Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 165

2nd International Conference of Communication Science Research (ICCSR 2018)

Languange Shift and Language Maintenance of

Local Languages toward Indonesian

Umi Farisiyah Zamzani

Applied Linguistics Department Applied Linguistics Department
Yogyakarta State University Yogyakarta State University
Yogyakarta, Indonesia Yogyakarta, Indonesia
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract—This study was aimed to investigate the tendency of and comprehensive development of Indonesian in almost every
daily language use by Indonesians and the preference of the use of group of people, the phenomenon of local language shift is also
local languages or Indonesian in everyday life. This is to know manifested not only by the decreasing interest of young people
whether there is language shift and maintenance of local languages to learn local languages as their local identity but also the
toward Indonesian. The participants were 201 respondents from increasing tendency of parents who come from one tribal family
several provinces in Indonesia (almost every province in Indonesia to choose to use Indonesian (I) as their main communication tool
was represented). The method used in this study was descriptive at home than their local languages (LL). This indicates that the
quantitative. Data collection technique was the survey domain of LL use in the household is gradually getting shifted
questionnaire. The result from this study revealed that by I, which also has triggered the so-called "language shift".
Indonesians have positive attitude toward the use of local
languages they have. The data gained showed that the majority of The phenomena of defense and shifting of these LL have
respondents prefer using local language to Indonesian in the been widely studied by researchers. Various research results in
family and neighborhood domains, the places where they spend many languages, especially in Papua and Maluku, are reported
almost all their time in. Yet, Indonesian is often used in the to be extinct or endangered, some even extinct, as reported by
educational and general places due to the demand and the International SIL. Similarly in Sulawesi, there are several
effectiveness of communication. Importantly, the finding from this languages whose speakers are several thousand or even
study demonstrates that Local languages have not been shifted yet hundreds are in critical condition, waiting to be abandoned by
because they are still frequently used in the family and speakers, such as Panasuan, Talondo, Napu [2]. Not to mention
neighborhood area. In other words, local languages are not shifted,
in Palu, the capital of Central Sulawesi Province, as reported by
yet maintained though in educational and general places are in the
Basri [3], Kaili language which is the original LL of the largest
contrary. This phenomenon includes in one effort to preserve the
local languages that Indonesia has to the next generation. ethnic group, the Kaili tribe in Palu including in the process of
shifted as most families no longer use it with their children and
Keywords— local language; language shift; language grandchildren. As a result, within a few generations will leave
maintenance. the earth itself if not immediately taken constructive steps to
enable the use (revitalization) among members of the Kaili tribe
I. INTRODUCTION family.
The Republic of Indonesia is a very large nation with a Some of LL in Indonesia began to be feared by many people,
correspondingly large population and great linguistic diversity. especially the older generation, threatened being shifted by the
The nation extends over almost 3,000 kilometers: from Banda use of I among the younger generation. This research is intended
Aceh at the western tip of Sumatera to Kupang in West Papua is to address these concerns and seeks answers to the question: "Is
approximately 2,830 kilometers. Estimates vary, but the nation it true that the younger generation has switched to Indonesian (I)
includes somewhere in the region of 17,000 islands of which as their home language substitute for local language (LL)?"
6,000 are inhabited. This makes Indonesia be the 14th largest
nation on earth by land area. According to the national census of II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2000, the population then was 206,264,595 (Statistics Indonesia,
A. Local Languages in Indonesia
accessed Aug. 24, 2017), making Indonesia the fourth largest
nation on earth by population. Ethnologue 15 [1] lists Indonesia In Ethnologue: Language of The World [1] argued that in
as having 742 languages spoken within its borders. Based on the Indonesia there are 742 languages, and 737 languages are still
data, it is obvious that Indonesia includes a country with alive or still used by their speakers. In the meantime, there are
multiethnic, Multilanguage and multicultural society. two languages that play a role as a second language with no
mother tongue, while the other three languages have become
In the context of multilingual, multiethnic, and multicultural extinct. Those languages so far are called as local languages.
language in Indonesia with the high intensity of contact between Some languages are still existed but they are on the verge of
one ethnic group and the other groups, linguistic competition is extinction. They are caused by the decrease in the number of
inevitable. Moreover, if the competition is linked to the rapid speakers because the native speakers who are still alive are only

Copyright © 2018, the Authors. Published by Atlantis Press.

