Chapter 1

W
I λ
λ

0
λ

1
Chapter 2

3
 Radiation Quantities

Intensity
dEν ≡ Iν (~r, ~l, t) (~l · ~n) dA dt dν dΩ (2.1)
= Iν (x, y, z, θ, ϕ, t) cos θ dA dt dν dΩ,
Mean intensity

1 Z 1 Z 2πZ π
Jν (~r, t) ≡ Iν dΩ = Iν sin θ dθ dϕ. (2.2)
4π 4π 0 0
Axial symmetry

1 Zπ 1 Z +1
Jν (z) = Iν (z, θ) 2π sin θ dθ = Iν (z, µ) dµ. (2.3)
4π 0 2 −1

Flux Z Z 2π Z π
Fν (~r, ~n, t) ≡ Iν cos θ dΩ = Iν cos θ sin θ dθ dϕ. (2.4)
0 0
Incoming and outgoing
Z 2π Z π/2 Z 2π Z π
Fν (z) = Iν cos θ sin θ dθ dϕ + Iν cos θ sin θ dθ dϕ
0 0 0 π/2
Z 2π Z π/2 Z 2π Z π/2
= Iν cos θ sin θ dθ dϕ − Iν (π − θ) cos θ sin θ dθ dϕ
0 0 0 0

≡ Fν+(z) − Fν− (z), (2.5)

Axial symmetry
Z π
Fν (z) = 2π Iν cos θ sin θ dθ
0
Z 1 Z −1
= 2π µIν dµ − 2π µIν dµ
0 0

= Fν+ (z) − Fν− (z). (2.6)

Surface flux
Fνsurface ≡ Fν+(r = R) = πIν+ , (2.7)
Irradiance
4πR2 surface πR2
Rν = F = 2 Iν. (2.8)
4πD2 ν D
 Densities and Moments

Energy density
1Z
uν = Iν dΩ (2.9)
c
LTE energy density
Z
1 ZZ 4σ 4
u= uν dν = Bν dΩ dν = T (2.10)
c c
Photon density
Z ∞ uν
Nphoton = dν ≈ 20 T 3 cm−3 . (2.11)
0 hν

Radiation pressure
1Z
pν = Iν cos2 θ dΩ (2.12)
c

Moments of the intensity

1 Z +1
Jν (z) ≡ Iν dµ (2.13)
2 −1
1 Z +1
Hν (z) ≡ µ Iν dµ (2.14)
2 −1
1 Z +1 2
Kν (z) ≡ µ Iν dµ (2.15)
2 −1
 Emission and Extinction

Emissivity
dEν ≡ jν dV dt dν dΩ, (2.16)

dIν (s) = jν (s) ds, (2.17)

Extinction coefficient
dIν ≡ −σν n Iν ds (2.18)

dIν ≡ −αν Iν ds (2.19)

dIν ≡ −κν ρ Iν ds (2.20)

Source function
Sν ≡ jν /αν . (2.21)

P
jν
Sνtot = P , (2.22)
αν

jνc + jνl Sνc + ην Sνl

Sνtot = c = (2.23)
αν + ανl 1 + ην

Transport equation
dIν (s) = Iν (s + ds) − Iν (s) = jν (s) ds − αν (s)Iν (s) ds (2.24)

dIν
= jν − αν Iν (2.25)
ds

dIν
= Sν − I ν , (2.26)
αν ds
 Simple Radiative Transfer

Optical path
dτν (s) ≡ αν (s) ds; (2.27)
Optical thickness
Z D
τν (D) = αν (s) ds, (2.28)
0
Extinction only
Iν (D) = Iν (0) e−τν (D) . (2.29)
Mean free path
R∞ −τν (s)
0 τν (s) e dτν (s)
< τν (s) > ≡ R∞
−τν (s) dτ (s)
=1 (2.30)
0 e ν

< τν (s) > 1 1

lν = = = . (2.31)
αν αν κν ρ

Transport equation
dIν
= Sν − I ν , (2.32)
dτν
Integral form
Z τ
ν
Iν (τν ) = Iν (0) e−τν + Sν (tν ) e−(τν −tν ) dtν . (2.33)
0

Homogeneous medium
 
Iν (D) = Iν (0) e−τν (D) + Sν 1 − e−τν (D) . (2.34)

τν (D)  1
Iν (D) ≈ Sν , (2.35)
τν (D)  1
Iν (D) ≈ Iν (0) + [Sν − Iν (0)] τν (D). (2.36)
 Radiative Transfer in Stellar Atmospheres

Angle-dependent optical depth

dz
dτνµ ≡ −αν (2.37)
|µ|
Radial optical depth
Z z Z ∞
0
τν (z0) = −αν dz = αν dz, (2.38)
∞ z0
Total optical depth

dτνtotal = −(ανc + ανl ) dz = (1 + ην ) dτνc (2.39)

Standard transport equation

dIν
µ = I ν − Sν . (2.40)
dτν
Formal solution
Z τ
ν
Iν− (τν , µ) =− Sν (tν ) e−(tν −τν )/µ dtν /µ (2.41)
0

Z ∞
Iν+ (τν , µ) =+ Sν (tν ) e−(tν −τν )/µ dtν /µ. (2.42)
τν

Emergent intensity
Z ∞
Iν+ (τν = 0, µ) = Sν (tν ) e−tν /µ dtν /µ. (2.43)
0

Eddington-Barbier approximation

Iν+ (τν = 0, µ) ≈ Sν (τν = µ) (2.44)

Fν+ (0) ≈ πSν (τν = 2/3). (2.45)

 Bound-Bound Processes

Spontaneous deexcitation

Aul ≡ transition probability for spontaneous deexci- (2.46)

tation from state u to state l per sec per par-
ticle in state u.
Lorentz profile
γ rad/4π 2
ψ(ν −ν0) = . (2.47)
(ν −ν0)2 + (γ rad/4π)2
Voigt function
H(a, v)
ψ(ν −ν0) = √ (2.48)
π∆νD
Doppler width
v
u
ν0 u
t 2kT
∆νD ≡ , (2.49)
c m

Radiative excitation
ϕ
BluJ ν0 ≡ number of radiative excitations from state l to (2.50)
state u per sec per particle in state l,
Averaged mean intensity
Z ∞
ϕ
J ν0 ≡ Jν ϕ(ν −ν0) dν, (2.51)
0

ϕ 1 Z ∞Z +1
J ν0 ≡ Iν ϕ(ν −ν0) dµ dν, (2.52)
2 0 −1
Extinction profile
H(a, v)
ϕ(ν −ν0) = √ . (2.53)
π∆νD
Amplitude
1−a
ϕ(ν = ν0 ) = √ , (2.54)
π∆νD
Induced deexcitation

χ
Bul J ν0 ≡ number of induced radiative deexcitations from (2.55)
state u to state l per sec per particle in state u,

χ 1 Z ∞Z +1 Z ∞
J ν0 ≡ Iν χ(ν −ν0) dµ dν = Jν χ(ν −ν0) dν (2.56)
2 0 −1 0

Collision probabilities

Clu ≡ number of collisional excitations from state l (2.57)

to state u per sec per particle in state l.
Cul ≡ number of collisional deexcitations from state (2.58)
u to state l per sec per particle in state u
Z ∞
ni Cij = niNe σij (v) v f (v) dv, (2.59)
v0

Einstein relations
Blu gu Aul 2hν 3
= = 2 (2.60)
Bul gl Bul c

Cul gl Eul /kT

= e , (2.61)
Clu gu
 Formal Coefficients

Monochromatic line extinction

hν
ανl = [nl Blu ϕ(ν −ν0) − nuBul χ(ν −ν0)] (2.62)
4π  
hν n u gl χ(ν −ν 0 )
= nl Blu ϕ(ν −ν0) 1 −  (2.63)
4π nl gu ϕ(ν −ν0)
Total line extinction
Z ∞ hν0
ανl 0 ≡ ανl dν = (nl Blu − nu Bul ) (2.64)
0 4π

Per particle
hν
σνl = Blu ϕ(ν −ν0). (2.65)
4π
Oscillator strength
Z ∞ hν0 πe2
σνl 0 ≡ σνl dν = Blu = flu = 0.02654 flu cm2 Hz. (2.66)
0 4π me c
Aul and flu
gl
Aul ∼ flu (∆Eul )2 (2.67)
gu
Numerically
gl flu −1
Aul = 6.67 × 1013 s (2.68)
gu λ2

Monochromatic line emission

hν
jνl = nuAul ψ(ν −ν0). (2.69)
4π

Total line emission Z ∞

hν0
jνl 0 = jνl dν = nu Aul (2.70)
0 4π
 Formal Source Function

General source function

nu Aul ψ(ν −ν0)
Sνl ≡ jνl /ανl = (2.71)
nl Bluϕ(ν −ν0) − nuBul χ(ν −ν0)

Aul ψ
l Bul ϕ 2hν 3 ψ/ϕ
Sν = = 2 gunl χ . (2.72)
nl Blu χ c −
− gl nu ϕ
nu Bul ϕ

Complete redistribution
nu Aul 2hν03 1
Sνl 0 = = 2 gu nl . (2.73)
nl Blu − nu Bul c −1
gl nu
 Continuum Transitions

Bound-free extinction (Kramers)

