.
applying the transformation for y = f (x) + a
shift the curve of y = |x| by 2 unit downward.

y = |x|

y = |x|–2

ă2

(b) y = sină1x – 1
or we can write y + 1 = sină1x
put y+ 1  y
now, y = sină1x
Y Y
2

2
ă1
applying
x x
transformation
ă1
2
ă1
2

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Illustration 28
Plot the following :
(a) y = sin x + 5 (b) y = cos2 x
Solution :
(a) y = sin x + 5
writing it as y ă 5 = sin x
applying y–5  y
 y = sin x

y y
6

5
O yă5 y
4
x
O
y = sinx

(b) y = cos2 x
we dont know the graph of cos 2x but we do know the graph of cos x.
since cos 2x = 2 cos2x ă 1
 2 cos2 x = cos2x + 1

cos2x  1
 cos2x =
2

cos2x  1
 y=
2

1 cos 2x
 y 
2 2

1 cos 2x
 y 
2 2
applying transformation yă1/2  y

cos 2x
 y
2

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cos2x
here have half the period of cos x & also half of amplitude.
2
y y
1
2 1
ă  ă 
2 2 x y ă 1/2 y 2 2
O  1
4 2 x
ă1 O
2

Transform at ion 2 :
To draw the graph of y = f (x  a) from y = f (x)
(a) To draw y = f (x + a) from y = f (x) shift the graph of f (x) in ÂaÊ units to left.
(b) To draw y = f (x ă a) from y = f (x) shift the graph of f (x) by ÂaÊ units to right.

–a a
y = f(x - a)
y = f(x + a)

y = f(x)

Illustration 29
Plot
 z
(a) y = |x + 2| (b) y  sin  x   (c) y = 4.2x
 4

Solution : (a) for y = |x + 2|

by putting x  x + 2
y = |x|

x x+ 2
O ă2 0

y = |x+2|
y = |x|

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 
(b) y = sin  x  
 4

here we will draw the above graph from y = sin x

putting x for x ă /4

y = sinx

0 x x /4 O /4

(c) y = 4.2x
or we can write this as
y = 2 2.2x = 2x+2
we know the curve of 2x, so

1 4

1
O x x+2

Transform at ion 3
To plot the curve of y = f (ă x) from y = f (x)
1. Draw the graph y = f (x)
2. Then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in y-axis or we can say, turn the graph of f (x) by
180Ĉ about y-axis.

Illustration 30
Draw the graph of the following :
(a) y = e ăx (b) y = log (ă x)

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Solution :
(a) We will go stepwise for solving these curves.
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
so here putting ă x as x
 y = ex

1 stepă2 (0, 1)
x x
taking mirror
image

(b) y = log (ă x)
ă x  x
drawing the graph of y = log x

x x
(0, 1) mirror
image

y = log x

Transform at ion 4
To draw the graph of y = ă f (x) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
Step 2 : Then take the mirror image of y = f (x) in x-axis.

Illustration 31
Plot the graph of the following curve :

1
(a) y = ă ex (b) y  log  
x

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Solution :
(a) y = ă ex
we know the curve of y = ex

step ă1
y

(0, 1) STEP
x
–f(x) f(x)
(0,ă1)
taking mirror
image
x
y = ăe

1
(b) y  log  
x

this can be written as y = log xă1

or y = ă log x {by log properties}
now we have y = ă log x

y y

x x
(0, 1) taking mirror (ă1, 0)
image

Transform at ion 5
To plot y = f (|x|) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : plot y = f (x) curve
Step 2 : Remove the left portion of the graph
Step 3 : Take the reflection of right portion in y-axis (including right part also)

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Illustration 32
Plot the curves of the following :
(a) y = log |x| (b) y = x 2 ă 2 |x| + 3
1
(c) y
x 1
Solution :
(a) given y = log |x|
Step 1 : draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : remove left part already there is no left part here

STEP 3

|x| x

(ă1, 0) (1, 0)

y = log x

(b) y = x2 ă 2 |x| + 3
This is transformation of |x|  x
Step 1 : putting |x|  x
 y = x 2 = 2x + 3 drawing the curve
Step 2 : Remove the left part
Step 3 : taking reflection

(0, 3)
(0, 3)

y = x2 - 2x + 3 y = x2- 2|x|+ 3

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1
(c) y
x 1
This one includes 2 transformations
1
1. |x|  x  y
x 1

1
2. x+ 1 x  y
x

1
So first drawing the curve y 
x

applying
transformation
'2'

y = ă1 applying
y = 1/x
transformation
'1' now

1
y= removing the left part
|x| + 1

Note : The order of applying the transformations is very important, otherwise we will get wrong
answer.

Transform at ion 6
To plot y = |f(x)| from the curve of y = f(x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Take mirror image of portion below x-axis in x-axis. (removing the lower portion).

Illustration 33
Plot the graph of the following curves
(a) y = |log x| (b) y = |x 2 ă 3x + 2|

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Solution :
(a) given y = |f(x)| = |log x|
where f (x) = log x

STEP 1 y STEP 2

x Mirror
(1, 0) image of
lower portion

(b) y = |x2 ă 3x + 2|
 y = |(x ă 1) (x ă 2)
applying transformation |f(x)|  f (x)
 f (x) = (x ă 1) (x ă 2)

(0, 2) (0, 2)
|f(x)|
(1, 0) (2, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0)

Transform at ion 7
To plot the graph of |y| = f (x) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Remove the lower portion i.e. below x-axis.
Step 3 : Take mirror image of upper part in lower part, keeping the upper part also.