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 Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 165

a few people. On the other hand, there are also local languages Park [16] in his research, maintaining Korean as a heritage
urged by the influence of other local languages which is more language, found that Korean is used more with the parents'
dominant. Not to mention, the influence of the use of Indonesian generation and English is predominantly used among peers in
as a national language, especially in various formal spheres, also the younger generations. Van Aswegen [17] studied language
take part. In addition, the condition of Indonesian society that is maintenance and shift of Maale, and the findings indicated that
multiethnic absolutely opens up opportunities to support the mother tongue literacy programme contributed to language
language contact through communication and interaction maintenance. Martin [18] carried out a research on Arab
between different languages and cultures. American parents' attitudes toward their children's heritage
language maintenance and language practices. Results indicated
Multiethnic community conditions and followed by contacts that parents hold positive attitudes towards Arabic and engage
intercultural including language contact may result various in various language practices that promote the maintenance of
linguistic phenomena such as bilingualism (or even Arabic in their families, and racism is not significantly
multilingualism) that often occurs in language groups minority. associated with language attitudes or language encouragement.
The language contact may also result language shift.
Furthermore, the flow of information and communication along III. METHODOLOGY
with various other symptoms arising from the spectrum of
activity and the increasingly oriented use of the language of The aim of this study is to examine language maintenance
today's global society also helped trigger the emergence of and language shift of local languages toward Indonesian. This
various problems of language, including the issue of local study was conducted using descriptive statistics. For the purpose
language extinction. of the current research, the survey questionnaire was conducted.
The survey questionnaire through Google Form contains a list
The phenomena mentioned above interesting to investigate of 15 questions about language usage and choice of respondents
because these phenomena can be a condition that leads to the as used by Gal [19] against Hungarian, Fasold [20] for Tiwa
extinction of a language. This is what has been the concern of Indian, and Gunarwan [21] for Lampung. In the questionnaire
various circles, especially the linguists who are very interested was asked what language is used at home in everyday
in this field. That matter is certainly very reasonable because the conversations with family members or in family gatherings
impact of language extinction phenomenon is not for the (family area with parents, grandparents, brothers/sisters,
linguistic dimension itself, but can also have implications for the wife/husband, and housework assistant), neighbors (neighboring
cultural dimensions of society inherently attached to the sphere with neighbors, relatives, guests), at school (education
language. sphere with teachers, lecturers, students/friends), in the office
(sphere of government), on the streets, in markets or in public
B. Language Shift and Language Maintenance
places (public sphere), and in religious studies. The language
According to Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching options used are assigned using scale as follows: Always (almost
and Applied Linguistics, language maintenance is the degree to always) LL, More frequent LL than I, Equal frequent I and LL,
which an individual or group continues to use their language, I more frequent than LL, and Always (almost always) I.
particularly in a bilingual or multilingual area or among
immigrant groups; whereas language shift is the process by In this study, data were analyzed interpretively and
which a new language is acquired by a community usually thematically based on a number of categorization areas:
resulting with the loss of the community’s first language. Both language shift, language maintenance, local language, family,
language maintenance and language shift are the results of neighborhood, educational and public domains. Coding was also
language contact situations. Since the publication of Fishman’s used to label those categorization areas: LL (Local Language),
[4] Language Loyalty in the United States, there has been and I (Indonesian).
significantly a great amount of research on language Questionnaire questions in Google form were adapted from
maintenance and language shift (LMLS) as a linguistic contact questionnaire form from collaborative research conducted by
phenomenon. Language maintenance refers to the situation researchers at the Center for Language and Culture Studies
where speech community continues to use its traditional (PKBB), Atma Jaya Unika and Jakarta Field Station, Max
language in the face of a host of conditions that might foster a Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. There were 15
shift to another language [5]. It is the product of language contact questions proposed according to some domains of
where a linguistic minority or a dominated ethno linguistic communication. The domains were represented from the family
group is successful in keeping its original language in spite of domain, the neighboring domain, the educational and the
the pressure exhorted on it by a dominant linguistic group. general/ public domain. Questionnaires were randomly divided
Language shift, on the other hand, means that a community gives via whats app in order to capture as many local languages as
up entirely its language in favour of another one [4]. possible. Therefore, the result can draw the phenomena of
More research on LMLS has been conducted in different language shift and maintenance of LL toward I. the
contexts (see [6]-[13]). Recently, Sun [14] found that the questionnaire was spread for 5 days.
importance of parental roles in Chinese language maintenance.
IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
In another study, Cashman [15] examined the individual
variables such as age at time of arrival and social network had A. Findings
the most significant impact on the Spanish language. From a week spreading the questionnaire, the respondents
obtained filling out the questionnaire was 201 respondents
consisting of 115 female and 86 male respondents. The

