The role of strategic internal communication in empowering female employees to cope with workplace

gender discrimination

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore how the excellent practice of public relations concerning strategic
internal communication may help empower female employees to cope with workplace gender
discrimination. It constructs and empirically tests a theoretical model that investigates the role of
transparent internal communication on diversity and inclusion in shaping female employees' sense of
empowerment, and that empowerment may affect how they cope with such problems in the workplace.

Design/methodology/approach

An online survey was conducted with 402 full-time female employees in large-sized organizations in the
United States. Structural equation models were conducted to test the proposed measurement model and
hypothesized model.

Findings

The findings of this study offer support for the proposed model that featuring transparent internal
communication regarding workplace gender discrimination increases female employees' empowerment to
tackle the problems, which in turn encourages them to adopt problem-focused coping and participate in
collective coping behaviors.

Research limitations/implications

Excellent internal communication not only facilitates organization-employee relationships as prior research
widely demonstrated, but, according to the findings of this study, also creates a sense of empowerment
among female employees, which encourage them to proactively address workplace gender discrimination
issue.

Practical implications

Organizations should practice transparent communication regarding diversity and inclusion, ensuring
employees receive sufficient information, clear guidelines, and opportunities to voice as well as aim to
develop empowerment interventions that help employees address discrimination issues in the workplace.

Originality/value

To the best of the author's knowledge, this study is among the first empirical studies that present the
importance of strategic internal communication, particularly transparent communication, in facilitating
gender equality in the workplace.

Keywords

 Gender equality

 Transparent communication

 Employee communication
 

 Employee empowerment

Citation

Li, J.-Y., Lee, Y. and Xu, D. (2023), "The role of strategic internal communication in empowering female
employees to cope with workplace gender discrimination", Corporate Communications: An International
Journal, Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 135-154. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCIJ-06-2022-0065

 Download as .RIS

Publisher

: 

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022, Emerald Publishing Limited

Introduction

In the wake of recent social justice movements, many businesses have reiterated their commitment to
diversity and inclusion (D&I) in the workplace. To ensure the effectiveness of the related initiatives,
organizations recognize the importance of investing in their D&I communication practices internally to
employees (Winfield, 2020). However, despite the ongoing advocacy to foster D&I work environments and
corporate cultures globally, gender inequality remains pervasive in workplace settings (Atcheson, 2019). In
the US, four out of 10 female workers have experienced discrimination at work owing to their gender,
ranging from making less money than male colleagues for doing the same work (i.e. formal discrimination) to
being ostracized from social interactions at work (i.e. informal discrimination) (Parker and Funk, 2017). These
discrimination experiences widely and consistently create detrimental consequences on work performance,
career satisfaction, job turnover, and overall wellbeing among female workers (e.g. Triana et  al.,
2019). Thus, understanding how D&I communication helps female employees manage discrimination at
work is fundamental for organizations to establish effective intervention programs and appropriate
institutional support.

Yet, related empirical studies have remained scarce, particularly concerning the function of public relations
and internal organizational communication on this topic. The present study attempts to understand female
employees' coping mechanisms and the notion of excellence theory of public relations and as its base to
address this research gap. According to excellence theory, ethical and excellent communication practices are
imperative to fostering a culture of organizational transparency, facilitating diversity management, and
mitigating workplace gender inequality (Grunig, 2008). Drawing insights from the theory, the present study
proposes a theoretical model that incorporates the concept of transparent communication, a key driver of
excellent public relations function (Men and Stacks, 2014), to investigate how ethical and excellent
communication on D&I can help empower female employees to cope with gender discrimination in the
workplace effectively.

Thus, this study provides empirical evidence in demonstrating the argument that highlights the importance
of strategic internal communication on D&I within the context of workplace gender discrimination. The
findings also inform organizations to implement excellent internal communication practices that equip
female employees with resources to manage workplace gender discrimination problems, ultimately
facilitating organizations' recruitment and retaining of a gender-balanced workforce.
Literature review

Workplace gender discrimination

Workplace discrimination refers to an employee's perception regarding the differential treatment at work
caused by individual characteristics, such as race/ethnicity, gender, age, disability, or cultural background
(U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, n.d.). Gender inequality is one of the most pervasive
types of workplace discrimination in the work environment. It generally refers to an employee being treated
unequally because of their gender or sexual orientation (Equal Rights Advocate, 2022). Such mistreatment
can be classified into two categories (Levine and Leonard, 1984). On the one hand, mistreatment can be
formal, direct, explicit, and overt concerning institutional policies and decisions that constrain benefits,
rewards, or employment status, such as job assignment, promotion opportunities, or salary decisions (Saad,
2019). Although gender-based discrimination in the workplace can happen to both male and female
workers, it is predominately an issue that occurs to female employees (García Johnson and Otto, 2019). Such
a problem is a result of sexism, that “perpetuates, enforces, and polices a set of gender roles that seek to
feminize women and masculinize men” (Franke, 1996, p. 696). Female employees are often discriminated at
work due to the sexism beliefs that emphasize the power of masculinity (i.e. being rational, strong,
heterosexual, or men) over femininity (being emotional, weak, non-heterosexual, or female) (Denissen and
Saguy, 2014). Evidence is growing that female employees often face disadvantages in promotion, pay, and
other workplace experiences (Kim et  al., 2017). For example, according to a Pew Research Center analysis,
female workers were found to earn 16% less than what male workers earned in 2020. Such a wage gap has
consistently persisted in the United States Barroso and Brown (2021). Furthermore, the availability of
promotion and mobility opportunities for female workers has also been relatively limited as opposed to male
workers. Brescoll (2016) found that the stereotypical views of female workers being emotional lead to lower
interest in hiring female workers in managerial positions. The gap in these experiences of career
progressions is a typical example of formal workplace gender discrimination.

Some informal, indirect, implicit, and covert mistreatment involves segregating, disregarding, and harassing
in the workplace because of gender identity (Saad, 2019). The underestimation of competencies and skills
may make female workers be left out of social networks at work, thereby ostracizing female workers from
being critical players within the organizations (Welle and Heilman, 2007b). Other common informal
discriminatory practices against female employees include inappropriate jokes, verbal harassment, and lack
of respect (Ozeren, 2014). These negative demeanors are “not necessarily conscious and likely conveys
ambiguous intent” (Jones et  al., 2016, p. 1591) and are permitted by noninstitutional policies (Hebl et  al.,
2002).

Workplace gender discrimination has been studied widely across disciplines. However, findings and
explanations largely focus on organizational systems and management but overlook the perspectives of
public relations and communication (Maiorescu-Murphy, 2022). Nearly two decades ago, public relations
scholars proposed the excellence theory, a dominant theory that infers ethical and effective communication
between organizations and the publics in the form of dialogue (Grunig, 1992; Grunig et  al., 2002). Although
specifically applied to female workers in the public relations industry, the related excellence studies
indicated that organizations that practice public relations in an excellent manner often value gender equality
in the workplace (Holtzhausen, 2013; Hon et  al., 1992; Hon and Brunner, 2000). The research on women in
the public relations industry have consistently found that female employees not only view themselves as
technicians but also face many gender challenges, including the issue of salary gap, the glass ceiling, and lack
of promotion opportunities (Tench and Topic, 2017; Toth and Grunig, 1993). Such problems have persisted
to the present day despite the maturity of public relations as a profession, particularly in the United States
and Europe (Horsley, 2009; Topić et  al., 2020). Along with significant movements for social justice in recent
years, scholars have begun to review the role of excellent public relations practices in facilitating corporate
diversity and inclusion in all industries (Hamplová et  al., 2022; Maiorescu-Murphy, 2022). Adding to the line
of research, this study explores how excellent internal communication, transparent communication
particularly, may inform the best practices of D&I to tackle workplace gender discrimination.