Illustration 34
Draw the graph of the following :
(a) |y| = (x ă 2) (x ă 3)
(b) |y| = log x

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Solution :
(a) given |y| = (x ă 2) (x ă 3)
applying the 3 steps
STEP ă 1 STEP ă 2 STEP ă3

(0, 6)

(2, 0) (3, 0)
removing
lower part
& taking
mirror image
(b) |y| = log x

STEP 2

removing
this taking mirror
y = log x |y| log x
image

Transform at ion 8
To plot x = f (y) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Take reflection in line y = x, also called reflection about origin.

Illustration 35
Plot the graph of the following :
(a) x = log y (b) x = |y|
Solution :
(a) now here x & y are interchanged original function was y = log x

taking
mirror image
in y = x line
y = log x x = log y

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(b) we have x = |y| & we know the graph of y = |x|, which we get by replacing x by y & y by x.

(y = |x|) (x = |y|)

Transform at ion 9
To plot x = |f( y)| from the graph x = f(y)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of x = f(y), using transformation 8.
Step 1 : Take reflection of Left portion in y axis.

Illustration 36
Plot the graph of the following :
(a) x = |log y|
Solution :
Firstly drawing the graph of x = log y from y = log x

(0, 1)

(1, 0)

y = log x
now applying step 2 for modulus function

x = |log y|

Note : This transformation is not valid for g (x) = |f(y)| i.e. on L.H.S. only x should be there &
no other function.

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Transform at ion 10
To plot the graph of y = [f (x)] from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw horizontal lines after every unit distance i.e. y  k, where k integers.
Step 3 : From the point of intersection (as obtained from step 2), draw vertical lines.
Step 4 : From the intersection points draw horizontal lines upto the nearest vertical line (towards
right). The line drawn should be below the curve for that region.
We will understand the steps with the help of examples.

Illustration 37
Draw the graph of following curves :
(i) y = [x] (ii) y = [x 3 ] (iii) y = [2sinx ]
Solution :
(a) We will go stepwise, so as to understand the procedure.
we have y = [x]
Step 1 : draw y = x Step 2

4
3
drawing 2
horizontal
lines 1

ă1 1 2 3 4

ă2
ă3

Step 3 y

drawing x
final lines

drawing vertical lines downward to x-axis final graph of y = [x]

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(b) y = [x3]
Step 1 Step 2 & 3 Step 4

y=[ ]

(c) y = [2 sin x]
drawing first 2 sin x, which is almost same curve as sin x but has an amplitude of 2 rather
than 1.

applying step 2 & 3

y
2
2
1
1  5 7 11
0 6 6 6
ă1 x
ă2 ă1
y = 2 sin x ă2

applying step 2 & 3

applying step

2
1

0
ă1
ă2

Transform at ion 11
To plot y = f ([x]) from the graph of y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw vertical lines on every integral point of x i.e. x = k where k I (integers)
Step 3 : Draw horizontal lines from point of intersection to the nearest right vertical line.

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Illustration 38
Plot the following curves :
(a) y = e [x ] (b) y = sin [x]
Solution :
(a) given y = e[x]
we know the graph of y =ex

Step 1

(0, 1)
Step 2
ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 1 2 3 4 ă4 ă3 ă2 ă1 1 2 3 4

ă2 ă1 1 2 3

(b) y = sin [x]

here we know the graph of y = sin x

ă3
O Step 2 2 1 23 4

ă1

y = sin x

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In step 2 we have marked lines for x = k (where k  integers)

Note here that  has a value 3.14 (approx.), so now we can understand that we will get point
x = 1, 2, 3 between 0 and .

sin2
sin1
3 2 sin3 5
ă1 1 2 3 4

Note here that the figure in step 2 has parts above and below x-axis in (3, 4) but in final
graph the graph between (3, 4) is above x axis.
This is so because, for 3  x < 4, [x] = 3 only, so the value will be sin 3.
Also do not get confuse in values sin 1, sin 2 & sin 3.
for 1  x < 2; sin [x] = sin 1 ~ .84
2  x < 3; sin [x] = sin 2 ~ .909
3  x < 4; sin [x] = sin 3 ~ .14
& 1, 2 & 3 are in radians.

Transform at ion 12
To plot [y] = f (x), from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw y = f (x)
Step 2 : Draw horizontal lines at a unit distance i.e. y = k (k belongs to set of integers)
Step 3 : Draw vertical lines from the point of intersection up till next upper horizontal line
Include only the lower point.

Illustration 39
Plot the following graph :
(a) [y] = x 3
(b) [y] = x 2 ă 2

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Solution :
(a) given [y] = x3 , we known the graph of y = x3
Step 1 & 2
y
3

x
ă1

ă2

ă3

ă1

ă2

(b) [y] = x2 ă 2
This one includes two transformations :
1. [y]  y   y = x2 ă 2
2. y + 2  2  y = x2
drawing first y = x2 y=2
y=1

applying y = ă1
transformation
(0, ă2)

So, you can note here that

upper points on the vertical ă1

lines are not included. ă2

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Transform at ion 13
To plot x = [f (y)] from x = f (y)
Step 1 : draw x = f (y) by using transformation 8.
Step 2 : draw vertical lines at a unit distance
i.e. x = k (k  integers)
Step 3 : draw vertical lines from the point of intersection uptil the above intersection point.