Z4
σνbf = 2.815 × 10 5 3 gbf 29
for ν ≥ ν0, (2.74)
nν
LTE
 
ανbf = σνbf ni 1 − e−hν/kT (2.75)

Free-free extinction
Z2
σνff = 3.7 × 108 Ne gff , (2.76)
T 1/2ν 3
Volume coefficient
 
ανff = σνff Nion 1 − e−hν/kT (2.77)
Wien
Z2
ανff ≈ 3.7 × 10 Ne Nion 1/2 3 gff
8
(2.78)
T ν
Rayleigh-Jeans
Z2
ανff ≈ 0.018 NeNion 3/2 2 gff (2.79)
T ν

Thomson scattering
8π 2
σνT ≡ σ T = re = 6.65 × 10−25 cm2 . (2.80)
3

ανT = σ T Ne (2.81)
Rayleigh scattering
!4
ν
σνR ≈ flu σ T
, (2.82)
ν0

ανR = σνR NH . (2.83)

 Matter in LTE

Maxwell distribution
  !1/2
n(vx) m 2
 dvx  = e−(1/2)mvx/kT dvx, (2.84)
N LTE
2πkT

  !3/2
n(v)  m 2
 dv = 4πv 2 e−(1/2)mv /kT
dv. (2.85)
N LTE
2πkT

Boltzmann distribution
 
n
 r,s 
gr,s −(χr,s −χr,t )/kT
= e , (2.86)
nr,t LTE gr,t

Saha distribution
  !3/2
n
 r+1,1 
1 2 gr+1,1 2πme kT
= e−χr /kT , (2.87)
nr,1 LTE Ne gr,1 h2

" # !3/2
Nr+1 1 2 Ur+1 2πme kT
= e−χr /kT , (2.88)
Nr LTE Ne U r h2
Partition function
X
Ur ≡ gr,s e−χr,s /kT . (2.89)
s

Saha-Boltzmann " # !3/2

nc 1 2 gc 2πme kT
= e−χci/kT (2.90)
ni LTE Ne gi h2
 Radiation in LTE

Source function
h i 2hν 3 1
Sνl LTE = " # (2.91)
c2 gu nl −1
gl nu LTE
2hν 3 1
= ≡ Bν (T ). (2.92)
c2 ehν/kT − 1
Wien
2hν 3 −hν/kT
Bν (T ) ≈ 2 e , (2.93)
c
Rayleigh-Jeans
2ν 2kT
Bν (T ) ≈ , (2.94)
c2
Stefan-Boltzmann
Z ∞ σ 4
B(T ) = Bν dν = T , (2.95)
0 π

2π 5 k 4
σ= = 5.67 × 10−5 erg cm−2 K−4 s−1. (2.96)
15h c
3 2

Correction for induced emission

 
n B χ(ν −ν0) 
1 − u ul = 1 − e−hν0 /kT . (2.97)
nl Bluϕ(ν −ν0) LTE
Line extinction

h i πe2 LTE h i
ανl LTE = nl flu ϕ(ν −ν0) 1 − e−hν0 /kT (2.98)
me c

LTE ≡ Maxwell + Saha + Boltzmann

Sνl (~r) = Bν [T (~r)] Iν (~r, ~l) 6= Bν [T (~r)] Jν (~r) 6= Bν [T (~r)] Fν (~r) 6= 0.

(2.99)
 NLTE Radiative Transfer

SE rate equations
dni (~r) X N XN
= nj (~r)Pji (~r) − ni(~r) Pij (~r) = 0, (2.100)
dt j6=i j6=i

Rates per particle

Pij = Rij + Cij . (2.101)
Bound-bound radiative
Rij = Aij + Bij J ν0 . (2.102)

Radiative transfer
dIν (~r, µ)
µ = −Sν (~r) + Iν (~r, µ) (2.103)
dτν (~r)
 Population Departure Coefficients

Definition
bl = nl /nLTE
l bu = nu /nLTE
u (2.104)
Line source function
2hν 3 ψ/ϕ
Sνl = 2 (2.105)
c bl hν/kT χ
e −
bu ϕ
Complete redistribution
2hν03 1
Sνl 0 = 2 , (2.106)
c bl hν0 /kT
e −1
bu
Wien
bu
Sνl 0 ≈ Bν . (2.107)
bl 0
Monochromatic line extinction
 
hν b nLTE Bul χ 
1 − u u
ανl = bl nLTE
l B lu ϕ(ν −ν 0 ) (2.108)
4π bl nLTE
l Blu ϕ
" #
hν bu χ −hν/kT
= bl nLTE
l Bluϕ(ν −ν0) 1 − e (2.109)
4π bl ϕ
" #
bu χ −hν/kT
= bl nLTE
l σνl 1− e (2.110)
bl ϕ
" #
πe2 bu χ −hν/kT
= bl nLTE
l fluϕ(ν −ν0) 1 − e (2.111)
me c bl ϕ
Wien h i
ανl ≈ bl ανl LTE
. (2.112)
Total line extinction
" #
hν0 bu
ανl 0 = bl nLTE
l Blu 1 − e−hν0 /kT (2.113)
4π bl
" #
πe2 bu −hν0 /kT
= bl nLTE
l f lu 1 − e (2.114)
me c bl
h i
≈ bl ανl 0 LTE
. (2.115)
Reversed ratios

h i
Sνl 0 1 − e−hν0 /kT ανl 0 LTE
= h i = bu , (2.116)
Bν0 (bl /bu) 1 − (bu/bl ) e−hν0/kT ανl 0
Bound-free source function

2hν 3 1
Sνbf = 2 (2.117)
c bi hν/kT
e −1
bc
Wien
bc
Sνbf ≈ Bν . (2.118)
bi
Bound-free extinction coefficient
!
bc
ανbf = bi nLTE
i σic(ν) 1 − e−hν/kT . (2.119)
bi
Bound-free emissivity
h i
jνbf = ανbf Sνbf = bc ανbf LTE
Bν (2.120)
Free-free

Sνff = Bν (2.121)
 
−hν/kT
ανff = bc nLTE
c σ ff
ν 1 − e (2.122)
h i
jνff = bc ανff LTE
Bν (2.123)
 Departure Coefficient Conventions

Two conventions

bZwaan
i ≡ ni /nLTE
i (2.124)
ni /niLTE
bMenzel
i ≡ (2.125)
nC /nLTE
C

Predominantly ionized
bMenzel
i ≈ ni /nLTE
i ≈ bZwaan
i , (2.126)

Predominantly neutral

bMenzel
i ≈ nLTE
C /nC ≈ 1/bC
Zwaan
. (2.127)
 Formal Temperatures

Excitation temperature
nu gu −hν/kTexc
≡ e (2.128)
nl gl
Line source function

2hν03 1 2hν03 1
Sνl 0 = g n = = Bν0 (Texc). (2.129)
c2 u l − 1 c2 ehν0 /kTexc − 1
gl nu
Bound-free source function

2hν 3 1
Sνbf ≡ 2 hν/kTion = Bν (Tion). (2.130)
c e −1

Radiation temperature
Bν (Trad) ≡ Jν . (2.131)

Brightness temperature
Bν (Tb ) ≡ Iν , (2.132)

Effective temperature
πB(Teff ) = σTeff
4
≡ Fsurface (2.133)
 Coherently Scattering Two-Level Atoms

Extinction
ανl = ανa + ανs . (2.134)
Destruction probability
ανa
εν ≡ a . (2.135)
αν + ανs
Scattering probability
ανs
1 − εν = a . (2.136)
αν + ανs

Effective path √
lν∗ ≈ N lν , (2.137)

hτν i 1
lν = = a . (2.138)
αν αν + ανs

√
lν∗ ≈ lν / εν (2.139)
Effective optical thickness
√
τν∗ = εν τν , (2.140)
Effective radial optical depth
√
dτν∗ = εν dτν , (2.141)
 Coherent Two-Level Transport

Thermal absorption
jνa = ανa Bν . (2.142)
Elastic scattering
jνs = ανs Jν . (2.143)
Coherent scattering

jνa + jνs
Sνl = a = (1 − εν ) Jν + εν Bν . (2.144)
αν + ανs
Complete redistribution

ϕ
Sνl 0 = (1 − εν0 ) J ν0 + εν0 Bν0 , (2.145)

Profile-summed destruction probability

ανa0
εν0 ≡ a . (2.146)
αν0 + ανs 0

Two-level transport

dIν = −ανa Iν ds − ανs Iν ds + ανa Bν ds + ανs Jν ds (2.147)

dIν dIν
= a = Sνl − Iν (2.148)
dτν (αν + αν ) ds
s

dIν
µ = Iν − Sνl . (2.149)
dτν
Chapter 3

23
 Bound-Bound Rates

SE rate equations
dni X N XN
= nj Pji − ni Pij = 0 (3.1)
dt j6=i j6=i

Rates per particle

Pij = Aij + Bij J ν0 + Cij . (3.2)
Radiative excitation rate

nl Rlu = nl BluJ ν0 (3.3)

Z ∞
= nl Blu Jν ϕ(ν −ν0) dν
0
Z ∞ σνl
= 4π nl Jν dν (3.4)
0 hν
Radiative deexcitation rate

nu Rul = nu Aul + nuBul J ν0 (3.5)