D&I communication: transparency and empowerment

Diversity and inclusion in organizations refer to the differences among people in an organization based on
their individual characteristics, such as gender, age, race, and ethnicity (Wolfgruber et  al., 2021). The
primary purpose of D&I management is to provide equal opportunities and treatment to people in an
organization regardless of their sociodemographic background, thereby establishing a sense of inclusion and
belonging in workplaces (Wolfgruber et  al., 2021). Such practices are inherently communicative, allowing
organizational members to participate in decision-making processes, access relevant information, and
engage in organizational activities (Downey et  al., 2015). This point of view is consistent with the notion of
the excellence theory, a dominant theoretical framework in public relations research that acknowledged the
importance of establishing healthy relationships with organizations' key stakeholders for organizational
effectiveness. According to the excellence theory, organizations are expected to “manage interdependence
and build mutually beneficial relationships between the organization and its employees” via excellent
internal communication (Men and Brown, p. 12). To achieve such a goal, the communication practice should
be “a process co-created by the organization and its employees,” which underlines the characteristics of
two-way, symmetry, and transparency (Men and Brown, p. 12). Specifically, the communication strategy that
highlights transparency, in which the objective is to engage internal stakeholders by knowing their needs,
providing truthful information, and listening to concerns, has been viewed as a normative and ethical
communication model in the excellent practices of internal communication (Jiang and Men, 2017). It is
defined as “an organization's communication to make available all legally releasable information to
employees whether positive or negative in nature – in a manner that is accurate, timely, balanced and
unequivocal, for the purpose of enhancing the reasoning ability of employees, and holding organizations
accountable for their actions, policies, and practices,” (Men, 2014, p. 260). This communication strategy has
received increasingly academic attention in internal communication research, being considered an important
organizational resource that helps create an open and supportive work environment for employees (Li et  al.,
2021a, b). Grounded in the excellence theory, a wide range of studies have found that internal transparent
communication contributes to many positive employee outcomes, such as identification and perceived
quality of relationship with the organizations (Lee et  al., 2021). Organizations' efforts to share substantial,
useful, and truthful information and engage in decision-making processes equip employees with
competencies and abilities to manage work-related issues (Li et  al., 2021a, b).

Originated from organizational transparency (Rawlins, 2008), the concept of transparent communication

includes three major components: informational, participative, and accountable transparency.
First, informational transparency indicates how an organization offers truthful, relevant, substantial, and
useful information to its public (Rawlins, 2008). It aims to improve communication clarity and information
flow and help public understanding, rather than throwing out legally releasable information meaninglessly
and frequently (Men and Stacks, 2014). Participative transparency refers organizations' need to identify
public information needs by inviting them to acquire, distribute, and create knowledge and by asking for
their feedback (Cotterrell, 1999; Yue et  al., 2019). The assumption is that organizations are unable to
disclose the necessary information fully unless they are clear about what employees need to know (Rawlins,
2008). Lastly, accountable transparency indicates organizations' efforts to be accountable for contemplating
their decisions and behaviors (Rawlins, 2008). It also refers to disclosing positive and negative topics to the
public to avoid any attempt to manipulate their interpretation of organizations' actions (Yue et  al., 2019).
Following the positive impact of this communication strategy on employee outcomes, this study expects
those female employees who recognize a transparent internal communication practice by their organizations
are more likely to feel empowered to deal with discrimination in the workplace. Those who take action
against formal or informal discrimination often face social disapproval and penalties (Welle and Heilman,
2007a). Compared with groups of males, groups of females are often seen as relatively powerless in taking
control over the decisions that affect their daily lives (Basford et  al., 2014). The empowerment process then
becomes imperative in encouraging female employees to cope with workplace discrimination proactively.
According to empowerment theory (Conger and Kanungo, 1988), empowerment refers to “a process of
enhancing feelings of self-efficacy through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and
through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy
information” (p. 474). Such definition highlighted empowerment as individuals' belief in their ability to act,
echoing the notion of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). The process of empowering is associated with “gaining
power,” indicating that “a person who lacks power sets a personally meaningful goal-oriented toward
increasing power, takes action toward that goal, and observes and reflects on the impact of this action,
drawing on his or her evolving self-efficacy, knowledge, and competence related to the goal” (Cattaneo and
Chapman, 2010, p. 647).

This concept has been widely applied in organizational settings to describe employee perspectives about a
sense of perceived control and competence in decision-making processes at work (Menon,
1999). Specifically, it refers to how employees think about themselves and their ability to make decisions
and influence others (Menon, 1999; Zimmerman and Rappaport, 1988). As a multifaceted concept,
empowerment was also defined as a motivational construct, reflecting individuals' active orientations to
their work role, including self-efficacy, meaning, self-determination, and impact (Spreitzer, 1995; Thomas
and Velthouse, 1990). Although employee empowerment has been defined in various ways, the majority of
the definitions agree that the process necessitates providing employees opportunities to make their own
decisions concerning their work experiences (Conger and Kanungo, 1988; Bowen and Lawler, 1992).

By transferring the power from top management to individual employees, the empowerment process equips
employees freedom to act and increases their level of responsibility, which ultimately leads to positive
employee outcomes. Such a process has widely been acknowledged as an essential element of
organizational success with a large amount of research identifying a relationship between employee
perceived empowerment and their work experience (e.g. Choi et  al., 2016; Fernandez and Moldogaziev,
2013; Laschinger et  al., 2016). In noting the importance of employee empowerment in curbing workplace
stress among employees, this study investigates how strategic internal communication interwinds with the
empowerment process of female employees' coping mechanism against gender discrimination at work.

Rich literature has suggested diverse contextual factors that reinforce employees' empowerment level at
work, such as managerial practices and leadership (Seibert et  al., 2011; Spreitzer, 2008). As a key source of
employee empowerment, this study expects that transparent internal communication characterized by
information substantiality, participation, and accountability can significantly enhance female employees'
empowerment level. Previous scholars have noted that organizations' managerial practices, including
communication strategies, play vital roles in fostering employees' empowerment at work (Seibert et  al.,
2011; Spreitzer, 1995). With access to substantial information about organizational policies, procedures, and
decisions through transparent communication practices, employees are likely to have high levels of efficacy.
Studies have suggested that a considerable amount of accessible information about organizations' decisions
and individuals' work is critical for empowerment because it enables employees to create a sense of
meaning and purpose and make decisions that are aligned with the organizations' goals and mission (Lawler,
1992; Spreitzer, 1995).
Furthermore, benefiting from a transparent communication system, employees who are given opportunities
to participate in identifying, selecting, and creating information they need within an organization and who
observe their organizations be accountable for their actions may feel valued and strongly identify with their
organization, which helps them build high levels of trust (Men and Stacks, 2014; Yue et  al., 2019). These
employees, then, are likely motivated to solve organizational issues actively with heightened self-efficacy
(Avolio et  al., 2004; Detert and Burris, 2007; Lee, 2019; Wong and Laschinger, 2013). Following this
theoretical logic, the present study assumed that transparent communication, as a strategic internal
communication practice at an organizational level, is fundamental in reinforcing a sense of empowerment of
employees, thereby making them feel less risky in voicing important issues at work such as gender
discrimination. Therefore, the following hypothesis is posed:

H1.