Illustration 40

Draw the graph of x =  y 

Solution :

Given x =  y 

first we will draw the graph of x = y

for x = y , y  0 (as it is a property of under root function)

squaring  x 0
 x2 = y
here we will draw in the region where x  0 as stated by (1)

16

9
4
1

1 2 3 4 1 2 3

x= y [ x ]= y

Note : This transformation is not valid for functions of form g (x) = [f (y)]

Transform at ion 14
Plot the graph of y = f ({x}) from y = f (x)
Step 1 : draw the graph of y = f( x) in the interval [0, 1]
Step 2 : Repeat the same graph as in step 1, with a period of 1.

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Illustration 41
Plot the graph of the following :

2x
(a) y = sin (x ă [x]) (b) y 
2 [ x]
Solution :
(a) given y = sin (x ă [x])
& we know that x ă [x] = {x}
 we have to draw y = sin x in [0, 1]

sin 1
sin 1

1 1 2 3
2 ă1

2x
(b) y
 x
2
this could be written as y = 2x ă [x]
 y = 2 {x}
for this we will draw y = ax with a > 0
for {x} graph we will only check for the output between 0 and 1.

2
x
1 y= 2
1 [x]
2

Transform at ion 15
To draw the graph of y = {f (x)} from y = f (x)
Step 1 : Draw the graph of y = f (x)
Step 2 : Transfer the graph between the interval
y= 0 & y = 1

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Illustration 42
Plot the graph of the following :

(a) 
y  e x 1  (b) y = {2sinx}
Solution :

(a) given that y  e  

x1

1. {f (x)}  f (x)  y = exă1

2. xă 1  x  y = ex

3
2
1
(0, 1) eă1
applying

x transformation 2 1 x -1
y=e y=e

1 log2+1 log3+1

(b) y = {2sinx}
We know the graph of y = 2 sin x, as we have done that earlier also.

2
1

ă1
ă2

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Transform at ion 15
y = f (x)  {y} = f (x)
To draw {y} = f (x). Draw the graph of y = f ( x) then retain the graph of y = f (x) which lies between
y  [0, 1) and neglect the graph for other values. Also repeat this graph in the same interval for x,
but for all intervals y  [n, n + 1).

Illustration 43
Plot the graph of {y} = eăx
Solution :

(i)  y  e x 
y   y
y  e x

Y Y
y ă 4 =e x
4
3 y ă 3 = ex
1 y ă2 =e x
2
X 1 y ă 1 = ex
0 X
0 y = ex
y+1 = x
ă1 e
ă2 y + 2 = ex
y +3 = x
ă3 e
Graph of y = ex
Graph of y = e x

Transform at ion 16
x  f  y   x   f  y 
To draw x = { f (y)}. Draw x = f (y). Draw vertical lines corresponding to integral values of x.
Transfer the graph between two consecutive vertical lines to the region lying between x = 0 & x = 1.
DonÊt include the points lying on x = 1.

Illustration 44
Plot (i) x = {2y}
x = {2y} x = 2y Y
Solution : f(y) = f{y} 6
Y 5
ă5 4
ă4 3
ă3
ă2 2
ă1 1 X
X 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 ă1
ă2
ă3
ă4
ă5
Graph of x = {2y}
Graph of x = 2y
Note : This transformation is not valid for drawing g (x) = {f (y)} from g (x) = f (y)
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Transform at ion 17

y  f  x   y  sgn  f  x  

To Draw y = sgn (f (x)). Draw y = f (x). Then draw y = 1 for which f (x) > 0 and y = ă 1 for which
f (x) < 0 and y = 0 for which f (x) = 0.

Illustration 45
Plot the graph of y = sgn (log x)
Solution :

y  sgn  log x   y  log x

y   y

Y Y

X X
O 1 O 1
ă1

Graph of y = loge x Graph of y = sgn (logx)

COM POSI T E FU N CT I ON S
Let us consider two functions, f : X  Y1 and g : Y1  Y. We define function h : X  Y such that
h (x) = g (f(x)). To obtain h(x), we first take the f-image of an element x X so that f (x)  Y1, which
is the domain of g (x). Then take g-image of f(x), i.e. g(f(x) i.e. g (f(x)) which would be an element of
Y. The adjacent figure clearly shows the steps to be taken.

f g

x f(x) g(f(x))

X Y1 Y
h = gof

The function ÂhÊ defined above is called the composition of f and g and is denoted by gof.
Thus (gof)x = g( f(x). Clearly Domain (gof) = {x : xDomain (f), f (x)  Domain (g)} Similarly we
can define, (fog)x = f (g(x)) and Domain (fog) = {x : x  Domain (g), g (x) Domain (f)}. In general
fog  g of.

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Ex p l a n a t i o n :
(i) To understand the concept of complete function consider fog (x) :

x g(x) fog(x)
g f
Ist IInd

in the above diagram for Ist block ÂxÊ is the independent variable and corresponding g( x) is
the dependent variable. But for IIrd block f (x) i.e. the dependent variable of Ist block is
independent variable of the IInd block and corresponding fog (x) is the dependent variable
of IInd block.

x f(x) fof(x)
(ii) fof(x) is f f
Ist IInd

x f(x) g gof(x)
(iii) gof(x) is f
Ist IInd

x g(x) g gog(x)
(iv) gog(x) is g
Ist IInd

Ge n e r a l s t e p s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g c o m p o s i t e f u n c t i o n s
Step 1 : Find critical points
(a) Draw graph of first block.
(b) Draw y = k (horizontal lines)
k critical pt(s) for second block
(c) Make pt(s) of intersection & find corresponding values of x.
(d) Critical pt(s) of first block & values obtained in c are critical pt(s) of composite
function.
Step 2 : Divide interval about critical point.
Step 3 : In each and every interval find appropriate definition of the function.