Z ∞ Z ∞
= nu Aul ϕ(ν −ν0) dν + nu Bul Jν ϕ(ν −ν0) dν
0  0 
gl Z ∞ 2hν 3
= nu Blu ϕ(ν −ν0)  + Jν  dν
gu 0 c2
 
l
gl Z ∞ σν  2hν 3
= 4π nu + Jν  dν. (3.6)
gu 0 hν c2
 Bound-Free Rates

Photoionization rate Z ∞
σic(ν)
ni Ric = 4π ni Jν dν (3.7)
ν0 hν
TE recombination rate
Z σic(ν)
TE ∞
[nc Rci ]TE = [ni Ric]TE = 4π ni Bν dν. (3.8)
ν0 hν
Split spontaneous – induced

Z
TE ∞ σic (ν)
h  i
[nc Rci ]TE = 4π ni Bν 1 − e−hν/kT + e−hν/kT dν, (3.9)
ν0 hνh i
spon
= [nc Rci ]TE + nc Rci
ind
TE
(3.10)

TE spontaneous recombination rate

Z σic(ν)  
TE ∞
spon
[nc Rci ]TE = 4π ni Bν 1 − e−hν/kT dν. (3.11)
ν0 hν
Actual spontaneous recombination rate

spon nc LTE Z ∞ σic (ν)  −hν/kT


nc Rci = 4π n i B ν 1 − e dν (3.12)
nLTE
c
ν0 hν
" # Z ∞ σ (ν) 2hν 3
ni ic
= 4π nc e−hν/kT dν. (3.13)
nc LTE ν0 hν c 2

TE induced recombination rate

h i Z σic(ν)
TE ∞
nc Rci
ind
= 4π ni Bν e−hν/kT dν, (3.14)
TE ν0 hν
Actual induced recombination rate
" # Z ∞
ni σic (ν)
nc Rci
ind
= 4π nc Jν e−hν/kT dν. (3.15)
nc LTE ν0 hν
Total radiative recombination rate
" #  
ni Z ∞ σic(ν)  2hν 3
nc Rci = 4π nc + Jν  e−hν/kT dν, (3.16)
nc LTE ν0 hν c2
 Unified rates

Bound-bound + bound-free
1 Z 1 Z ∞ 4π
upward i → j : Rij = σij Iνµ dν dµ (3.17)
2 −1 0 hν
Z ∞
4π
= σij Jν dν (3.18)
0 hν
 
1 Z 1 Z ∞ 4π 2hν 3
downward j → i : Rji = σij Gij  + Iνµ  dν dµ (3.19)
2 −1 0 hν c2
 
Z ∞ 3
4π 2hν
= σij Gij  2 + Jν  dν (3.20)
0 hν c
Bound-bound
 
hνij gi  ni  −hν/kT
σij = σνl = Bij ϕνµ Gij = = e (3.21)
4π gj nj LTE
Bound-free
" #
ni
σij = σic(ν) Gij = e−hν/kT . (3.22)
nc LTE
 Net Radiative Rates

Net radiative recombination rate

nc Rci − niRic
Z ∞
σic(ν) h LTE   i
= 4π ni bc Bν 1 − e−hν/kT + nLTE
i b J
c ν e−hν/kT
− n J
i ν dν
ν0 hν
Z ∞ σ (ν) "   b b
!#
ic i c
= 4π nLTEi bc Bν 1 − e−hν/kT − Jν 1 − e−hν/kT dν. (3.23)
ν0 hν bc bi
Wien limit
Z ∞ !
σic(ν) bi
nc Rci − ni Ric = 4π nLTE
i b c Bν − J ν dν. (3.24)
ν0 hν bc
Net radiative deexcitation rate

nuRul − nl Rlu
= nuAul + nu Bul J ν0 − nl BluJ ν0
= Sνl 0 (nl Blu − nu Bul ) − J ν0 (nl Blu − nuBul )
" ! !#
l nu Bul nu Bul
= nl Blu Sν0 1 − − J ν0 1 −
nl Blu nl Blu
" ! !#
4π b u b u
= nl σνl 0 Sνl 0 1 − e−hν0/kT − J ν0 1 − e−hν0 /kT (3.25)
hν0 bl bl
" !#
4π LTE l

−hν0 /kT
 bl bu −hν0 /kT
= n bu σν0 Bν0 1 − e − J ν0 1 − e (3.26)
hν0 l bu bl
Wien limit
!
4π LTE b l
nu Rul − nl Rlu ≈ n bu σνl 0 Bν0 − J ν0 . (3.27)
hν0 l bu

Faster derivation
nu Rul − nl Rlu = nuAul + nu Bul J ν0 − nl BluJ ν0
4π  l 
= jν0 − ανl 0 J ν0 (3.28)
hν0
4π l  l 
= αν0 Sν0 − J ν0 (3.29)
hν0
!
4π h
l
i bl
≈ bu αν0 LTE Bν0 − J ν0 (3.30)
hν0 bu
 Collision Rates

Collision frequency
!1/2
electron collision frequency Ne < v e > Ne mH A
∼ ∼ (3.31)
ion collision frequency Nion < vion > Nion me
Bound-bound for atoms
!
E0 −1.68 −3/2 −E0 /kT
nl Clu ≈ 2.16 T e nl N e f (3.32)
kT
!
E0 −1.68 −3/2 gl
nu Cul ≈ 2.16 T nu N e f (3.33)
kT gu
Bound-bound for ions
!
E0 −1 −3/2 −E0 /kT
nl Clu ≈ 3.9 T e nl N e f (3.34)
kT
!
E0 −1 −3/2 gl
nuCul ≈ 3.9 T nu N e f (3.35)
kT gu
Bound-free
!−2
E0
ni Cic ≈ 2.7 ζ T −3/2 e−E0 /kT ni Ne (3.36)
kT
!−2
−16 E0 gi
nc Cci ≈ 5.6 × 10 ζ T −3 nc Ne2 (3.37)
kT gc
TE Saha ratio
" #
Cci ni
= = 2.06 × 10−16 (gi/gc ) e+E0 /kT T −3/2 Ne (3.38)
Cic nc LTE
Ratios
nu Cul bu
= (3.39)
nl Clu bl
nc Cci bc
= . (3.40)
ni Cic bi
Net rates
! !
bu bl
nu Cul − nl Clu = nl Clu − 1 = bunLTE
l Clu 1 − (3.41)
bl bu
! !
bc bi
nc Cci − ni Cic = ni Cic − 1 = bc ni Cic 1 −
LTE
, (3.42)
bi bc
 Radiation and Collision Damping

Two-level atom
γ rad = γurad = Aul (3.43)
Lorentz profile
γ rad/4π 2
ψ(ν −ν0) = (3.44)
(ν − ν0)2 + (γ rad/4π)2
Damped harmonic oscillator
8πe2
γ rad
= (3.45)
3me cλ20
Total damping per upper level
X
γurad = Aul (3.46)
l<u

Both levels
X X
γ rad = γlrad + γurad = Ali + Aui, (3.47)
i<l i<u

Collisional interactions
∆E Cn
∆ν = ≡ n (3.48)
h r
Van der Waals broadening

log γ6 ≈ 6.33 + 0.4 log(ru2 − rl2 ) + log Pg − 0.7 log T (3.49)

Bates-Damgaard approximation

n∗ 2  ∗ 2 
r2 = 5n + 1 − 3l(l + 1) . (3.50)
2Z 2
Effective principal quantum number

∗2 Z2
n =R (3.51)
E∞ − En
 Doppler broadening

Doppler shift
∆ν ∆λ ξ
=− = (3.52)
ν λ c
Emission blueshift
ν = ν 0 (1 + ξ/c) ≈ ν 0 + ν0 ξ/c (3.53)
Extinction redshift
ν 0 = ν(1 − ξ/c) ≈ ν − ν0ξ/c. (3.54)
Thermal motions
n(ξ) 1 2 2
dξ = √ e−ξ /ξ0 dξ (3.55)
N ξ0 π
v v
u u
u 2kT
t
u
t T
ξ0 = = 12.85 (3.56)
m 104A
Root-mean-square velocity component
v
u
u kT ξ0
t
< ξ 2 >1/2= =√ . (3.57)
m 2
Total line extinction
Z ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
hν πe2 πe2
σνl 0 ≡ l
σ (ν −ν0) dν = Bluϕ(ν −ν0) dν = f ϕ(ν −ν0) dν = f
0 0 4π me c 0 me c
(3.58)
Line extinction in the frame of the atom

σνl 0 = σ l (ν 0 −ν0) = σ l (ν −ξν0/c−ν0). (3.59)

Convolution
R
l σ l (ν −ξν0/c−ν0) n(ξ) dξ Z +∞ l n(ξ)
σ (ν −ν0) = R = σ (ν −ξν0/c−ν0) dξ (3.60)
n(ξ) dξ −∞ N
Thermal broadening only