Organization's transparent communication practices positively relate to employees' perceived

empowerment.

Coping behaviors

Strong empirical evidence has supported the notion that employee empowerment results in various positive
work outcomes, such as organizational citizenship behavior, innovative behavior, organizational
commitment, and job satisfaction (Seibert et  al., 2011). Attempting to add to this line of research, the
present study explores whether perceived empowerment fuels female employees' proactiveness in
addressing workplace gender discrimination. Specifically, we investigate the impacts of the processes by
which female employees become empowered in the workplace concerning their coping behaviors in
response to discrimination problems at work.

Individual coping

Coping is defined as “the thoughts and behaviors used to manage the internal and external demands of
situations that are appraised as stressful” (Folkman and Moskowitz, 2004, p. 745). The transactional model
of stress and coping (TMSC), a classic coping theory proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), posits that
individuals automatically launch their evaluation process of coping resources and ability to manage an event
when they perceive the event is threatening. Depending on the evaluation results, individuals choose
different coping approaches to respond to the threat.

According to the TMSC, coping behaviors can be generally categorized into two approaches, namely,
problem- and emotion-focused coping (Folkman, 1997; Lazarus, 1993). Problem-focused coping is a coping
method that proactively addresses the threatening situation, which is also called approach strategy. Those
who adopt this strategy choose to approach the event first and then propose alternative solutions or plans
to manage the cause (Hershcovis et  al., 2018). Tactics include a direct confrontation with the problems or
elimination of the stress sources. By contrast, emotion-focused coping is a way that helps regulate and
minimize the emotional reactions posed by the situation. This strategy is relatively passive and regulative to
diminish the negative emotions resulting from the problematic situation. Rather than proactively fix the
threat, individuals choose to regulate their negative emotional reactions to the threat (Folkman and Lazarus,
1980). Tactics involve remaining silent, distancing from the threat or stress sources, or venting out
(Hershcovis et  al., 2018). Such a coping strategy is also known as an avoidance strategy.

The selection of coping responses depends on individuals' evaluations of coping resources and ability
(Folkman and Lazarus, 1980). Research concerning coping strategy selection highlighted the role of self-
efficacy as a personal resource that may encourage proactive and approach forms of coping in which
solutions are well-planned and efforts are invested in tackling problems (Tumwesigye, 2010). Proactive
coping is more likely to be adopted when individuals consider the threatening conditions amenable to
change in their competence and ability. The sense of personal control arising from self-efficacy beliefs boosts
individuals' resilience and leads to an impression that they can alter the situation, making them more likely
to perform proactive coping to address the stress sources (Van den Brande et  al., 2016). In contrast,
emotion-focused coping, an avoidant strategy, is more likely to be adopted when individuals believe that
they cannot do anything to change the threatening situation (Folkman and Lazarus, 1980). Perceived
powerlessness and a sense of lacking control to change the situation then lead to a more passive coping
approach that focuses on dealing with the subsequent emotions without altering the meaning of the event
directly (Li et  al., 2021a, b). Given that the concept of empowerment was built upon self-efficacy and a sense
of control, our rationale for positing a relationship between empowerment and coping behaviors is thus
derived in part from efficacy theory. In our study context regarding gender discrimination at work, we
assume that female employees who feel empowered by their organizations would be more likely to engage
in proactive coping. In contrast, those who perceive powerless in the organization would be more likely to
select passive coping. Thus, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H2a.

Employees' perceived empowerment is positively related to problem-focused coping adoption.

H2b.

Employees' perceived empowerment is negatively related to emotion-focused coping adoption.

Collective coping

While the majority of research in coping literature examined individual forms of coping, focusing on
experiences and reactive behaviors of the individual person (Folkman, 2009), scholars have argued that
some people take a step further and extend individual coping to the collective level (Van Zomeren et  al.,
2004). Collective coping refers to actions executed by a group of members to diminish, eliminate, or prevent
the stress sources (Rodriguez et  al., 2019). Collective coping involves group-oriented activities that seek
social support, manage problems, and facilitate social change (Dunn and Szymanski, 2018). Individuals
affected by a collective problem (e.g. workplace gender discrimination) establish collectively shared beliefs
and efforts that help tackle the problem (Van Zomeren et  al., 2008). Such collective strategy enables
individuals to overcome personal constraints and engage in large-scale, group-directed activities to manage
threatening conditions (Van Zomeren et  al., 2008). Tactics of collective coping include voting, participating in
a pretest, or signing a petition (Shi et  al., 2015).

Studies regarding factors underpinning collective coping have acknowledged the central role of
empowerment in the process (Drury and Reicher, 2009). A sense of empowerment, control, or ownership of
power affected individuals' readiness to engage in subsequent collective efforts (Drury and Reicher,
2005). Namely, having confidence in individual selves as a problem fixer can lead to more willingness to
manage collective problems with others. This notion has commonly been demonstrated through the theory
of efficacy because efficacy has been considered principally as a prerequisite for collective behaviors
(Bandura, 2000; Drury and Reicher, 2005). Based on this reasoning, we expect that, in our study context
regarding gender discrimination at work, female employees who feel empowered by their organizations
would be more likely to engage in collective coping. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2c.

Employees' perceived empowerment is positively related to collective-level coping adoption.

Mediating role of empowerment: transparent communication, empowerment, and coping

Conceptually and practically speaking, organizational transparent communication practices provide an
empowering environment to employees by sharing comprehensive, truthful, and useful information about
the organization's decisions pertinent to employees with a mutual platform that allows employees to engage
in dialogues with the leadership (Rawlins, 2008). When employees are well-informed about the
organization's decision-making processes, they turn into active and empowered individuals at work (Men,
2011). The transparency practices allow employees better understand what they are facing and what coping
resources are available to them. Such an environment enhances employees' self-efficacy and confidence,
giving them the power to execute tasks in the workplace (Jiang and Men, 2017). Thus, the allocation of
authority and power from self-efficacy beliefs ensure employee autonomy in the workplace to foster an
impression that they can do something to change the threatening conditions they are facing, which in turn,
facilitates the adoption of proactive coping strategy and reduces the possibility of employing passive coping
(Van den Brande et  al., 2016).