Illustration 46
Consider the function as defined as under

1  x , 0  x  2
f x  
3  x ; 2  x  3

Evaluate f [f (x)]

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Solution :
Here we have to evaluate fof (x)

x f(x) fof
f f

According to the rules that we have mentioned above,

Step 1 : It says draw the graph of first block.
i.e. f (x)

1  x ; 0  x  2 3
we know f  x  
3  x ; 2  x  3 2

1 2 3

(b) Now we have to y = k where k  critical points of the above function which is 2 in this
question.
 draw y = 2 line & find the point of intersection, which comes out to be 1

2 y=2

1 2 3

(c) now the critical point found will be the critical point of the composite function. Also the critical
point of first block will add to the critical points of composite function.
Step 2 : For composite function; now
the interval will be divided as follows
0  f (x)  2 & y
2 < f (x)  3
3
& now seeing for values, for these values. 3ăf(x)
2

1 1+f(x)

x
1 2 3

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Step 3 : Now finding appropriate values for their intervals

1  f  x  0  x  1 
 
f  f  x    3  f  x 1  x  2
 
1  f  x  2  x  3

as can be seen in the above graph.

Now put values of f (x) corresponding to the interval of x.

1  1  x 0  x  1
 
fof   3   1  x  1  x  2 
 
 1   3  x  2  x  3

2  x 0  x  1 
 
fof   2  x 1  x  2 

4  x 2  x  3
 

Illustration 47
Evaluate and draw the graph of following functions :
(a) f (x) = sin ă1 (sin x) (b) f (x) = sin (sină1 x )
Solution :
(a) f (x) = sină1 (sin x)
This can be considered a composite function with f (g (x)) as sină1 (sin (x))
It is clear that Df R, since sin x is valid for all values of x & it value ranges from ă 1 to + 1 which
satisfies sină1 function also.

 3
We know the graph of y = sin x from we get critical points as 2 , 2 ...  2n  1  (We will cover
2

critical points later also).

3
2

2
2

For now you can say that in such curves the points on which the tangent is parallel to x-axis are
the critical points.

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
for 0  x  sin ă1 (sin x) = x
2

 3
for  x  sin ă1 (sin x) =  ă x
2 2

Now this is important to understand this point, whenever we use inverse functions we represent
them in their principal value branch.

     3 
& sină1 x principal value branch is  ,  so for value between  ,  we have to convert
 2 2  2 2

them into principal values, which we do by subtracting it from .

3 5
So similarly for interval  x , we will subtract them by 2 and so on.
2 2
So the final graph becomes

y=x
  
x ;   x
 2 2 5
3 2
 3
 sin x     x
2
f  x   sin 1 2 2 2
;  x
 2 2
y=xă2
 3 5 y= –x
 x 2 ;  x
 2 2

(b) f (x) = sin (sină1 x)

first of all we will find the domain of the function for sină1 x, x can only take values
between ă 1 & 1
 Df  [ă 1, 1]
 
& since values between ă 1 & 1 lie between & (i.e. the principal value branch)
2 2
sin (sină1 x) = x
y
 f (x) = sin (sină1 x) = x; ă 1  x  1

ă1
x
1

ă1

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Illustration 48
Draw the following graphs :
(a) y = tan ă1 (tan x)
(b) y = sec (secă1 x )
Solution :
(a) given y = tană1 (tan x)
Again here, first of all we will try to find out the domain of the function
We know tană1 x will be valid for all x  R


& tan x returns real values for x  R ă (2n + 1)
2

 D f  R   2n  1
2
& Range will be according to the outer function which is tană1 here

   
 Rf   , 
 2 2
We know the graph of y = tan x

Which is discontinuous at x   2n  1 
2

so  2 n  1  for n = 0, 1, 2 ...
2
0 2
3
become its critical points. 2

 
so for x  tan ă1 (tan x) = x
2 2

 3
& for x  tană1 (tan x) = x ă 
2 2

 
again according to principal value branch which  2 , 2  for tan
ă1
x.

Y

  3   2
x   2
 x
2 
 
  
 y  tan 1  tan    x
x  
x  3 3
X
 2 2  2 2 2
2
  3 
x    x
2  2
 2

Note :  2n  1  points are not included as they are not part of domain.
2

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(b) y = sec (secă1 x)

we know the graph of sec ă1 x
D f  (ă , ă 1]  [1, )

2
 
Rf  [0, ] ă  
 2
y = sec x
and for this range the sec function is also valid.
 Df  (ă , ă 1]  [1, )
& Rf  (ă , ă 1]  [1, ) (as equal to the range of normal sec x function)
 y = sec (secă1 x) = x (for the given domain)
Note : The funda of principal value branch comes only when the outer function is an inverse
function because it is the property of inverse functions only.
So, drawing the graph now

ă1
1

ă1

Illustration 49
Draw the following graphs :

 2x   1  x2 
y  sin  1  y  cos 1 
(a)  1  x 2  (b)  1  x 2 
   

1  2 x 
Solution : (a) given, y  sin  2

1 x 

   
These kind of problems are solved by substitution by putting x = tan  &    ,  the principal
 2 2
branch value for tan

 1  2 tan    2 tan  
we get sin  2   sin ce  sin 2 
 1  tan    1  tan2  
= sină1 (sin 2)