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 Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 165

respondents come from many provinces in Indonesia covering This suggests that in intra-family communication at home,
almost all big islands in Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, LL is always or almost always used. According to the
Sulawesi, and Nusa Tenggara). The ages and occupations of the comparison of percentage of answers using LL and I, the use of
respondents are also various with the youngest respondent is 18 LL is considered high. 44.18% from 201 respondents (93
years old and the oldest is 54 years old as well as the lowest and respondents) states that they always use LL in their family
the highest educational background is senior high school and domain and 21.07% or 42 respondents claim that they are more
postgraduate. frequent using LL than I. The data gained indicates that
respondents from various provinces in Indonesia tend to use
The vast majority of the respondents are from Java with the their local language in their daily life to communicate with their
range of age between 21-26 and university students as the family. This is in accordance with the opinion of the Community
occupation. For the clearer description of the respondents, the stating that the use of local language plays an important role in
table 1 illustrates clearer about it. terms of culture. By using the local language, we have
TABLE I. PARTICIPANTS’ DESCRIPTION
unconsciously used the Culture of the Region itself, and by using
the local language people know we are people who come from
the area. So that local language has an important role in
Respondents’ Description preserving the culture of the region".
Provinces N Age N Occupation N The family is the place where mothers (parents) continue
Aceh 1 15-20 30 Doctor 1 their inheritance to their children from one generation to the
Banten 4 21-26 112 Employees 30 next. In other words, family is a place of preserving cultural
Jakarta 6 27-32 40 Entrepreneurs 8
Java 127 Housewives 11
inheritance. According to Fishman [22], in the family domain,
Kalimantan 11 33-38 10 Lecturers 30 there is intense communication between the mother-father, the
Maluku 2 Midwife 1 siblings, the parents-children, grandparents, and other family
West/East 9 39-44 4 University Students 85 members so that the process of transferring the language from
Nusa (mostly postgraduate the older generation to the younger generation can run. Usually
Tenggara program) communication within the household is concerned with various
Sumatra 21 45-50 4 Civil servant 3
things and various other life issues. Here also can be seen
Sulawesi 10 Over 1 Teachers 28 patterns of language usage of all members of the family when
Yogyakarta 10 50 Unemployed they communicate in the house. So, as long as the families are
4
still willing to use their mother-tongue (LL) at home as the
201 201 201 primary means of communication, LL will still be able to
survive.
2) Neighborhood Domain
TABLE II. THE PERCENTAGE OF QUESTIONNAIRE RESULT In the neighborhood domain, it shows that in the neighbors'
living environment LL speakers are still more frequently used
Scale than I, except for communication to guests and to the village
Domain More Equal LL More boards. This is because the usual topic in this context is not the
Always LL frequent LL and I frequent Always I topic of everyday life. While with the guests, the percentage
I
between using LL and I is almost balanced. This is because the
Family 44.18% 21.07% 10.17% 14.20% 10.38%
Neighborhood 26.85% 21.55% 16.95% 19% 14.65% background of the guest who is not always a local area with the
Educational 3% 6.95% 17.45% 37.05% 35.55% respondent. Based on the result percentage of LL in
Public 9.67% 17.67% 21.90% 29.85% 20.90% neighborhood area, 26.85%, according to sociolinguistic
experts, may imply two things. First, there is the possibility of
the emergence of symptoms of so-called infiltration or diglosia
leakage. Second, such linguistic situations are commonplace in
B. Discussion a bilingual society. For the first group, if there is a symptom of
The following will be discussed the results of survey pervasive use of the second language in the family and
questionnaires about the use of local language and Indonesian neighborhood, then it indicates the beginning of the shift of
language daily in various domains. language.
1) Family domain However, for a second group, such a thing should not be
In the context of this study, what is to be seen is whether the concerned because it is a common phenomenon that can be
dominance of I of LL on Indonesian society from various found in bilingual communities everywhere. A common reason
provinces has caused local language shift or maintenance. is that certain topics of conversation may be discussed in a
According to the choices of answers provided in the particular language regardless of the location of the conversation
questionnaire, it was found that the overall percentage of the or the speaker [23]. From the explanation above, it is obvious
respondent's choice of language of all age groups (N = 201) was that LL still defends in neighborhood area. Though I is
that the respondents are always (almost always) using LL than I sometimes used, but it does not replace the frequency of using
in their family environment; communication with parents, LL in doing communication.
brothers/sisters, grandparents, and relatives.