Building upon the hypotheses presented above regarding transparent communication, empowerment, and
coping behaviors, we propose that empowerment can be a mediator that influences the relationship
between transparent communication practices and coping strategy adoption. Specifically, we assume that
perceptions of empowerment are directly shaped by the organization's communication practices, arguing
that transparent communication contributes to employee empowerment. Furthermore, employees decide
to adopt or avoid certain coping strategies through a sense of empowerment. Thus, the following
hypotheses are proposed:

H3a.

A positive association between an organization's transparent communication practices and employees'

problem-focused coping adoption is mediated by perceived empowerment.

H3b.

A negative association between an organization's transparent communication practices and employees'

emotion-focused coping adoption is mediated by perceived empowerment.

H3c.

A positive association between an organization's transparent communication practices and employees'

collective coping adoption is mediated by perceived empowerment.

Individual-level coping and collective coping

Most research on coping has examined the behavior either as an individual experience or as a collective
effort; inadequate empirical studies expound on the relationship between individual-level coping behaviors
and group-oriented collective coping in the form of advocacy and activism. According to the dual pathway
model of coping with collective disadvantage (Van Zomeren et  al., 2008), individuals adopt two distinct
pathways to determine their engagement in collective coping when facing a collective problem (e.g.
discrimination against certain groups). The first route involves individuals' perceived efficacy – whether they
can achieve the goal of solving the problem. This independent path to collective coping is a problem-focused
approach that incorporates available resources and information and invests in collective efforts to change
reality (Lazarus, 1991). The other path to collective coping is based on individuals' emotional experience,
whether they appraise the collective problem as injustice and thus feel anger that fuels the possibility to
mobilize collective action (Walker and Smith, 2002).

Based on the dual pathway model, we consider individuals' coping behaviors as the pathway to collective
coping. Individuals adopt problem-focused coping at the individual level because they believe in their ability
to change the threatening situation and alter their personal experience resulting from the threat (Lazarus,
1991). Such efficacy beliefs may foster the idea of producing lasting changes and thus can be extended to
collective coping behaviors (Szymanski, 2012). By contrast, those who adopt an emotion-focused coping
focus on regulating emotions associated with the situation (Lazarus, 1991). This strategy helps individuals to
control or internalize negative emotions from a stressful event. However, such emotions are considered
fuels of collective coping, motivating individuals to engage in collective actions to change reality affects
others like themselves (Van Zomeren et  al., 2004). Thus, the emotion regulation at the individual level may
limit the readiness to participate in collective coping. Thus, we posit the following:

H4a.

Employees' problem-focused coping adoption is positively related to their collective coping behaviors.

H4b.

Employees' emotion-focused coping adoption is negatively related to their collective coping behaviors.

Figure 1 presents the conceptual model.

Method

Sampling and participants

This study conducted an online survey with full-time employees working in various industry sectors in the US
After the approval of the university's institutional review board, a pretest was conducted using Amazon
Mechanical Turk (N = 66) to test the measurement wording, the reliability and validity of the measures, the
survey flow, and the estimation time to complete the survey. Several items in the questionnaire were
eliminated or re-worded based on the results and the feedback of the pretest. The pretest sample was not
included in the final sample of the study. After revising the questionnaire based on the pretest results, an
online survey was administered via Qualtrics panels in October 2020. The final dataset comprised 402
participants who completed the survey. Only employees who self-identified as a woman were recruited for
this study. The mean age was 46.90 (SD = 14.22), and approximately half of the participants (n = 207, 51.5%)
have worked in large companies with more than 500 employees. Other demographic information of
participants was summarized in Table 1.

Measures

To measure variables of interest, the current study adopted scales from previous literature and used seven-
point Likert scales for all items, where “1” represented “strongly disagree” and “7” represented “strongly
agree.” All measurement items are listed in Table 2.

Transparent communication

Organizational transparent communication was measured with 10 items adopted from Men

(2014) (Cronbach's α = 0.93). The scale included three components: participation (three items, α = 0.94),
information substantiality (four items, α = 0.95), and accountability (three items, α = 0.89).

Perceived empowerment

Employees' perceived empowerment was measured with five items adapted from Lee (2019) and adjusted
to the current study's context (α = 0.92).

Problem-focused coping
Problem-focused coping was measured six items adapted from Noor and Shaker (2017) and adapted to our
research context (α = 0.83).

Emotion-focused coping

Emotion-focused coping was measured with six items adapted from Noor and Shaker (2017) (α = 0.93).

Collective coping

Measurements from Iyer and Ryan (2009) were adopted (α = 0.95) to measure employees' collective coping
behaviors. The six-item measurement measures participants' willingness to participate in specific collective
coping strategies.

Results

Table 3 summarizes our key variables' means, standard deviations, and correlations. Structural equation
models were conducted to test the proposed measurement model and hypothesized model. We adopted
model fit criteria, including root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) < 0.08; comparative fit index
(CFI) > 0.90; Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) > 0.90, and standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) < 0.90 (Hu
and Bentler, 1998). We first conducted a CFA to test the proposed measurement model. The results of CFA
indicated great model fits for all measurement models (χ2 (337) = 576.28; RMSEA = 0.06 [0.05, 0.06];
CFI = 0.96; TLI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.05). All factor loadings were significant and above the threshold value of 0.5
(Stevens, 1992). Then, we tested the structural model, and the results suggested that the hypothesized
models fit the data (See Figure 2).

H1 predicted a positive relationship between organizational transparent communication and employees'

perceived empowerment. A significant positive relationship was found (b = 0.59, p < 0.001), indicating that
greater transparency perceptions in organizational communication regarding gender equality were
associated with stronger empowerment perceptions to address the issue. Thus, H1 was supported.

H2ac proposed the relationships between employees' empowerment and three types of coping strategies.
Specifically, higher levels of employees' perceived empowerment were predicted to be associated with
greater readiness to adopt problem-focused coping (H2a), less motivation to perform emotion-focused
coping (H2b), and a stronger likelihood of participating in collective coping behaviors (H2c). The results
suggested that employees reporting higher levels of empowerment perceptions would be more willing to
adopt problem-focused coping (b = 0.44, p < 0.001) and more likely to participate in collective coping
behaviors (b = 0.21, p < 0.001). Thus, H2a and H2c were supported. However, the analysis results did not
support the negative relationship between employee empowerment and emotion-focused coping adoption
(b = 0.04, p = 0.58). Thus, H2b was not supported.

H3ac proposed the mediation effect of empowerment on the relationship between transparent

communication and coping adoption. The results showed significant indirect effects in paths from
transparent communication to problem-focused coping and collection coping via empowerment perceptions
(b = 0.26, p < 0.001; b = 0.13, p < 0.001, respectively). Through enhanced empowerment perceptions,
employees' perceived transparency in organizational communication regarding gender equality may lead to
a greater readiness to adopt problem-focused and collective coping strategies. However, no indirect effect
was found in the path from transparent communication to emotion-focused coping. Thus, H3a and H3c were
supported, whereas H3b was rejected.

H4a and 4b predicted a positive relationship between problem-focused coping adoption and collective

coping and a negative relationship between emotion-focused coping adoption and collective coping. The first
relationship was supported (b = 0.59, p < 0.001), whereas the latter one was not statistically significant
(b = 0.08, p = 0.16). Thus, H4a was supported, indicating that problem-focused coping adoption was
positively related to collective coping behaviors. H4b was not supported, failing to provide evidence for the
predicted negative relationship.