πe2 Z +∞ n(ξ)
σ l (ν −ν0) = f δ(ν −ξν0/c−ν0) dξ (3.61)
me c −∞ N
Line extinction for pure thermal broadening
√ 2
πe2
n [(ν −ν ) c/ν ] πe f −(∆ν/∆νD )2
σνl =
0 0
f = e (3.62)
me c N me c ∆νD
Doppler width
v
u
ξ0 ν0 u
t 2kT
∆νD ≡ ν0 = (3.63)
c c m
Gaussian profile
1 2
ϕ(ν −ν0) = √ e−(∆ν/∆νD ) . (3.64)
π ∆νD
Wavelength units
√
πe2 λ2 f 2
σλl = e−(∆λ/∆λD ) (3.65)
me c c ∆λD
v
u
ξ0 λ0 u 2kT
∆λD ≡ λ0 = t (3.66)
c c m
Thermal plus collisional broadening
√   
πe2 f −(∆ν/∆νD )2   γ/4π 2
σνl =  e ∗ 
me c ∆νD (ν 0 −ν0)2 + (γ/4π)2
√ 2 2
πe f Z +∞ (γ/4π 2) e−(∆ν/∆νD )
= dν
me c ∆νD −∞ (ν 0 −ν0)2 + (γ/4π)2
√ 2
πe f
= H(a, v) (3.67)
me c ∆νD
 Voigt function

Definition
2
a Z +∞ e−y
H(a, v) ≡ dy (3.68)
π −∞ (v − y)2 + a2
ξ ξ ν0 ξ λ0
y ≡ = = (3.69)
ξ0 c ∆νD c ∆λD
ν − ν0 λ − λ0
v ≡ = (3.70)
∆νD ∆λD
γ λ2 γ
a ≡ = . (3.71)
4π∆νD 4πc ∆λD
Extinction profile
H(a, v)
ϕ(ν −ν0) = √ . (3.72)
π ∆νD
Approximation
2 a
H(a, v) ≈ e−v + √ (3.73)
π v2
Far wings

1 a 1 γ ∆νD2 γ
ϕ(ν −ν0) ≈ √ √ 2=√ √ = . (3.74)
π∆νD πv π∆νD 4π∆νD π∆ν 2 4π 2 ∆ν 2
Unsöld (1955)
 Rotation and Turbulent Broadening

Line-of-sight component per x

vz (x) = x Ω sin i, (3.75)
Limb shift
∆λR = (λ/c)R Ω sin i = (λ/c) v sin i (3.76)
Flux spectrum
Z ZZ Iν (x, y)
Fν = Iν cos θ dΩ = dx dy (3.77)
R2
Intensity profile
H(ν) ≡ I(ν)/Iνcont (3.78)
Invariant intensity profile
R
Fν H(ν −∆ν)Iνcont cos θ dΩ
= R cont
Fνcont Iν cos θ dΩ
RR
(H(ν −∆ν)Iνcont/R2) dx dy
= RR cont
(Iν /R2) dx dy
Z +∞
= H(ν −∆ν) G(∆ν) dν
−∞
= H(ν) ∗ G(ν) (3.79)

Microturbulent broadening
v
u
ν0 u 2kT
∆νD ≡ t + ξmicro
2 (3.80)
c m
Macroturbulent broadening
" #
Ic − Iλ Ic − Iλ 1 2 2
= ∗ √ e−ξ /ξmacro
. (3.81)
Ic Ic comp ξmacro π
Inglis-Teller Ne estimate

log Ne = 23.2 − 7.5 log nBalmer

max (3.82)
 Two-Level Sequences

2 2 2

1 1 1
a b c
2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1
d e f g

(a) thermal extinction = radiative excitation by a beam photon followed by col-

lisional deexcitation,
(b) spontaneous scattering extinction = radiative excitation by a beam photon
followed by spontaneous deexcitation,
(c) induced scattering extinction = radiative excitation by a beam photon followed
by induced deexcitation,
(d) spontaneous thermal emission = collisional excitation followed by spontaneous
emission of a photon into the beam,
(e) induced thermal emission = collisional excitation followed by induced emission
of a photon into the beam,
(f) spontaneous scattering emission = radiative excitation followed by sponta-
neous emission of a photon into the beam,
(g) induced scattering emission = radiative excitation followed by induced emis-
sion of a photon into the beam.
 Two-Level Sharp-Line Transport

Two-level transport equation

dIν0 C21 A21 B21Jν0
= − n1σνl 0 Iν0 − n1 σνl 0 Iν0 − n1σνl 0 Iν0
ds | {z
P21} | {z
P21} | {z
P21 }
(a) (b) (c)
(hν0 /4π)A21 (hν0 /4π)B21Iν0
+ n1C12 + n1 C12
|
P
{z 21 } |
P
{z 21 }
(d) (e)
(hν0/4π)A21 (hν0/4π)B21Iν0
+ n1B12 Jν0 + n1 B12Jν0 (3.83)
| {z
P21 } | {z
P21 }
(f) (g)

Total deexcitation probability

P21 ≡ A21 + B21Jν0 + C21. (3.84)

Two-level transport equation




dIν0 hν0  C21 A21 B21Jν0
= n1 − B12Iν0 − B12Iν0 − B12Iν0
ds 4π 
 | P
{z 21} |
P
{z 21} |
P
{z 21 }
(a) (b) (c)


A21 B21 Iν0 A21 B21Iν0 
+ C12 + C12 + B12Jν0 + B12Jν0 . (3.85)
P21
| {z } |
P
{z 21 } | {z
P21} | {z
P21 }

(d) (e) (f) (g)
 Two-Level Sharp-Line Coefficients

Extinction coefficient
(a) − (e) + (b) + (c) − (g)
ανl 0 =
Iν0
"
hν0 C21 B21
= n1 B12 − C12
4π P21 P21
#
A21 B21Jν0 B21
+ B12 + B12 − B12Jν0
P21 P21 P21
≡ ανa0 + ανs 0 . (3.86)

Thermal part
" #
hν0 C21 C12B21
ανa0 = n1 B12 1−
4π P21 C21B12
hν0 C21 h i
= n1 B12 1 − e−hν0 /kT , (3.87)
4π P21
Scattering part
" #
hν0 A21 B21Jν0 B21
ανs0 = n1 B12 + − Jν0 (3.88)
4π P21 P21 P21
hν0 A21
= n1 B12 , (3.89)
4π P21
Emission coefficient

hν0 A21 hν0 A21

jνl 0 = n1 C12 + n1 B12Jν0 (3.90)
4π P21 4π P21
≡ jνa0 + jνs0 . (3.91)
 Two-Level Sharp-Line Source Function

Thermal source function

Sνa0 ≡ jνa0 /ανa0

(hν0 /4π) n1C12A21/P21
= h i
(hν0/4π) n1 B12C21 1 − e−hν0 /kT /P21
A21 C12 ehν0 /kT
=
B12 C21 ehν0 /kT − 1
2hν03 1
=
c2 ehν0 /kT − 1
= Bν0 . (3.92)

Scattering source function

Sνs0 ≡ jνs0 /ανs 0

(hν0 /4π) n1 B12Jν0 A21/P21
=
(hν0/4π) n1 B12A21/P21
= Jν0 . (3.93)
 Collisional Destruction Probability

Combined line source function

jνl 0
Sνl 0 ≡ l = (1 − εν0 ) Jν0 + εν0 Bν0 . (3.94)
αν0
Destruction probability

ανa0
εν0 ≡ a (3.95)
αν0 + ανs 0
C21 [1 − exp(−hν0/kT )]
= (3.96)
C21 [1 − exp(−hν0 /kT )] + A21
C21
= (3.97)
C21 + A21/[1 − exp(−hν0 /kT )]
C21
= . (3.98)
C21 + A21 + B21Bν0
Alternate form

ε0ν0 ≡ ανa0 /ανs 0 (3.99)

εν0
= (3.100)
1 − εν0
C21
= [1 − e−hν0 /kT ], (3.101)
A21
Combined line source function

Jν0 + ε0ν0 Bν0

Sνl 0 = . (3.102)
1 + ε0ν0
 Complete redistribution

Statistical equilibrium
dn2
= n1 P12 − n2 P21 = 0. (3.103)
dt
Substitute
2hν03 1
Sνl 0 = g n
c2 2 1
−1
g1 n2 h i
ϕ
(2hν03/c2 ) (g1/g2)B12J ν0 + (g1/g2 )C12
= ϕ ϕ .
A21 + B21J ν0 + C21 − (g1/g2)B12J ν0 − (g1/g2 )C12
Rework with Einstein relations
h ϕ i
(2hν03/c2) (B21/A21)J ν0 + (C21/A21) exp(−hν0/kT )
Sνl 0 =
1 + C21/A21 − (C21/A21) exp(−hν0/kT )
ϕ
J ν0 + (C21/A21)(2hν03/c2 ) exp(−hν0/kT )
= .
1 + C21/A21 − (C21/A21) exp(−hν0/kT )
Rework with Einstein relations
ϕ
J ν0 + ε0ν0 Bν0
Sνl 0 = (3.104)
1 + ε0ν0
ϕ
= (1 − εν0 ) J ν0 + εν0 Bν0 . (3.105)
Frequency dependence
ανl Sνl 0 + ανc Sνc
Sνtot = (3.106)
ανl + ανc
Bound-free destruction
Cci
εbf
ν0 = spon
h i , (3.107)
Cci + Rci + Rciind
LTE
Edge averages
R∞ R∞ R∞
σ ν0 Sν σic (ν) dν σ ν0 Jν σic (ν) dν σ ν0 Bν σic (ν) dν
S ν0 ≡ R∞ J ν0 ≡ R∞ B ν0 ≡ R∞ (3.108)
ν0 σic (ν) dν ν0 σic (ν) dν ν0 σic (ν) dν
One-level-plus-continuum atoms
σ σ σ
S ν0 = (1 − εbf
ν0 ) J ν0 + εν0 B ν0 .
bf
(3.109)
Chapter 4