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So, now the function becomes

y = sină1 (sin 2)
2

  3 
 x   2
 x
2 
 
   
but we know the graph of sină1 (sin x) i.e. y   x  x  replacing x by 2
 2 2 
  3 
  x  x
2 
 2

replacing x by 2

  3  
 2    ;
2
 2 
2 
 
   
y  2 ;  2  
 2 2 
  3 
  2 ;  2 
2 
 2

  3  
 2    ;
4

4 
 
 y  2 ;   /4     /4 
  3 
  2 ;  
 4 4 

and we substitute x = tan 

   
          = tan ă1 x & also    , 
 2 2
replacing the value of  in above values

 1   
 2 tan x   ;   tan  1 x 
2 4 
 
   
 y  2 tan 1 x ;   tan  x 
1

 4 4 
 1   
  2 tan x ;  tan 1 x 
 4 2 

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 1     
 2 tan x   ; tan    x  tan  
  2  4 
     
 y  2 tan 1 x ; tan    x  tan   
  4  4  
    
  2 tan 1 x ; tan  x  tan   
 4  2  

 2tan  1 x   ;    x   1
 
 y  2 tan 1 x ;  1  x 1 
 
  2tan 1 x ; 1  x   


Now we will draw the graph of the final function we know the graph of tană1 x, so drawing the
final graph from it.

2
y = tan ă1x y = ă2tan ă1x

so the final graph is


2

ă1
0 1
ă
2

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 1  x2 
y  cos 1 
(b)  1  x 2 
 

here putting x = tan 

   
&    ,  {make a rule to write down constraint as they come
 2 2

1  tan 2 
 cos 2
1  tan2 

 y = cosă1 (cos 2) 2

 x ,    x  0
y  cos 1  cos x   2
x , 0x 

for those who do not know this graph, try to solve it on your own.

 2 ;    2  0
 y  cos1  cos 2    
2  ; 0  2   

  
 2 ;
2
  0 

y  
  2  
; 0
 2 

replacing  by tană1 x

 1  
  2 tan x ;   tan1 x  0 
2 
  
 2 tan 1 x ; 
0  tan 1 x  
 2 

 2 tan 1 x ;    x  0 
y  ă2tană1x 2tană1x
 1

 2 tan x ; 0  x   
O
 Final graph is

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Note :

Ć If f (x) & g (x) are even  fog is an even function.

Ć If f (x) & g (x) are odd  fog is an odd function.

Ć If f (x) is even & g (x) is odd  fog is an even function.

Ć If f (x) is odd & g (x) is even  fog is an even function.

M APPIN G
Definition : Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. A subset f of X ï Y is called a function from X
t o Y i ff t o each x  X, there exists a unique y in Y such that (x, y)  f.
The other terms used for functions are „mappings‰, transformations‰ and „operators‰. We denote
this mapping by

f
f : X  Y or X  Y
It follows from the above definition that a relation X to Y is a function from X to Y iff
(i) to each x  X there exists a y  Y such that (x, y)  f ,
(ii) (x, y1)  f and (x, y 2)  f   y1 = y2.
The condition (i) ensures that to each x in X, f associates an element y in Y and condition (ii)
guarantees that y is unique.
We call X, the domain of f and Y the co-domain of f. The unique element y in Y assigned to x 
X is called the image of x under f or the value of f at x and is denoted by f (x). Also x is called a pre-
image (or inverse image) of y. Note that there may be more than one pre-images of y. The graph
of f is the subset of X ï Y defined by {(x, f (x)) : x X} The range of f is the set of all images under
f and is denoted by f [X]. Thus
f [X] = {y  Y : y = f (x) for some x  X}
= {f (x) : x  X}.
If A  X, then the set {f (x) : x  A} is called the image of A under f and is denoted by f [A].
If B  Y; then the set {x  X : f (x)  B} is called the inverse image of B under f and is denoted by
fă1 [B].

M a n y -o n e , o n e -o n e o n t o a n d i n t o m a p p i n g s .
Let f : X  Y.
The mapping f is said to be many-one iff two or more different elements in X have the same f-
image in Y. The mapping f is said to be one-one iff different elements in X have different f-images
in Y i.e. if x1  x2  f (x1)  f (x2 ) or equivalently, f (x1) = f (x2 )  x1 = x2. One-one mappings are also
called injection. The mapping f is said to be into if there is at least one element in Y which is not
the f-image of any element in X. Note that in this case the range of f is a proper subset of Y, that is

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f [X]  Y and f [X]  Y. The mapping f is said to be onto if every element in Y is the f-image of at
least one element in X. In this case, the range of f is euqal to Y, that is f [X] = Y. Onto mapping are
also called surjection. One-one and onto mappings are called bijection.