Discussion

Despite progress in fostering the organizational culture of diversity and inclusion around the world, the issue
of inequality and discrimination in the workplace still prevalently exists, especially toward female workers in
the labor market (Triana et  al., 2019). To help address this issue, this study drew insights from the excellence
theory of public relations to test a model that pictures female employees' coping mechanisms when their
organizations practice transparent internal communication in response to workplace gender discrimination
concerns and problems. This study provides important theoretical and practical implications for
organizational management and communication.

Theoretical implications

First, the current study contributes to the existing public relations and internal organizational
communication literature by demonstrating the importance of transparent communication practice. As
previous research found, when organizations share complete, truthful, and relevant information in a
transparent manner, encourage employee involvement in communication processes, and accept employees'
scrutiny and criticism, employees are more likely to present positive outcomes (Li et  al., 2021a, b; Yue et  al.,
2019). Such strategic management of internal communication is considered as the excellent practice of
public relations, which reflects the notion of the excellence theory that highlights the mutual understanding
and healthy relationships between organizations and employees (Men and Bowen, 2016). The positive
outcomes of strategic internal communication have been found in the organizational management contexts
during regular times and when organizations face significant change or crises (Lee and Li, 2021; Li et  al.,
2021a, b). This study expanded and demonstrated these prior findings by identifying the effectiveness of
strategic internal communication on D&I in dealing with the problematic situation of workplace
discrimination. The results suggest that engaging employees in identifying their needs of information and
incorporating their feedback in organizational decisions regarding D&I helps employees effectively tackle the
related issues. The empirical evidence echoed the argument that an excellent practice for strategic
management of public relations that focuses on internal communication can facilitate organizational
diversity management and mitigate workplace discrimination (Hon et  al., 1992).

Second, to examine the impacts on employee empowerment, this study went beyond the investigation of
commonly demonstrated outcomes of transparent internal communication practices, such as organizational-
employee relationships or employee engagement. Guided by the literature on the strategic internal
communication (Men and Stacks, 2014), the results show that transparent communication practices
positively affected employee empowerment. Employee empowerment has commonly been demonstrated as
a foundation of positive employee outcomes and organizational success (e.g. Men and Stacks, 2013). Such
perceptions are primarily formed depending on the organizational culture that endorses and supports
empowerment (Baird and Wang, 2010). Our findings suggest that the organization's timely, transparent, and
truthful information flow presents a supportive organizational environment that allows employees to
perceive a sense of decision-making autonomy, competence, and control ability. This finding advanced the
understanding of transparent internal communication in facilitating employee empowerment and expanded
the repertoire of transparent communication strategies in helping employees manage workplace gender
discrimination problems.

Third, the current study also echoes the previous coping research highlighting the positive function of the
problem-focused coping strategy in dealing with stress (Van den Brande et  al., 2020). This study also
enriches the understanding of coping behaviors by expanding coping at the individual/personal level to the
collective level. Traditional coping research has focused on individuals' experiences and behaviors and has
examined coping as merely a personal effort (Folkman, 2009). However, particularly in gender inequality
problems, coping at the collective level has been viewed as a powerful approach to draw attention and
provide pressure to facilitate related change (Radke et  al., 2016). Thus, this study included collective action
as another possible coping option to magnify employee efforts in fighting against workplace gender
discrimination. Such coping behaviors are often avoided because of high costs and risks (Hardacre and
Subašić, 2018). Thus, examining the motivational mechanisms of collective coping among female employees
in response to workplace gender discrimination is essential. By identifying organizational management
strategies that drive this disadvantaged group to become proactive and vocal in combating gender inequality
problems at work, this study addresses the calls for strategies to overcome barriers that discourage female
employees from engaging in collective action (Radke et  al., 2016).

Finally, this study advances organizational communication scholarship by mapping out the underlying
mechanism through which transparent internal communication facilitates employee empowerment
perceptions, encouraging proactive coping behaviors. Specifically, the mediation analyses show that
transparent internal communication can boost employees' proactive coping actions by increasing
employees' perceived empowerment. As discussed earlier, when employees are well-informed and granted
decision-making participation, the perceptions of empowerment are bolstered, which may inevitably reduce
the sense of powerlessness and thus encourage employees to manage workplace problems proactively
without fears. The feelings of autonomy might make employees feel more like owners of the organization
and thus boost their readiness to manage workplace issues proactively and vocally. As one of the earliest
empirical attempts that demonstrate the importance of transparent communication in facilitating gender
equality in the workplace, this findings provide important theoretical insights into the impact of internal
strategic communication and employee empowerment in shaping coping reactions in response to workplace
gender discrimination problems.

Practical implications

This study offers practical insights for organization leaders and management development regarding
diversity and inclusion. The findings indicate that the practices of transparent internal communication would
be a practical strategic management approach to improve employee empowerment when it comes to
discrimination problems. Thus, we recommend that organizations develop diversity and inclusion
communication transparently with the provision of substantial information, opportunities to participate in
decision-making processes, and communicator accountability. Specifically, organizations should take
responsibility for distributing sufficient information. Information may include gender equality measures and
policies, clear guidelines about how managers and employees should respond to gender discrimination, and
other training and campaigns that promote the climate of inclusion to empower female employees to take
control and speak out against discrimination in the workplace.

Meanwhile, organizations should include employees during decision-making processes by considering their
opinion and feedback, which may help the organizations develop appropriate and relevant empowerment
interventions that can help effectively reduce discrimination incidents in the workplace. Our findings also
show that the effectiveness of transparent communication practices in encouraging employees to adopt
proactive coping strategies may be even stronger when involving employee empowerment. Employee
empowerment mediates the positive effect of transparent communication on coping behaviors. Such
perceptions can be an effective mechanism to promote the importance of a proactive coping strategy. In
short, transparent communication and empowerment can be seen as two essential ingredients that offer
tangible implications for addressing workplace gender discrimination.
Limitations and future research

This study has several limitations that offer opportunities for future research. Although gender
discrimination mainly occurs toward women worldwide, we recognize that men may also experience
discrimination in the workplace because of their gender. Male employees may play a vital bystander role in
providing support and defending victims (Sinclair, 2021). Future research could expand the study population,
including male and female workers, for a more comprehensive understanding of workplace gender
discrimination.

This study conceptualized and operationalized employee empowerment based on the self-efficacy notion.
However, more updated public relations research suggested that employee empowerment is a bi-
dimensional factor that describes perceived competence and a sense of control (Men and Stacks,
2013). Future studies can incorporate both aspects to examine further the role of empowerment in tackling
workplace gender discrimination problems.