41
 Transport Equation

General
dIν ∂Iν dt ∂Iν 1 ∂Iν ∂Iν
= + = + = jν − αν Iν (4.1)
ds ∂t ds ∂s c ∂t ∂s

∂Iν ∂Iν dx ∂Iν dy ∂Iν dz

= + + . (4.2)
∂s ∂x ds ∂y ds ∂z ds
Spherical geometry

∂Iν ∂Iν sin θ ∂Iν ∂Iν 1 − µ2 ∂Iν

= cos θ − =µ + = jν − αν Iν (4.3)
∂s ∂r r ∂θ ∂r r ∂µ

µ ∂Iν 1 − µ2 ∂Iν
+ = Sν − I ν . (4.4)
κν ρ ∂r κν ρr ∂µ
Plane parallel layers
dIν
µ = I ν − Sν . (4.5)
dτν
Moment versions

1 Z +1 dIν 1 Z +1 1 Z +1
µ dµ = Iν dµ − Sν dµ
2 −1 dτν 2 −1 2 −1
dHν (τν )
= Jν (τν ) − Sν (τν ) (4.6)
dτν

dHν (z)
− = κν ρ Jν (z) − κν ρSν (z) (4.7)
dz

1 Z +1 2 dIν 1 Z +1 1 Z +1
µ dµ = µ Iν dµ − µ Sν dµ
2 −1 dτν 2 −1 2 −1
dKν (τν )
= Hν (τν ) (4.8)
dτν

d2 Kν (τν )
= Jν (τν ) − Sν (τν ). (4.9)
dτν2
 Moments with En (x)

Formal solution
Z ∞
Iν+ (τν , µ) = + Sν (tν ) e−(tν −τν )/µ dtν /µ (4.10)
τ
Z ντ
ν
Iν− (τν , µ) = + Sν (tν ) e−(tν −τν )/µ dtν /|µ|, (4.11)
0
Exponential integrals
Z ∞ e−xw Z 1
−x/µ n−1 dµ
En (x) ≡ dw = e µ (4.12)
1 wn 0 µ
Asymptotic value
 
e−x  n n(n + 1)
En(x) = 1− + + ···  (4.13)
x x x2
Schwarzschild equation
1 Z +1
Jν (τν ) ≡ Iν (τν , µ) dµ
2 −1
1Z∞ 1 Z τν
= Sν (tν ) E1(tν −τν ) dtν + Sν (tν ) E1(τν −tν ) dtν
2 τν 2 0
1Z∞
= Sν (tν ) E1(|tν −τν |) dtν , (4.14)
2 0
Milne equation

Fν (τν ) = Fν+(τν ) − Fν−(τν )

Z 1 Z −1
= 2π µIν (τν ) dµ − 2π µIν (τν ) dµ
Z0∞ 0 Z τ
ν
= 2π Sν (tν ) E2(tν −τν ) dtν − 2π Sν (tν ) E2(τν −tν ) dtν , (4.15)
τν 0
K integral
1Z∞
Kν (τν ) = Sν (tν ) E3(|tν −τν |) dtν . (4.16)
2 0

Emergent intensity and flux

Z ∞
Iν+ (0, µ) = Sν (τν ) e−τν /µ dτν /µ (4.17)
0 Z
∞
Fν+ (0) = 2π Sν (τν ) E2(τν ) dτν . (4.18)
0
 Operators

Laplace operator
Z ∞
L1/µ {Sν (τν )} ≡ Sν (τν ) e−τν /µ dτν /µ = Iν+ (0, µ). (4.19)
0

Lambda operator
1Z∞
Λτ [f (t)] ≡ f (t) E1(|t − τ |) dt. (4.20)
2 0
Properties

1
Λτ [1] = 1 − E2(τ )
2
1
Λτ [t] = τ + E3 (τ )
2
2
Λτ [t2] = + τ 2 − E4 (τ )
3  
1 X p τk
p p+1
Λτ [t ] = p! δα + (−1) Ep+2(τ )
2 k=0 k!
Schwarzschild equation

1Z∞
Jν (τν ) = Sν (tν ) E1(|tν −τν |) dtν = Λτν [Sν (tν )]. (4.21)
2 0
Phi operator
Z ∞ Z τ
ν
Φτν [Sν (tν )] ≡ 2 Sν (tν ) E2(tν −τν ) dtν − 2 Sν (tν ) E2(τν −tν ) dtν (4.22)
τν 0
= Fν (τν )

Chi operator
Z ∞
χτν [Sν (tν )] ≡ 2 Sν (tν ) E3(|tν −τν |) dtν (4.23)
0
= 4 Kν (τν ),

d
Φτ [f (t)] = χ [f (t)]. (4.24)
dτ τ
 Generalized Lambda Operators

Hubený notation

Iν (τν , µ) = Λµν [Sν (tν )] (4.25)

Jν (τν ) = Λν [Sν (tν )], (4.26)

Angle-averaged Λν
1 Z +1
Λν = Λµν dµ. (4.27)
2 −1

Slow Λµν implementation

Z ∞
Λ+µν [Sν ] = Iν+ (τν , µ) = Sν (tν ) e−(tν −τν )/µ dtν /µ (4.28)
τν
Z ∞
= eτνµ Sν e−tνµ dtνµ (4.29)
τνµ

Z τ
ν
Λ−µν [Sν ] = Iν− (τν , −|µ|) = Sν (tν ) e−(τν −tν )/|µ| dtν /|µ| (4.30)
0 Z
−τνµ τνµ
= e Sν etνµ dtνµ , (4.31)
0
 Surface Approximations

Polynomial expansion
∞
X
Sν (τν ) = an τν n
n=0
Eddington-Barbier approximations

Iν+ (0, µ) ≈ a0 + a1 µ
≈ Sν (τν = µ), (4.32)
2a2 a0 a1 a2
Jν (0) ≈ a0 + − + −
3 2 4 3
a0 a1 a2
≈ + +
2 4 3
1
≈ Sν (τν = 1/2), (4.33)
2
2
Fν (0) = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · ·
3
2
≈ Sν (τν = ), (4.34)
3

Second Eddington approximation

Z +1
Fν (0) ≡ 2 Iν (0, µ)µ dµ
−1
Z 1
= 2 Iν (0, µ)µ dµ
0
Z 1
≈ 2< Iν+(0, µ) > µ dµ
0
≈ 2 Jν (0), (4.35)

Error for linear S

Fν (0) a0 /2 + a1 /3
= 6= 1. (4.36)
2 Jν (0) a0 /2 + a1 /4
 Taylor Expansions

 
(tν − τν )n  dn Sν (tν ) 
∞
X
Sν (τν ) = (4.37)
n=0 n! dtnν τν
τν > 1
   
2  d Sν (tν ) 
2
dSν (tν ) 
Iν (τν , µ) = Sν (τν ) + µ  +µ 2
+ ··· (4.38)
dtν τν
dtν τν
   
1X ∞ dn S (t ) Z +1 X∞ 1  d(2k) Sν (tν ) 
ν ν  n
Jν (τν ) =  µ dµ =
2 n=0 dtnν τν
−1
k=0 2k + 1 dtν
(2k)
τν

 
1 d2 Sν (tν ) 
Jν (τν ) = Sν (τν ) +  + ··· (4.39)
3 dt2ν τν
   
4  dSν (tν )  4  d3Sν (tν ) 
Fν (τν ) = + + ··· (4.40)
3 dtν τν
5 dt3ν τν
 
1 1  d2Sν (tν ) 
Kν (τν ) = Sν (τν ) + + ··· (4.41)
3 5 dt2ν τν
Convergence
 
 n 
 d Sν  Sν



 ∼
 dtn 
ν tnν
 
 n+2 
d Sν /dtn+2
ν  Sν /tn+2
ν 1
∼ ∼ ,
|dn Sν /dtnν | Sν /tnν t2ν
τν  1
 
dSν (tν ) 
Iν (τν , µ) ≈ Sν (τν ) + µ  (4.42)
dtν τν
Jν (τν ) ≈ Sν (τν ) (4.43)
 
4  dSν (tν ) 
Fν (τν ) ≈ (4.44)
3 dtν τν
1
Kν (τν ) ≈ Sν (τν ). (4.45)
3
Relative anisotropy
dSν /dτν Sν /τν 1
∼ ∼ .
Sν Sν τν
 Diffusion Approximation

Linear anisotropy and LTE

 
dBν (tν ) 
Iν (τν , µ) ≈ Bν (τν ) + µ  (4.46)
dtν τν
Jν (z) ≈ Bν (z) (4.47)
Z +1 4π dBν (z)
Fν (z) ≈ 2π µ Iν dµ ≈ . (4.48)
−1 3 dτν
Rosseland mean opacity
R∞
1 0 (1/αν )(dBν /dT ) dν
≡ R∞ (4.49)
αR 0 (dBν /dT ) dν
R∞
1 0 (1/κν )(dBν /dT ) dν
≡ R∞ (4.50)
κR 0 (dBν /dT ) dν