I l l u s t r a t i o n a n d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f w o r d s , ‘o n e -o n e ’, ‘m a n y o n e ’ ‘o n t o a n d i n t o ’.
Let A be the set of books in a Library and B be the set of certain natural numbers. Let a, b, c,
d, .... denote different books and let 240, 320, 108, 50 etc. denote some elements of the set B which
correspond to the number of pages in the books.
Now choose f to be the correspondence which assigns to each book the number of pages contained
in it ie. f : A  B.
The following points should be clearly understood.
1. Each book A is associated to some number B (ie. the number of pages in that book). This
number will be the image of the corresponding book.
2. Two or more books may be associated to the same number B (i.e. Two or more of books may
have the same number of pages).
In this case it will be termed as many one function or mapping as two or more elements
A will have the same image B or an element B will have more than one pre-image in A.
3. No book can be associated to different elements of B, i.e. the same book cannot have different
number of pages in it i.e. each book is associated to a unique number  B i.e. the image of
each and every book is unique.
4. If all the books A are associated to different numbers B i.e. all the books have different
number of pages i.e. all the elements of A have different f images in B or an element of B
has only one pre-image in A then this mapping is said to be one-one mapping.
5. There may be certain numbers in B which do not represent the number of pages of any of
the books A then the mapping is said to be into mapping i.e. f is a mapping of A into B.
In other words there is at least one element B which is not the image of any element A
then f is a mapping from A into B. In this case the set of images i.e. range of f is a subset
of B.
6. Now suppose each number  B represents the number of pages of at least one book to A
then the mapping f is said to be onto mapping i.e. f : A ÂontoÊ B. In this case each and every
element of set B is the image of at least one element in A. The set B i.e. co-domain is
completely covered by the f images of the domain A and consequently f (A) i.e. the set of
images = B.
7. Many-one onto mapping. When two or more
A B
books  A have the same number of pages i.e.
a 240
the same image  B (i.e. many-one) and also
b
each and every number  B represent the 320
c
number of pages of at least one book (i.e. onto)
d 108
then f : A  B is a many-one onto mapping.

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8. Many-one into mapping. When two or more books A have the same number of pages i.e.
the same image B (i.e. many-one) and there are certain numbers B which do not represent
the number of pages of any of the books A i.e. (into) then f : A  B is a many-one into
mapping.
A B

a 240
b 320
c 108
50
d
70

9. One-one into mapping. When all the books  A are having different number of pages i.e.
they are associated to different numbers B (one-one) and there are certain numbers  B
which do not represent the number of pages of any of the books  A i.e. (into) then f :
A  B is a one-one into mapping.

A B

a 240
b 320
108
c 50
d 90
70

10. One-one onto mapping. When all the books  A are having different number of pages i.e.
they are associated to diferent numbers B (one-one) and there is no number B which does
not represent the number of pages of a book A i.e. each and every number B represents
the number of pages of a certain book A (onto) then f : A  B is a one-one onto mapping.
This is also called Bijection.

A B

a 240
b 320
c 108
d 60

H o w t o De c i d e T h a t a Re l a t i o n i s a m a p p i n g ?
(1) Draw graph of y = f (x)
(2) Draw vertical lines in domain
(3) Make pt(s) of intersection b/w vertical lines and graph.

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(4) If every vertical line has exactly one pt. of intersection then f (x) is a mapping.
e.g. y = log x (R  R)
not a mapping.

Type of Mappings :
(1) Injective mapping = one-one mapping ă Non- (many-one mapping).
(2) Surjective mapping = onto mapping ă Non (into mapping).
(3) Bijective mapping = inverse mapping (invertible)

Injec t ive Mapping :

Every element in co-domain should have at most one pre-image.
Checking injective mapping :
(1) By inspection
eg. y = x2 = 1, y = 0 at x =  1
non-injective (many one mapping)
(2) Graphical Approach :
Steps : (i) Draw graph of f (x) in domain and co-domain.
(ii) Draw horizontal lines in co-domain.
(iii) Mark pts. of intersection b/w graph.
(iv) If every horizontal line has atmost one pt. of intersection (0 or 1) with the graph then
mapping is injetive or else many one mapping.

  
eg. y = tan x  2, 2  R y = x2
 

one-one
many-one

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(3) Derivative method. (for continuous functions)

If f (x) has no pt. of (l max. or l-min) in domain i.e. either increasing/decreasing in domain then
mapping is injective (one-one).
eg. y = log (log x) [1, )  R

dy 1 1
 is > 0 for x  (1, ) one-one mapping (increasing function)
dx log x x

e.g y = log (log (log x) (e, )  R

dy 1 1 1
  x  (e, )
dx log log x  log x x > 0

Su r j e c t i v e M a p p i n g :
Every element is co-domain is a paired element or every element in co-domain has at least one pre
image.
or (codomain = Range)

Bijec t ion Mapping :

For bijection, function has to be both injective and surjective

Method t o find no. of m appings

(1) Number of one-one mappings
If A & B are 2 finite sets having m & n elements
respectively then, the number of one-one functions from x1 f y1
A to B areă y2
There are m elements in set A & n in set B. For
one-one mapping to occur n  m
Now, x1 can take n images
x2 can take (n ă 1) images, removing the xm yn
one used by x1 already.
Similarly x3 A B

xn can take (n ă m + 1) images

 Total number of mappings = n ï (n ă 1) (n ă 2) ..... (n ă m + 1)
= nPm

 n Pm ; if n  m
Mapping possible 
 0 ; if n  m

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2. Number of onto functions

For this case you can just remember the formula or see a simple example given in your package.
For surjection from A to B, where A contains m and B contains n elements

n
n r n
   1 C r  r
m
The formula is
r 1

3. Number of bijection mappings

For a mapping to be bijective, it must be both,
one-one & onto.
i.e. both sets should have same number of elements
 x1 can take (n) images x1 f y1
x2 can ...... (n ă 1) images x2 y2

xn can take 1 image

 Total number of mappings
= n (n ă 1) (n ă 2) ... 1
xn yn
= n!

A B

Illustration 50
Let A = {x : ă 1  x  1} = B be a mapping f : A  B. For each of the following functions
from A to B, find whether it is surjective or bijective.
(a) f (x ) = |x | (b) f (x ) = |x | (c) f (x ) = x3

x
(d) f (x ) = [x ] (e) f  x   sin
2

Solution :
(a) f (x) = |x|
Graphically;
Which shows many one, as the straight line is parallel to x-axis and Y
cuts at two points. Here range for f (x)  [0, 1]
Which is clearly subset of co-domain.
i.e. [0, 1]  [ă 1, 1]
Thus, into
Hence, function is many-one-into. X
ă1 O 1
 neither injective nor surjective.