Figures

Figure 1

The proposed conceptual model

Figure 2

The results of structural equation modeling

Table 1

Descriptive statistics of demographic information of participants in US and SK

US

Age 46.90 (14.22)a

Race/Ethnicity

White/Caucasian 282 (70.1%)b

Black/African American 47 (11.7%)

Hispanic/Latino 52 (12.9%)

Asian/Asian American 17 (4.2%)

Others 4 (1.0%)

Education

High school diploma or equivalent 63 (15.7%)

Some college, no degree 91 (22.6%)

 US

Bachelor's degree or equivalent 151 (37.6%)

Master's degree or equivalent 80 (19.9%)

Doctoral/professional degree/equivalent 17 (4.2%)

Job duration

Less than a year 25 (6.2%)

1–3 years 77 (19.2%)

4–6 years 70 (17.4%)

7–9 years 61 (15.2%)

10+ years 169 (42.0%)

Job position

Entry Level 57 (14.2%)

Experienced (non-manager) 197 (49.0%)

Manager/Supervisor/Staff 115 (28.6%)

Executive/Senior Executive 33 (8.2%)

Note(s): a Mean (S.D.) for continuous variables

b
 Frequency (Percentage) for categorical variables

Table 2

Measurement items and factor loadings

Construct Standardized
s Items factor loadings

Transparent Communication

Substantial 0.955

Accountable 0.900

Participative 0.954

Participative

The company asks for feedback from people like me about the quality of 0.900
its information

The company involves people like me to help identify the information I 0.948
need
Construct Standardized
s Items factor loadings

The company takes the time with people like me to understand who we 0.942
are and what we need

Substantial

The company provides information that is relevant to people like me 0.879

The company provides information that is complete 0.918

The company provides accurate information to people like me 0.928

The company provides information that is reliable 0.895

Accountable

The company presents more than one side of controversial issues 0.799

The company is open to criticism by people like me 0.860

The company freely admits when it has made mistakes 0.894

Empowerment

I am confident in my ability to solve gender inequality issues at my 0.865

company

I see few obstacles preventing me from doing something for gender 0.722
equality issues at my company

I feel comfortable taking action for gender equality issues at my 0.915

company

I am not afraid to take actions to make changes for gender equality 0.982
issues at my company

I have control over whether I engage in addressing gender equality 0.767

issues at my company

Problem-focused coping

I would take action to try to make the situation better 0.841

I would try to see it in a different light, to make it seem more positive 0.850

I would try to come up with a strategy about what to do 0.881

I would try to look for something good in what is happening 0.800

I would try to think hard about what steps to take 0.834

I would try to get help and advice from other people 0.865

Emotion-focused coping
Construct Standardized
s Items factor loadings

I would make jokes about it 0.917

I would make fun of the situation 0.987

I would give up trying to deal with it 0.779

I would say things to let my unpleasant feelings escape 0.881

I would learn to live with it 0.903

I would accept it because nothing could be done 0.867

Collective coping

When it comes to the issue of gender equality in the workplace, how

willing would you be to become involved in the following collective
action strategies in your organization?

Implementing programs to monitor the number of men and women 0.833

appointed to leadership positions

Developing a mentoring system to help women develop professional 0.847

contacts and networks

Preparing a report outlining gender discrimination phenomenon to 0.903

educate the general public

Establishing a steering committee to conduct a review of hiring and 0.945

promotion policies and practices

Implementing a clear policy on gender discrimination and inappropriate 0.904

behavior in the workplace place

Developing a peer-support system to help women develop professional 0.898

contacts and networks

Note(s): ***p < 0.001

Table 3

Overall descriptive statistics and correlations

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5

1. Transparent Communication 4.93 1.48 –

2. Empowerment 4.72 1.51 0.597** –

3. Problem-focused coping 4.69 1.22 0.323** 0.396** –

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5

4. Emotion-focused coping 2.53 1.37 −0.074 0.007 0.100* –

5. Collective coping 4.51 1.61 0.366** 0.465** 0.565** 0.008 –

Note(s): *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

References

Atcheson, S. (2019), “Four steps to create a truly inclusive culture”, Forbes, 6 June 6, available

at: https://www.forbes.com/sites/shereeatcheson/2019/06/06/four-steps-to-create-a-truly-inclusive-
culture/#56d637601173 (accessed 10 June 2022).

Avolio, B.J., Zhu, W., Koh, W. and Bhatia, P. (2004), “Transformational leadership and organizational

commitment: mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural
distance”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Vol. 25 No. 8, pp. 951-968.

Baird, K. and Wang, H. (2010), “Employee empowerment: extent of adoption and influential

factors”, Personnel Review, Vol. 39 No. 5, pp. 574-599.

Bandura, A. (1986), “The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory”, Journal of Social and
Clinical Psychology, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 359-373.

Bandura, A. (2000), “Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy”, Current Directions in

Psychological Science, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 75-78.

Barroso, A. and Brown, A. (2021), “Gender pay gap in U.S. held steady in 2020”, Pew Research Center, 25
May, available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/05/25/gender-pay-gap-facts/(accessed 10
June 2022).

Basford, T.E., Offermann, L.R. and Behrend, T.S. (2014), “Do you see what I see? Perceptions of gender

microaggressions in the workplace”, Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 340-349.

Bowen, D.E. and Lawler, E.E. (1992), “Total quality-oriented human resources management”, Organizational

Dynamics, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 29-41.

Brescoll, V.L. (2016), “Leading with their hearts? How gender stereotypes of emotion lead to biased
evaluations of female leaders”, The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 27 No. 3, pp. 415-428.

Cattaneo, L.B. and Chapman, A.R. (2010), “The process of empowerment: a model for use in research and

practice”, American Psychologist, Vol. 65 No. 7, pp. 646-659.

Choi, S.L., Goh, C.F., Adam, M.B.H. and Tan, O.K. (2016), “Transformational leadership, empowerment, and

job satisfaction: the mediating role of employee empowerment”, Human Resources for Health, Vol. 14 No. 1,
pp. 1-14.

Conger, J.A. and Kanungo, R.N. (1988), “The empowerment process: integrating theory and

practice”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 13 No. 3, pp. 471-482.

Cotterrell, R. (1999), “Transparency, mass media, ideology and community”, Cultural Values, Vol. 3 No. 4,

pp. 414-426.

Denissen, A.M. and Saguy, A.C. (2014), “Gendered homophobia and the contradictions of workplace

discrimination for women in the building trades”, Gender and Society, Vol. 28 No. 3, pp. 381-403.
Detert, J.R. and Burris, E.R. (2007), “Leadership behavior and employee voice: is the door really
open?”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 50 No. 4, pp. 869-884.

Downey, S.N., van der Werff, L., Thomas, K.M. and Plaut, V.C. (2015), “The role of diversity practices and

inclusion in promoting trust and employee engagement”, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 45 No. 1,
pp. 35-44.

Drury, J. and Reicher, S. (2005), “Explaining enduring empowerment: a comparative study of collective action

and psychological outcomes”, European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 35 No. 1, pp. 35-58.

Drury, J. and Reicher, S. (2009), “Collective psychological empowerment as a model of social change:

researching crowds and power”, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 65 No. 4, pp. 707-725.

Dunn, T.L. and Szymanski, D.M. (2018), “Heterosexist discrimination and LGBQ activism: examining a

moderated mediation model”, Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 13-
24.

Equal Rights Advocates (2022), “Gender discrimination at work”, available

at: https://www.equalrights.org/issue/economic-workplace-equality/discrimination-at-work/(accessed 10
June 2022).