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3) Educational Domain subjects also expressed negative feelings towards using their
The educational domain revolves around the communication mother tongue around non-native speakers of the language.
situation around the school, not only in the classroom, when the The question is whether the linguistic phenomenon and the
activities of teaching and learning are in progress, but also stable bilingualism is only a temporal phenomenon or will it last
situations when playing with friends outside the classroom or forever?. The answer is certainly on the speakers and supporters
school-side, in the school cafeteria, or in the classroom during of the language itself as well as other external and internal
breaks. There are two situations that are posed to the respondent factors that support the preservation of the language.
to be answered in the questionnaire, which is related to the
language used when speaking to teachers/ lecturers inside and V. CONCLUSION
outside of the classroom, and to friends.
The highlight of this study is to know the language
The result of data processing of percentage of choice of preference of Indonesians in their daily life. They prefer using
language in educational domain based on education level of LL or I to communicate with their family, neighbors and in
respondent shows that the use of I is bigger than LL. From the general places. The result of the study is able to draw language
table 2, 37.05% more frequent I than LL and 35.55% always use shift and language maintenance of LL toward I. Empirically,
I indicates that I is dominantly used in educational domain. This based on the percentage of choice of language in the family,
is because of the demand of education itself. In educational field, neighborhood, and general domains in using LL as their
the topics or the issues discussed are about scientific things. communication tool can be concluded that LL will still survive.
Regard to this, the use of I is more appropriate. Based on the Yet, there is a tendency that the younger age group of
group of data descriptions, the vast majority of the respondents respondents appear to be the greater percentage of their language
are those who are well-educated (it can be seen from the amount choices. However, it only shows the frequency of interaction in
of respondents who are still study and their occupation in table various interaction situations, which is a common and natural
1), this can be compiled that the higher the education level of phenomenon in the diglossic society caused by social-
respondents the higher the tendency to use I. psychological factors that occur among speakers. It is still far
from the tendency of a shift towards a monolingual society of
4) Public Domain BI, as it affects the Kaili language in Palu city, as Basri [3]
The pattern of language usage in certain situations; in a reported.
public place, in public transportation, meeting their fellow
outside the village, meeting unknown merchants in the village, Theoretically, based on the experiences of other languages
and in a forum or seminar or symposium is different from in the world experiencing threats as well as Lampung in
language usage in family domain. Indonesia [21], Arvanitic, Albanian-speaking in Greek [25] or
Hungarian in the Oberwart village of the Austrian-German
The results showed that in situations such as riding public border [19], the languidly threatened language is a language no
transportation, assembling with fellow citizens outside the longer used by the younger generation at home with his family,
village, generally the language used is almost always I. Based living only by the older generations. Typologically, Krauss [26],
on the percentage of community language choices in the above- which classifies the languages of the world into three types
mentioned situations, all of which are more general in nature, it (extinct, endangered, and still safe), LL is still relatively safe,
can be understood that the rate of using I is greater than that of perhaps even very safe, since LL demographics still have
LL. This can be due to anticipating of misunderstanding. considerable speakers and is supported by patterns of home
Usually, in a public place, people come from various places with language usage that can ensure intergenerational mother tongue
different LL. It is the same as language use when continuity. In addition, the use of LL in education received
communicating with guests. At home, LL is the main choice or support from the government, as evidenced by the teaching of
a major communication tool among all family members. local languages as a local content in schools, and protected also
However, when being outdoors, as they may meet different by the law as a cultural heritage of the nation.
backgrounds, interests, settings and communication objectives,
it is possible to move to a language used for a broader purpose The tendency to use I as a mother tongue to replace LL at
(language for wider communication) becomes larger and home is still limited to be tolerated. The concern of the older
becomes first choice. This is also in line with the data generation that the younger generation tends to use I if it is
questionnaire gained for the public domain, 29.85% more spoken is only a psychological phenomenon of language that
frequent I than LL and 20.90% always use I. also occurs in other speakers of other languages who know the
level of language such as Javanese. Based on the survey only a
Then, when seen from the differences in age groups it small percentage of respondents (N = 201) who actually use I as
appears that there is little difference and shift between the young their mother tongue since childhood and in their everyday life.
age group, adult age, and old age. The younger age group Although overall the average younger generation uses I as often
appears to be more likely to switch to I than LL. This result is as LL outside the home, it is just a common symptom of
the same as Letsolo [24] carried out a research on language bilingual society.
maintenance or shift through investigating the attitudes of
Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue. The results ACKNOWLEDGMENT
showed that informants used Setswana frequently, even in
domains where they could use their mother tongue, e.g. when The researcher thanks to all respondents being so kind and
speaking to peers from the same mother tongue. Some of the cooperative to fill out the questionnaire during the data
collection process of this study. Furthermore, Umi Farisiyah
expresses grateful feeling to Indonesian Endowment Fund for

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