Diffusion/conduction/Rosseland approximation
Z ∞
F (z) ≡ Fν (z) dν
0
4π Z ∞ 1 dBν
≈ − dν
3 0 αν dz
4π Z ∞ 1 dBν dT
≈ − dν (4.51)
3 0 αν dT dz
16 σT 3 dT
≈ − (4.52)
3 αR dz
1 c du
≈ − (4.53)
3 κR ρ dz
Shu (1991):

A “random walk” slows down the free-flight speed c by a typical factor of

l/R, so that the time R
2
/D (with the radiative diffusivity D = c/3ρκR )
is roughly 3R/l times longer than the free-flight time R /c of about 2 s.
This process prevents the Sun from releasing its considerable internal
reservoir of photons in one powerful blast, but instead regulates it to
the stately observed luminosity of L = 3.86 × 1033 erg s−1. In any
case, apart from being useful for rough order-of-magnitude arguments,
this accurate equation constitutes one of the fundamental equations
underlying the whole theory of stellar structure and evolution.
 (First) Eddington Approximation

Flux and mean intensity

1
Kν (τν ) ≈ Jν (τν ). (4.54)
3
Derivation

1 Z +1
Kν (τν ) ≡ Iν (τν , µ)µ2 dµ
2 −1
Z +1
1
≈ < Iν (τν , µ) > µ2 dµ
2 −1
1
≈ Jν (τν )
3
Linear anisotropy
Iν (τν , µ) ≡ a0 (τν ) + a1 (τν ) µ (4.55)

1 Z +1
Jν (τν ) ≡ Iν (τν , µ) dµ = a0 (τν ), (4.56)
2 −1
1 Z +1
Hν (τν ) ≡ µIν (τν , µ) dµ = a1 (τν )/3, (4.57)
2 −1
1 Z +1 2
Kν (τν ) ≡ µ Iν (τν , µ) dµ = a0 (τν )/3. (4.58)
2 −1

Second-order transport equation

1 d2Jν (τν )
= Jν (τν ) − Sν (τν ). (4.59)
3 dτν2
Coherent scattering
Sν = (1 − εν )Jν + εν Bν , (4.60)

1 d2 Jν (τν )
= εν [Jν (τν ) − Bν (τν )] . (4.61)
3 dτν2
 Illustration: Scattering Atmosphere

Linear Bν
Bν (τν ) ≡ Bν,0 + bν τν (4.62)
Eddington approximation

1 d2
(Jν − Bν ) = εν (Jν − Bν ). (4.63)
3 dτν2
Solution for constant εν
√ √
− 3εν τν + 3εν τν
J ν − Bν = C 1 e + C2 e . (4.64)

Boundary conditions

Jν (0) = Bν,0 + C1
" # " #
dKν dJν √
= aν Hν (0) = aν = (aν /3) = −(aν /3) 3εν C1 + aν bν /3
dτν τν =0 dτν τν =0

Bν,0 − aν bν /3
C1 = − √ .
1 + (aν /3) 3εν
Results
√
Jν (τν ) = Bν (τν ) + C1 e− 3εν τν

Bν,0 − aν bν /3 −√3εν τν
= Bν,0 + bν τν − √ e (4.65)
1 + (aν /3) 3εν
√
Sν (τν ) = Bν (τν ) + (1 − εν )C1 e− 3εν τν

Bν,0 − aν bν /3 −√3εν τν
= Bν,0 + bν τν − (1 − εν ) √ e (4.66)
1 + (aν /3) 3εν
√ Bν,0 − aν bν /3 −√3εν τν
Hν (τν ) = bν /3 + εν √ √ e (4.67)
3 + aν εν
(1 − εν )(Bν,0 − aν bν /3)
Iν+ (0, µ) = Bν,0 + bν µ − √ √ , (4.68)
(1 + (aν /3) 3εν )(1 + µ 3εν )
 Isothermal Atmosphere

 
1 √
− 3εν τν 
Jν (τν ) = Bν,0 1 −
 √ e (4.69)
1 + (aν /3) 3εν
 
1 − ε ν −
√
τ
Sν (τν ) = Bν,0 1 − √ e 3ε ν ν
(4.70)
1 + (aν /3) 3εν
 
1 − ε ν
Iν+ (0, µ) = Bν,0 1 − √ √  (4.71)
(1 + (aν /3) 3εν )(1 + µ 3εν )
ε=1
 √ 
− 3 τν  √ 
 e  − τ
Jν (τν ) = 1 − √  Bν,0 = 1 − (1/2) e 3 ν
Bν,0 (4.72)
1 + (aν /3) 3
Sν (τν ) = Bν,0 (4.73)
√ √
− 3 τν − 3 τν
e e
Hν (τν ) = √ Bν,0 = √ Bν,0 (4.74)
3 + aν 2 3
Iν (0, µ) = Bν,0
+
(4.75)
2π
Fν (0) = √ Bν,0. (4.76)
3
√
aν = 3
 
1 ∗
Jν (τν ) = 1 − √ e−τν  Bν,0 (4.77)
1 + εν
h √ ∗i
Sν (τν ) = 1 − (1 − εν ) e−τν Bν,0 (4.78)
√
1 εν ∗
Hν (τν ) = √ √ e−τν Bν,0. (4.79)
3 1 + εν
Surface values
√
εν
Jν (0) = √ Bν,0 (4.80)
1 + εν
√
Sν (0) = εν Bν,0 (4.81)
√
1 + µ 3 √
Iν+(0, µ) = √ εν Bν,0 (4.82)
1 + µ 3εν
√
4π εν
Fν (0) = √
+
√ Bν,0 . (4.83)
3 1 + εν
εν  1
√ √ √
Iν+(0, 1) ≈ (1 + 3) εν Bν,0 = 2.7 εν Bν,0  Bν,0 (4.84)
4π √ √
Fν+(0) ≈ √ εν Bν,0 = 7.3 εν Bν,0  Bν,0 . (4.85)
3

Thermalization depth
√
Λν = 1/ εν (4.86)

Jν − Bν split
Jν (τν ) − Bν (τν ) aν bν /3B0,ν − 1 −√3εν τν
= √ e , (4.87)
B0,ν 1 + (aν /3) 3εν
εν  1
∗
Jν (τν ) − Bν (τν ) ≈ [aν bν /3 − Bν,0 ] e−τν (4.88)

RE gradient
Bν (τνc) ≈ Bν,0 (1 + 1.5 τνc) (4.89)
RE gradient as seen by line
!
1.5 tot
Bν (τνtot ) ≈ Bν,0 1+ τ . (4.90)
1 + ην ν
 Coherent Scattering with Thermal Background

Continuum destruction probability

ανc
δν ≡ . (4.91)
ανl + ανc
Extinction ratio
ανl
ην ≡ (4.92)
ανc
Combined destruction probability

ανc + εν ανl 1 + εν ην
λν = δν + (1 − δν ) εν = εν + (1 − εν ) δν = c = , (4.93)
αν + ανl 1 + ην
Total source function

Sνc + ην Sνl Bν + ην [(1 − εν )Jν + εν Bν ]

Sνtot = =
1 + ην 1 + ην
= (1 − λν )Jν + λν Bν (4.94)
= (1 − λν )Jν + (λν − εν )Bν + εν Bν . (4.95)
Thermalization depth for coherent scattering
v
u
1 u 1 + ην
Λν = √ =t , (4.96)
λν 1 + εν ην
Corresponding continuum optical depth

1 1
τνc (Λν ) = Λν = , (4.97)
1 + ην [(1 + ην )(1 + εν ην )]1/2
ε≈1
τνc (Λν ) ≈ 1/ην ≈ τνc [τνtot = 1] (4.98)
εν  1/ην
√ √
τνc (Λν ) ≈ 1/ ην ≈ τνc [τνtot = ην ]. (4.99)
Thomson and Rayleigh scattering
P P
ανbf + ανff
εν ≡ T P P , (4.100)
αν + ανR + ανbf + ανff
 Complete Redistribution

Continuum destruction probability

Z ∞ Z ∞ ϕ(ν −ν0) 1 Z ∞ ην0 ϕ(ν −ν0)
δν0 ≡ δν ϕ(ν −ν0) dν = dν = dν,
0 0 1 + ην0 ϕ(ν −ν0) ην0 0 1 + ην0 ϕ(ν −ν0)
(4.101)
Total destruction probability
Z ∞
λν0 ≡ λν ϕ(ν −ν0) dν = εν0 + (1 − εν0 ) δν0 (4.102)
0

Total source function

Sνtot
0
= (1 − λν0 )J ν0 + λν0 Bν0 . (4.103)
Second-order transport equation

1 d2Jν (τν )
= Jν (τν ) − (1 − λν0 )J ν0 − λν0 Bν0 , (4.104)
3 dτν2

Thermalization depths

Λν0 = 1/ε1/2
ν0 delta function (4.105)
Λν0 ≈ 1/εν0 Gauss profile (4.106)
Λν0 ≈ 1/ε2ν0 Lorentz profile. (4.107)

With background continuum

Λν0 = 1/λ1/2
ν0 delta function (4.108)
Λν0 ≈ 1/λν0 Gauss profile (4.109)
Λν0 ≈ 1/λ2ν0 Lorentz profile, (4.110)
Chapter 5