Fernandez, S. and Moldogaziev, T. (2013), “Employee empowerment, employee attitudes, and performance:

testing a causal model”, Public Administration Review, Vol. 73 No. 3, pp. 490-506.

Folkman, S. (1997), “Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress”, Social Science and
Medicine, Vol. 45 No. 8, pp. 1207-1221.

Folkman, S. (2009), “Commentary on the special section “Theory-based approaches to stress and coping”:
questions, answers, issues, and next steps in stress and coping research”, European Psychologist,
Vol. 14 No. 1, pp. 72-77.

Folkman, S. and Lazarus, R.S. (1980), “An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample”, Journal of

Health and Social Behavior, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 219-239.

Folkman, S. and Moskowitz, J.T. (2004), “Coping: pitfalls and promise”, Annual Review of Psychology,

Vol. 55 No. 1, pp. 745-774.

Franke, K.M. (1996), “What's wrong with sexual harassment”, Stanford Law Review, Vol. 49, p. 691.

García Johnson, C.P. and Otto, K. (2019), “Better together: a model for women and LGBTQ equality in the
workplace”, Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 10, pp. 272-289.

Grunig, J.E. (1992), Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management, Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.

Grunig, J.E. (2008), “Excellence theory in public relations”, in The International Encyclopedia of

Communication, Wiley Publishing.

Grunig, L.A., Grunig, J.E. and Dozier, D.M. (2002), Excellence in Public Relations and Communication

Management: A Study of Communication Management in Three Countries, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

Hamplová, E., Janeček, V. and Lefley, F. (2022), “Board gender diversity and women in leadership positions–

are quotas the solution?”, Corporate Communications: An International Journal, ahead-of-print.
Hardacre, S.L. and Subašić, E. (2018), “Whose issue is it anyway? The effects of leader gender and equality
message framing on men's and women's mobilization toward workplace gender equality”, Frontiers in
Psychology, No. 9, pp. 2497-2512.

Hebl, M.R., Foster, J.B., Mannix, L.M. and Dovidio, J.F. (2002), “Formal and interpersonal discrimination: a

field study of bias toward homosexual applicants”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 28 No. 6,
pp. 815-825.

Hershcovis, M.S., Cameron, A.F., Gervais, L. and Bozeman, J. (2018), “The effects of confrontation and

avoidance coping in response to workplace incivility”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 163-174.

Holtzhausen, D.R. (2013), Public Relations as Activism: Postmodern Approaches to Theory &

Practice, Routledge, New York.

Horsley, J.S. (2009), “Women's contributions to American public relations, 1940–1970”, Journal of

Communication Management, Vol. 12 No. 2, pp. 100-115.

Hon, L.C. and Brunner, B. (2000), “Diversity issues and public relations”, Journal of Public Relations Research,

Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 309-340.

Hon, L.C., Grunig, L.A. and Dozier, D.M. (1992), “Women in public relations: problems and opportunities”,

in Grunig, J.E. (Ed.), Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, pp. 419-438.

Hu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1998), “Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: sensitivity to

underparameterized model misspecification”, Psychological Methods, Vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 424-453.

Iyer, A. and Ryan, M.K. (2009), “Why do men and women challenge gender discrimination in the workplace?
The role of group status and in‐group identification in predicting pathways to collective action”, Journal of
Social Issues, Vol. 65 No. 4, pp. 791-814.

Jiang, H. and Men, R.L. (2017), “Creating an engaged workforce: the impact of authentic leadership,

transparent organizational communication, and work-life enrichment”, Communication Research,
Vol. 44 No. 2, pp. 225-243.

Jones, K.P., Peddie, C.I., Gilrane, V.L., King, E.B. and Gray, A.L. (2016), “Not so subtle: a meta-analytic

investigation of the correlates of subtle and overt discrimination”, Journal of Management, Vol. 42 No. 6,
pp. 1588-1613.

Kim, K.Y., Longacre, T.E. and Werner, S. (2017), “The effects of multilevel signals on sex discrimination

experiences among female employees”, Human Resource Management, Vol. 56 No. 6, pp. 995-1013.

Laschinger, H.K., Read, E. and Zhu, J. (2016), “Employee empowerment and organizational commitment”,

in Meyer, J.P. (Ed.), Handbook of Employee Commitment, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp. 3119-3332.

Lawler, E.E. (1992), The Ultimate Advantage: Creating the High-Involvement Organization, 1st ed., Jossey-

Bass, San Francisco, CA.

Lazarus, R.S. (1991), “Cognition and motivation in emotion”, American Psychologist, Vol. 46 No. 4, pp. 352-

367.

Lazarus, R.S. (1993), “From psychological stress to the emotions: a history of changing outlooks”, Annual

Review of Psychology, Vol. 44, pp. 1-21.
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984), Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, Springer Publishing Company, New York.

Lee, Y. (2019), “Crisis perceptions, relationship, and communicative behaviors of employees: internal public
segmentation approach”, Public Relations Review, Vol. 45 No. 4, 101832.

Lee, Y. and Li, J.Y. (2021), “The role of communication transparency and organizational trust in publics'

perceptions, attitudes and social distancing behaviour: a case study of the COVID‐19 outbreak”, Journal of
Contingencies and Crisis Management, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 368-384.

Lee, Y., Li, J.Y. and Tsai, W.H.S. (2021), “The role of strategic internal communication in workplace

discrimination: a perspective of racial minority employees”, International Journal of Strategic
Communication, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 37-59.

Levine, M.P. and Leonard, R. (1984), “Discrimination against lesbians in the work force”, Signs: Journal of

Women in Culture and Society, Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 700-710.

Li, J.Y., Lee, Y., Tian, S. and Tsai, W.H.S. (2021a), “Coping with workplace racial discrimination: the role of

internal communication”, Public Relations Review, Vol. 47 No. 4, 102089.

Li, J.Y., Sun, R., Tao, W. and Lee, Y. (2021b), “Employee coping with organizational change in the face of a

pandemic: the role of transparent internal communication”, Public Relations Review, Vol. 47 No. 1, 101984.

Maiorescu-Murphy, R.D. (2022), “Business-centered versus socially responsible corporate diversity

communication. An assessment of stakeholder (dis) agreement on Twitter”, Public Relations Review,
Vol. 48 No. 1, 102138.

Men, L.R. (2011), “How employee empowerment influences organization–employee relationship in

China”, Public Relations Review, Vol. 37 No. 4, pp. 435-437.

Men, L.R. (2014), “Internal reputation management: the impact of authentic leadership and transparent
communication”, Corporate Reputation Review, Vol. 17 No. 4, pp. 254-272.

Men, R.L. and Bowen, S.A. (2016), Excellence in Internal Communication Management, Business Expert

Press, Hampton, New Jersey.

Men, L.R. and Stacks, D.W. (2013), “The impact of leadership style and employee empowerment on perceived

organizational reputation”, Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 17 No. 2, pp. 171-192.

Men, L.R. and Stacks, D.W. (2014), “The effects of authentic leadership on strategic internal communication

and employee-organization relationships”, Journal of Public Relations Research, Vol. 26 No. 4, pp. 301-324.