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(b) f(x) = x |x|, Y

Graphically, 1
The graph shows f (x) is one-one,
as the straight line parallel to x-axis cuts only at one point. X
ă1 O 1
Here, range
f(x)  [ă 1, 1]
ă1
Thus, range = co-domain
Hence, onto.
Therefore, f(x) is one-one onto or (bijective).

(c) f(x) = x3, Y

Graphically; 1
Graph shows f(x) is one-one onto
(i.e. bijective). X
ă1 O 1
[as explained in above example].

ă1

(d) f(x) = [x], Y

2
Graphically;
which shows f(x) is many-one, as the straight line 1
ă2 ă1
parallel to x-axis meets at more than one point. X
O 1 3
Here, range ă1
f(x)  {ă 1, 0, 1}
ă2
which shows into as range co-domain.
Hence, many-one-into.

x
(e) f x   sin Y
2
1
Graphically,
which shows f(x) is one-one and onto as range.
ă1
= co-domain. X
O 1
Therefore, f(x) is bijective.

ă1

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Illustration 51
Find number of surjections from A to B where
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a , b } [IIT 2000]
Solution :
Number of surjection from A to B

2
2 r 2
   1 C r  r
4
=
r 1

= (ă 1)2 ă 1 2
C1 (1) 4 + (ă 1)2ă 2 2
C2(2) 4
= ă 2 + 16
= 14
Therefore, number of onto mapping from A to B = 14.
Alter : Total number of mapping from A to B is 24 of which two function f( x) = a for all x  A
and g(x) = b for all x  A are not surjective.
Thus, total number of surjection from A to B = 24 ă 2
= 14

I N V ERSE OF FU N CT I ON
Let f : A  B be a one-one and onto function then there exists a unique function.

A B B A
f f ă1
1 2 2 1

2 4 4 2

3 6 6 3

4 8 8 4

g : B  A such that f (x) = y  g (y) = x,  x  A and y  B.

Then g is said to be inverse of f .
Thus, g = fă1 : B  A = {( f(x), x)] (x, f(x))  f}
Let us consider one-one function with domain A and range B.
Where A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8} and f : A  B is given by f(x) = 2x, then write f
and fă1 as a set of ordered pairs.
Here, member y B arises from one and only one member x  A.

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So, f = {(1, 2,) (2, 4) (3, 6) (4, 8)}

and fă1 = {(2, 1) (4, 2) (6, 3) (8, 4)}
Note in above function
Domain of f = {1, 2, 3, 4} = range of fă1
Range of f = (2, 4, 6, 8} = domain of fă1.
Which represents for a function to have its inverse it must be one-one onto or (bijective).

Method t o find Inverse

Ć First of all we have to check whether the function is bijective, i.e. one-one & onto both, or not.
Ć If the function is bijective, then for y = f(x) get
1. x = f(y)
2. put x as fă1(y) {as y = f( x)  f ă1(y) = x}
3. replace y by x on right hand side
This is your inverse function
We can also use the following formula for finding the inverse.
f [ fă1 (x)] = x

Illustration 52

1
If f : [1,  )  [2,  ) is given by f  x  x  then find fă1(x). (assume bijective).
x
Solution :
Let y = f( x)

x2  1
 y =  x 2 ă xy + 1 = 0
x

y y2  4
 x =
2

y y2  4
 fă1(y) = {as f(x) = y  x = f ă1(y)}
2

x y2  4
 fă1(x) =
2

Since, range of inverse function is [1, ), therefore, neglecting negative sign, we have,

x x2  4
f  1  x 
2
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Illustration 53

e x  e x
Let f : R  R be defined by f  x  . Is f (x ) invertible? If so, find its inverse.
2

Solution : Let us check for invertibility of f (x) :

ex  e x
(a) One-one : Here, f   x 
2

e2x  1
 f  x  which is strictly increasing as e2x > 0 for all x.
x
2e

Thus, one-one.
(b) Onto : Let y = f(x)

ex  e x
 y where y is strictly monotonic.
2

Hence, range of f( x) = (f(ă ), f ())

 range of f( x) = (ă  )
So, range of f ( x) = co-domain.
Hence, f(x) is one-one and onto.

e2x  1
(c) To find f ă1 : y
2ex

2y  4 y2  4
 e 2x ă 2e xy ă 1 = 0  ex 
2

 
x  log y  y 2  1 
 fă1 (y) = log y  y2  1  [as f(x) = y  x = f ă1(y)]

Since, ef ă1(x) is always positive.

So, neglecting negative sign.

Hene, f 1
 x  log x  x2  1 
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Illustration 54
Let f : [1/2,  )  [3/4,  ), where f (x ) = x 2 ă x + 1. Find the inverse of f (x ).

1 3
Hence, solve the equation x2 ă x + 1 =  x
2 4

Solution :
(a) f(x) = x2 ă x + 1

2
 1 3
 f x    x    which is clearly one-one and onto in given domain and co-domain.
 2 4

(b) Thus, its inverse can be obtained.

let f( x) = y

2
 1 3
 y = x  
 2 4

1 3
 x =  y
2 4

1 3
 x =  y [f( x) = y  x = fă1 (y)]
2 4

1 3
 fă1(y) =  y [neglecting ă ve sign as always + ve.]
2 4

1 3
 fă1(x) =  x
2 4

1 3
(c) To solve : x2 ă x + 1 =  x , as f(x) = f ă1(x) has only one solution.
2 4

i.e. f( x) = x
2
 x ă x+ 1 =x
 x2 ă 2x + 1 = 0  (x ă 1)2 = 0
x = 1 is the required solution.