55
 Numerical Solutions

Angle discretization
1 Z +1
J ≡ I dµ
2 −1
1 Z +1 + 1Z0 −
= I dµ + I dµ
2 0 2 −1
1 Z +1 + 1 Z +1 −
= I dµ + I d(−µ) (5.1)
2 0 2 0
1X m 1X m
≈ aj Ij+ + aj Ij− , (5.2)
2 j=1 2 j=1
Optical depth discretization

Z ∞ Z τ
0
Z log τ
0 d log tc
τνc = ανc dz = c
dt = (5.3)
z0 0 −∞ log e
Z ∞ Z τ
0
Z log τ
0 d log tc
τνtotal = (ανc + ανl ) dz = (1 + ην ) dtc = (1 + ην ) , (5.4)
z0 0 −∞ log e

General transport equation

dI
µ = I − S. (5.5)
dτ
Two-level coherent scattering

dI (1 − ε) Z +1
µ = I − εB − I dµ. (5.6)
dτ 2 −1

Discrete transport equation

 
dIµ+ (1 − ε)  X
m m
X
µ = Iµ+ − εB − aj Ij+ + aj Ij−  (5.7)
dτ 2 j=1 j=1
 
dIµ− (1 − ε)  X
m m
X
(−µ) = Iµ− − εB − aj Ij+ + aj Ij−  . (5.8)
dτ 2 j=1 j=1
 Feautrier Method

Antisymmetric averages
1 1h + i
Pν (τν , µ) ≡ [Iν (τν , µ) + Iν (τν , −µ)] = Ij + Ij− (5.9)
2 2
1 1h + i
Rν (τν , µ) ≡ [Iν (τν , µ) − Iν (τν , −µ)] = Ij − Ij− , (5.10)
2 2
Mean intensity
Z +1
Jν (τi) = Pν (τi, µ) dµ (5.11)
0
m
X
≈ aj P (τi , µj ) (5.12)
j=1

Split transport equations

dI +
µ = I + − S+ (5.13)
dτ
dI −
−µ = I − − S −. (5.14)
dτ
Add and subtract; assume S + = S −

dR
µ = P −S (5.15)
dτ
dP
µ = R. (5.16)
dτ
Feautrier transport equation

d2 P (τ, µ)
µ 2
= P (τ, µ) − S(τ ), (5.17)
dτ 2
 Numerical Feautrier solution

Outer boundary  
dP (τ, µ) 
µ = P (τ1, µ), (5.18)
dτ τ1
Inner boundary
 
dP (τ, µ) 
µ = R(τn, µ)
dτ τn
1
= [I(τn, µ) − I(τn , −µ)]
2
1
= I(τn, µ) − [I(τn , µ) + I(τn , −µ)]
2
= I(τn, µ) − P (τn , µ)
" #
dB
= B(τn) + µ − P (τn , µ) (5.19)
dτ τn
Differences
[∆τ ]i+1/2 ≈ τi+1 − τi ≡ ∆τi (5.20)
[∆τ ]i−1/2 ≈ τi − τi−1 ≡ ∆τi−1 (5.21)
Tridiagonal system
 
d2 P
µ2  2  − Pi = Ai Pi−1 − Bi Pi + CiPi+1 = −Si (5.22)
dτ i
2µ2
Ai = (5.23)
∆τi−1 (∆τi−1 + ∆τi)
2µ2
Bi = 1 + (5.24)
∆τi ∆τi−1
2µ2
Ci = . (5.25)
∆τi (∆τi−1 + ∆τi)
Matrix notation
TP = S (5.26)
Coherent scattering

d2P (τ, µ)
µ2 = P (τ, µ) − ε(τ )B(τ ) − (1 − ε(τ )) J(τ ) (5.27)
dτ 2
m
X
= P (τ, µ) − ε(τ )B(τ ) − (1 − ε(τ )) aj Pj (τ, µj ), (5.28)
j=1
 Lambda Iteration

Lambda operator
Jν (τν ) = Λν [Sν (t)] (5.29)

Two-level source function

Sνl (τν ) = (1 − εν (τν )) Λν [Sνl (tν )] + εν (τν )Bν (τν ). (5.30)
Dropping indices
S = (1 − ε) Λν [S] + εB (5.31)
Direct solution
S = (1 − (1 − ε) Λ)−1 [εB], (5.32)
Lambda iteration
S (n+1) = (1 − ε) Λ[S (n) ] + εB, (5.33)

General Lambda iteration

(n) (n)
Jij = Λν [Sij ] (5.34)

n(n) = f1(J (n) ) (5.35)

(n+1)
Sij = f2(n(n) ). (5.36)

Convergence
S (n+1) − S (n) = (1 − ε) Λν [S (n) ] + εB − S (n) (5.37)
Large τ , small ε

S (n+1) − S (n) ≈ Λν [S (n) ] − S (n) ≈ S (n) − S (n) ≈ 0. (5.38)

 Approximate Lambda Iteration

Operator splitting
Λν = Λ∗ + (Λν − Λ∗ ) (5.39)
Exact operation
Jν = Λ∗ν [S] + (Λν − Λ∗ν )[S] (5.40)
Iteration scheme

S (n+1) = (1 − ε) Λ∗ [S (n+1)] + (1 − ε)(Λν − Λ∗)[S (n)] + εB (5.41)

S (n+1) − (1 − ε) Λ∗[S (n+1)] = (1 − ε) Λν [S (n )] + εB − (1 − ε) Λ∗ [S (n )]

= S FS − (1 − ε) Λ∗ [S (n )], (5.42)
Inversion
h i
S (n+1) = (1 − (1 − ε) Λ∗)−1 S FS − (1 − ε) Λ∗ [S (n )] . (5.43)

Convergence Λν
S (n+1) − S (n) = S FS − S (n) , (5.44)

Convergence Λ∗ν
S (n+1) − (1 − ε) Λ∗[S (n+1)] + (1 − ε) Λ∗[S (n )] − S (n) = S FS − S (n)
(1 − (1 − ε) Λ∗) [S (n+1)] − (1 − (1 − ε) Λ∗ ) [S (n) ] = S FS − S (n)

S (n+1) − S (n) = (1 − (1 − ε) Λ∗ )−1 [S FS − S (n) ]. (5.45)

(1 − (1 − ε) Λ∗ )−1 ≈ 1/ε, (5.46)

 Core Saturation Operator

τν  1
Iν (z) ≈ Sνtot (z). (5.47)

Iν (z) = Sν (z) for τν (z) > γ (5.48)

Line core operator

Λ∗ν [S(τν )] = S(τν ) or Λ∗ν = 1 for τν ≥ γ (5.49)

Thin approximation
1
Jν ≈ Sν (τν = γ) (5.50)
2
Line wing operator

1 1Z
Λ∗ν [S(τν )] = S(τν = γ) or Λ∗ν = δ(τν −γ) dτν for τν < γ. (5.51)
2 2
 Scharmer Operator

Seek intensity operator

 
±
Iν (τνµ , µ) ≡ Iνµ = Λ∗νµ [Sν (τνµ)] ≈ Wνµ
± ±
(τνµ ) Sν fνµ (τνµ ) , (5.52)
Optical depth along beam
dτνc
dτνµ = (1 + ην ) (5.53)
|µ|
Transport equation
dIνµ
= Iνµ − Sν (5.54)
dτνµ
Formal solution
Z ∞
τνµ
Iνµ
+
= e Sν e−tνµ dtνµ (5.55)
τνµ

Z τ
− −τνµ νµ
Iνµ = e Sν etνµ dtνµ , (5.56)
0
Linear source function
Sν = a + b τνµ (5.57)
µ>0
Iνµ
+
= a + b + b τνµ (5.58)
µ<0
−
Iνµ = a − b + b τνµ − (a − b) e−τνµ . (5.59)
µ>0

Wνµ
+
= 1
fνµ
+
= τνµ + 1 (5.60)
Local Eddington-Barbier

Iνµ
+
(τνµ) = 1 · Sν (τνµ +1) = a + b (τνµ + 1) (5.61)
µ<0
−
Wνµ = 1 − e−τνµ
− τνµ
fνµ = −1 (5.62)
1 − e−τνµ
 Newton-Raphson Iteration

f(x) f(x)

c c x x x2 x3 x5 x
x1 x 3 x2 x 4 1

Taylor expansion
∞
X1 (n)
f (x) = f (x0) (x − x0 )n
n=0 n!
" #
∂f h i
= f (x0) + (x − x0 ) + O (x − x0)2 (5.63)
∂x x0
Linearization
" #
∂f
f (x0 +∆x) − f (x0) ≈ ∆x. (5.64)
∂x x0

" #
∂f
c − f (x ) ≈
(1)
∆x(1) (5.65)
∂x x(1)

(1) c − f (x(1))
∆x = (5.66)
[∂f /∂x]x(1)
 Complete Linearization

Rate equations
N N
(n) X (n) X (n) (n) (n)
ni Pij − nj Pji = Ei (5.67)
j6=i j6=i

Rates per particle

Pij = Rij + Cij . (5.68)
Perturbations

(n+1) (n) (n)

ni = ni + δni (5.69)
(n+1) (n) (n)
Pij = Pij + δPij (5.70)