Menon, S.T. (1999), “Psychological empowerment: definition, measurement, and validation”, Canadian

Journal of Behavioural Science, Vol. 31 No. 3, pp. 161-164.

Noor, N.M. and Shaker, M.N. (2017), “Perceived workplace discrimination, coping and psychological distress

among unskilled Indonesian migrant workers in Malaysia”, International Journal of Intercultural Relations,
No. 57, pp. 19-29.

Ozeren, E. (2014), “Sexual orientation discrimination in the workplace: a systematic review of

literature”, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, No. 109, pp. 1203-1215.

Parker, K. and Funk, C. (2017), “Gender discrimination comes in many forms for today's working

women”, Pew Research Center, 14 December, available
at: https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/12/14/gender-discrimination-comes-in-many-forms-for-
todays-working-women/(accessed 10 June 2022).
Radke, H.R.M., Hornsey, M.J. and Barlow, F.K. (2016), “Barriers to women engaging in collective action to
overcome sexism”, American Psychologist, Vol. 71 No. 9, pp. 863-874.

Rawlins, B. (2008), “Give the emperor a mirror: toward developing a stakeholder measurement of

organizational transparency”, Journal of Public Relations Research, Vol. 21 No. 1, pp. 71-99.

Rodríguez, I., Kozusznik, M.W., Peiró, J.M. and Tordera, N. (2019), “Individual, co-active and collective coping

and organizational stress: a longitudinal study”, European Management Journal, Vol. 37 No. 1, pp. 86-98.

Saad, M. (2019), “Workplace gender discrimination and job performance in Egypt: the moderating role of
equity sensitivity”, American Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 7 No. 1, pp. 11-19.

Seibert, S.E., Wang, G. and Courtright, S.H. (2011), “Antecedents and consequences of psychological and

team empowerment in organizations: a meta-analytic review”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 96 No. 5,
pp. 981-1003.

Shi, J., Hao, Z., Saeri, A.K. and Cui, L. (2015), “The dual-pathway model of collective action: impacts of types

of collective action and social identity”, Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, Vol. 18 No. 1, pp. 45-65.

Sinclair, S. (2021), “Bystander reactions to workplace incivility: the role of gender and discrimination
claims”, Europe’s Journal of Psychology, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 134-144.

Spreitzer, G.M. (1995), “Psychological empowerment in the workplace: dimensions, measurement, and

validation”, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 38 No. 5, pp. 1442-1465.

Spreitzer, G.M. (2008), “Taking Stock: a review of more than twenty years of research on empowerment at
work”, in Cooper, C. and Barling, J. (Eds), Handbook of Organizational Behavior, Sage, pp. 54-73.

Stevens, J.P. (1992), Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences, 2nd ed., Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates, New York.

Szymanski, D.M. (2012), “Racist events and individual coping styles as predictors of African American
activism”, Journal of Black Psychology, Vol. 38 No. 3, pp. 342-367.

Tench, R. and Topic, M. (2017), “One step forward, two steps back? An analysis of European PR practitioners'
views on the position of women in the PR industry (2009-2015)”, Current Politics and Economics of Europe,
Vol. 28 No. 1, pp. 1-23.

Thomas, K.W. and Velthouse, B.A. (1990), “Cognitive elements of empowerment: an “interpretive”model of

intrinsic task motivation”, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 666-681.

Topić, M., Cunha, M.J., Reigstad, A., Jelen-Sanchez, A. and Moreno, Á. (2020), “Women in public relations

(1982–2019)”, Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 24 No. 4, pp. 391-407.

Toth, E.L. and Grunig, L.A. (1993), “The missing story of women in public relations”, Journal of Public

Relations Research, Vol. 5 No. 3, pp. 153-175.

Triana, M.D.C., Jayasinghe, M., Pieper, J.R., Delgado, D.M. and Li, M. (2019), “Perceived workplace gender

discrimination and employee consequences: a meta-analysis and complementary studies considering country
context”, Journal of Management, Vol. 45 No. 6, pp. 2419-2447.

Tumwesigye, G. (2010), “The relationship between perceived organizational support and turnover intentions
in a developing country: the mediating role of organizational commitment”, African Journal of Business
Management, Vol. 4 No. 6, pp. 942-952.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (n.d), “What is employment discrimination?”, available
at: https://www.eeoc.gov/youth/what-employment-discrimination (accessed 10 June 2022).

Van den Brande, W., Baillien, E., Witte, H.D., Vander Elst, T. and Godderis, L. (2016), “The role of work

stressors, coping strategies and coping resources in the process of workplace bullying: a systematic review
and development of a comprehensive model”, Aggression and Violent Behavior, No. 29, pp. 61-71.

Van den Brande, W., Baillien, E., Vander Elst, T., Witte, H.D. and Godderis, L. (2020), “Coping styles and

coping resources in the work stressors–workplace bullying relationship: a two-wave study”, Work and Stress,
Vol. 34 No. 4, pp. 323-341.

Van Zomeren, M., Spears, R., Fischer, A.H. and Leach, C.W. (2004), “Put your money where your mouth is!

Explaining collective action tendencies through group-based anger and group efficacy”, Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, Vol. 87 No. 5, pp. 649-664.

Van Zomeren, M., Spears, R. and Leach, C.W. (2008), “Exploring psychological mechanisms of collective

action: does relevance of group identity influence how people cope with collective disadvantage?”, British
Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 47 No. 2, pp. 353-372.

Walker, I. and Smith, H.J. (2002), Relative Deprivation: Specification, Development, and

Integration, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Welle, B. and Heilman, M.E. (2007a), “Formal and informal discrimination against women at work”,

in Gilliland, S.W., Steiner, D.D. and Skarlicki, D.P. (Eds), Managing Social and Ethical Issues in
Organizations, Information Age Publishing, pp. 229-252.

Welle, B. and Heilman, M. (2007b), “The exclusion of women from full engagement in the workplace: the
role of gender stereotypes”, in Steiner, D., Gilliland, S. and Starlicki, D. (Eds), Research in Social Issues in
Management.

Winfield, A. (2020), “How #BLM has redefined D&I in the workplace”, Human Resource Executive, available
at: https://hrexecutive.com/how-blm-has-redefined-di-in-the-workplace/(accessed 10 June 2022).

Wolfgruber, D., Einwiller, S. and Brockhaus, J. (2021), “Let's talk about diversity and inclusion: fostering an

inclusive work environment through communication”, Communication Insights, No. 11, pp. 1-43.

Wong, C.A. and Laschinger, H.K.S. (2013), “Authentic leadership, performance, and job satisfaction: the

mediating role of empowerment”, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 69 No. 4, pp. 947-959.

Yue, C.A., Men, L.R. and Ferguson, M.A. (2019), “Bridging transformational leadership, transparent

communication, and employee openness to change: the mediating role of trust”, Public Relations Review,
Vol. 45 No. 3, pp. 114-126.

Zimmerman, M.A. and Rappaport, J. (1988), “Citizen participation, perceived control, and psychological

empowerment”, American Journal of Community Psychology, Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 725-750.

Corresponding author

Jo-Yun Li can be contacted at: [email protected]