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Properties of inverse of a function

1. The inverse of bijection is unique.
2. The inverse of bijection is also bijection.
3. If f : A  B is bijection and g : B  A is inverse of f.
Then fog = IB and gof = IA .
where, IA and IB are identity functions on the sets A and B respectively.
4. If f : A  B and g : B  C are two bijections, then gof : A  C is bijection and (gof)ă1 =
(f ă1 og ă1).
5. fog  gof but if, fog = gof then either fă1 = g or gă1 = f also.
(fog) (x) = (gof) (x) = (x).

Illustration 55

1
Let g (x) be the inverse of f (x ) and f '  x   . Then find g ´(x ) in terms of g (x ).
1  x3
Solution : We know, if g( x) is inverse of f (x)
 g{ f( x) = (x)

 g '(f (x )), f '(x ) = 1

1 3
 g '{ f ( x)} = f ' x  1  x
 
 g '{f (g (x ))} = 1 + (g(x))3

 g '(x ) = 1 + (g(x))3 [ f(g (x)) = x]

SOM E SPECI A L TY PE OF QU EST I ON S

(I) Finding the number of solutions using graph

Illustration 56
Find the number of solutions of :
7|x | (|5 ă |x|) = 1
Solution :
In such type of questions we try to find the number of intersections of 2 curves.
We can write the equation as
(|5 ă |x||) = 7ă|x|
We did this to get 2 curves. Now we will draw LHS & RHS separately.

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for y = |5 ă |x||
using transformations 1. |x|  (x)
2. |f( x) | f(x)
y = 5 ăx

(0, 5) (0, 5)

(5, 0)
(ă5, 0) (ă5, 0) (5, 0)

y = ă|x| y = 5 ă|x| (A)

now drawing y = 7ă|x|

x
1 
using y   & using |x|  x
7 

& we know that for ax , 0 < a < 1 the graph is

|x|  x
(0,1)

ă|x|
y=7
(B)

Combining both graphs (A) & (B)

(0, 5)

(0, 1)

(ă5, 0) (5, 0)

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Points of intersection = 4
 No. of solutions of the equation = 4
You can see how easy a question becomes if u are comfortable with graphs, solving this question
algebraically could have been a bit confusing.

(II) To find the curve of f (x ) = max. {g (x ), h (x )....}

In this type we draw the curves of all functions like g(x), h(x) ... and then we choose the part of the
curve which is at top (has max value of y) with respect to all other curves in that region.

Illustration 57
Find the function/curve of f (x ) = max. {x 2, (1 ă x )2 , 2x (1 ă x )}
Solution :
First we will draw the graphs of each of the function x2, (1 ă x) 2, 2x (1 ă x)
for y = x2

(0,0)

y = (1 ă x)2
= (x ă 1) 2

(0,1)

(1, 0)

(0,0)

y = 2x (1 ă x)
= ă 2x2 + 2x

(0,0) (1, 0)

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Now we will combine all the curves in one curve

y = x2
y = (1ăx) 2

Now mark the points which are above other curves

y = x2 y = (1ăx ) 2

(A)

(0,0) (1,0)
(B)
y = 2x (1ăx )

We just now have to find the intersection points (A) & (B) for (A) its between
curves y = 2x (1 ă x) & y = x2
equating 2x (1 ă x) = x2
as we know the other point, i.e. x = 0
2 ă 2x = x
 x = 2/3 ... (i)
for B its between y = (1 ă x)2 & y = 2x (1 ă x)
cancelling (1 ă x) from both sides
1 ăx = 2x

1
 x = ... (ii)
3

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 The required function becomes

 1
1  x 
2
 x
3
 
 1 2 
f x   2 x 1  x  x  
 3 3 
 2 2 
x  x  
 3 

(III) Function as Series :

In this type, the function is given in the form of a series i.e. it is dependent on the values previous
to it. Or some such relation is given to you.
Let us solve some questions to understand the concept.

Illustration 58
Let f be a function satisfying f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y R. If f (1) = k then find f (n).

Solution :

We are given the value of f (1) = i.e. f (1) = k

& f (x + y) = f(x) + f(y) ... (i)

& we have to find f(n )

putting x = 1 & y = 1 in (i)

f(2) = f(1) + f (1) = 2f(1) = 2k

f(3) = f(2) + f (1) = 2k + k = 3k

f(4) = f(3) + f (1) = 3k + k = 4k

f(n) = f( n ă 1) + f (1) = (n ă 1) k + k = nk

f ( n ) = nk

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T RI CK Y ON E

Illustration 59

 1 
If a f  x  1  bf  x  1   x, x  ă 1, a  b then find the value of f(2).
 

Solution :

Given af  x  1  bf  1   x
 
 x  1

rewriting it

 1 
af  x  1   b    x  1  1 ... (i)
 x  1

1
replacing (x + 1) by
x1

 1   1 
 af    bf  x  1     1 ... (ii)
x  1  x 1 

now doing a (i) ă b (ii), we get

 b 
a 2

 b2 f x  1   a x  1      b  a 
 x  1

putting x = 1 to get f (2)

b
(a2 ă b2) f (2) = 2a ă  b  a 
2

b
= a 
2

2a  b
f 2  


2 a 2  b2 

FUN C TIO N S
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