N N
(n+1) X (n+1) X (n+1) (n+1)
ni Pij − nj Pji = 0. (5.71)
j6=i j6=i

N N N N
(n) X (n) (n) X (n) X (n) (n) X (n) (n) (n)
δni Pij + ni δPij − δnj Pji − nj δPji = −Ei . (5.72)
j6=i j6=i j6=i j6=i

(n) (n)
δPij = Bij δJ ij (5.73)
Bij Z +1 Z ∞
= ϕ(ν −ν0) δIν(n) (µ) dν dµ. (5.74)
2 −1 0

Feautrier solution
d2 fν Jν (τν )
= Jν (τν ) − Sν (τν ), (5.75)
dτν2

X ∂ni
δni = δJk , (5.76)
k ∂Jk
Approximate operator solution

δIν(n) (µ) = Λ∗νµ [δSν(n) ] (5.77)

Preconditioning
Λ†νµ ≡ Λ∗νµ − 1 (5.78)
Chapter 6

65
 Stokes Parameters

Electromagnetic wave

Ex = Ax cos(ωt − φx )
Ey = Ay cos(ωt − φy ), (6.1)

Complete polarization

Iν ≡ A2x + A2y
Qν ≡ A2x − A2y
Uν ≡ 2AxAy cos(φx − φy )
Vν ≡ 2AxAy sin(φx − φy ), (6.2)

Mixed radiation

Iν = Iνunpol + < A2x + A2y >

Qν = < A2x − A2y >
Uν = < 2AxAy cos(φx − φy ) >
Vν = < 2AxAy sin(φx − φy ) >, (6.3)

Complete polarization

Iν = A2x + A2y ≡ A2
Qν = A2 cos 2β cos 2χ
Uν = A2 cos 2β sin 2χ
Vν = A2 sin 2β. (6.4)

Original definition

Iν ≡ total intensity
Qν ≡ I0linear − I90
linear

Uν ≡ I+45
linear
− I−45
linear

Vν ≡ Iright
circular
− Ileft
circular
. (6.5)
Chapter 7

67
 Classical Stellar Atmospheres

Assumptions
– the atmosphere is spherically symmetric (excluding close binaries, rapid rota-
tors, magnetic fields, spotted surfaces);
– the element mixture is homogeneous with depth;
– the atmosphere is in hydrostatic equilibrium (no large-scale motions);
– the atmosphere is time-independent (statistical equilibrium);
– the mass of the atmosphere is small compared with the total stellar mass;
– there are no sources or sinks of energy;
– energy transport takes place by radiation and convection (no heat conduction,
acoustic waves, MHD waves);
– the free electrons as well as the free heavier particles obey the Maxwell distri-
bution with local kinetic temperature Te.

Parameters
– the stellar luminosity

– the stellar radius

– the element mixture

– the microturbulence

Two of L, M, R replaceable by
– the effective temperature Teff = (L/4πσR2)1/4;
– the surface gravity gs = GM/R2 .
 Gas and Electron Pressure

Ideal gas
Pg V = nmole RT (7.1)
Gas constant
R = kNA = k/mH (7.2)
Other versions

nmole NA R ρkT ρRT

Pg = T = Ng kT = = . (7.3)
V NA µ mH µ
Electron pressure
Pe = Ne kT. (7.4)
 Ionization Balance

Hydrogen plus single metal

Ng = NH + AM NH + fH NH + fM AM NH (7.5)
Electron density
Ne = fH NH + fM AM NH . (7.6)
Ratio
Ne fH + fM AM
= (7.7)
Ng 1 + fH + (1 + fM )AM
High/intermediate/low temperature

Ne 1
fH ≈ 1 → ≈ (7.8)
Ng 2
Ne
AM  fH  1 → ≈ fH (7.9)
Ng
Ne
fH ≈ 0 → ≈ fM AM . (7.10)
Ng

Ionization fractions
1 NI NII NIII
= + + (7.11)
fII NII NII NII
1 NI NII NII NIII
= + + . (7.12)
fIII NII NIII NIII NIII
Electrons per nucleus
P P
Ne z Nz fII (z) + 2 z Nz fIII (z)
E= = P , (7.13)
Nnuclei z Nz
Pressure ratio

Pg (Nions + Natoms + Ne ) kT (Nnuclei + Ne) kT E+1

= = = (7.14)
Pe Ne kT NekT E

E
Pe = Pg . (7.15)
E+1
 Hydrostatic Equilibrium

Pressure gradient against gravity

dP
= −gρ (7.16)
dz
Standard optical depth scale
dP g
= . (7.17)
dτ0 κ0
Radiation pressure

dp 4π Z ∞ dKν 4π Z ∞ dKν dτν 1 Z ∞ κν

= dν = dν = Fν dν (7.18)
dτ0 c 0 dτ0 c 0 dτν dτ0 c 0 κ0
Iterative integration
dPg g
Pg1/2 = Pg1/2 (7.19)
dτ0 κ0
Formal solution
 2/3
3g Z τ
0 Pg1/2 (t0)
Pg (τ0) =  dt0  . (7.20)
2 0 κ0 (t0 )
Isothermal atmosphere with constant µ

dPg µg Pg
=− Pg = − , (7.21)
dz RT HP

Pg (z) = Pg (0) e−z/HP . (7.22)

Plane-parallel layers

HP RT RT R∗ Teff (R∗/R)
= = = 4.4 × 10−8 1 (7.23)
R∗ µgR∗ µGM∗ µ (M∗ /M )
 Limb darkening

Three-parameter fit
!
Iν (0, µ) 1
= aν + bν µ + cν 1 − µ ln(1 + ) (7.24)
Iν (0, 1) µ

Sν (τν ) = aν + bν τν + cν E2(τν ) (7.25)

Optical depth scales

dτν κν ρ dz κν Z τ κν
0
= = τν (τ0) = dtν (7.26)
dτ0 κ0 ρ dz κ0 0 κ0
 Radiative Equilibrium

Flux constancy

∇ · Ftot (r) = ∇ · [Frad(r) + Fconv (r) + Fcond(r) + Fmech (r)] ≡ 0, (7.27)

Plane-parallel
dFtot
= 0. (7.28)
dz
RE
Z ∞
Frad(z) ≡ Fν (z) dν = F (7.29)
0
Surface flux
L∗
F ≡ σTeff
4
= . (7.30)
4πR∗2
Alternative
dFrad(z)
=0 (7.31)
dz
Z ∞ Z ∞
κν (z)ρ(z) Jν (z) dν = κν (z)ρ(z) Sν (z) dν (7.32)
0 0
Flux divergence

dFrad(z) Z ∞
Φtot (z) ≡ = 4π αν (z) [Sν (z) − Jν (z)] dν = 0, (7.33)
dz 0

Hubený notation

dFrad(z) 1 Z ∞Z +1
Φtot(z) ≡ = [jνµ (z) − ανµ (z) Iνµ (z)] dν dµ = 0. (7.34)
dz 2 0 −1
 Net cooling rate per transition

Per line

Φul = 4πανl 0 (Sνl 0 − J ν0 )

= 4πjνl 0 − 4πανl 0 J ν0
h i
= hν0 nu (Aul + Bul J ν0 ) − nl BluJ ν0
= hν0 [nu Rul − nl Rlu] , (7.35)

Wien limit
!
h
i bl
Φul = hν0 [nu Rul − nl Rlu ] ≈ 4π bu ανl 0 LTE Bν0 − J ν0 . (7.36)
bu

Per bound-free continuum

Z ∞ " !#

−hν/kT
 bi bc
Φci = 4π ni bc
LTE
σic(ν) Bν 1 − e − Jν 1 − e−hν/kT dν. (7.37)
ν0 bc bi

Wien limit Z ∞ !
bi
Φci = 4π nLTE
i b c σic(ν) Bν − J ν dν. (7.38)
ν0 bc
 Grey RE Atmosphere

Transport equation
Z ∞ dIν (τν , µ) Z ∞
µ dν = [Iν (τν , µ) − Sν (τν )] dν
0 dτν 0
dI(τ, µ)
µ = I(τ, µ) − S(τ ). (7.39)
dτ
RE condition
S(τ ) = J(τ ) (7.40)
Lambda operator
J(τ ) = Λτ [S(t)] (7.41)
Phi operator
F (τ ) = Φτ [S(t)] = F. (7.42)
Constant flux
3
S(τ ) ≈ c (1 + τ ). (7.43)
2
Formally
d dK(τ )
F = Φτ [S(t)] = χτ [S(τ )] = 4 , (7.44)
dτ dτ
Classical version
3
S(τ ) = (τ + q(τ )) F (7.45)
4
Hopf function
τ + q(τ ) = Λτ [τ + q(τ )]. (7.46)
Milne-Eddington approximation

3 2 3 1 1 3
S(τ ) ≈ (τ + ) F = ( τ + ) F = (1 + τ ) F (7.47)
4 3 4 2 2 2
Grey RE temperature
!1/4
3 1
T (τ ) ≈ Teff τ+ (7.48)
4 2
Monochromatic source function

Sν (τ ) = Bν [T (τ )] (7.49)
 Grey RE scattering

Thomson scattering
Sν = (1 − εν )Jν + εν Bν (7.50)
RE condition
Z ∞ Z ∞
κν ρ Jν dν = κν ρ Sν dν
0 0
κ ρ J = κ ρ [(1 − ε)J + εB]
εJ = εB
J = B = S, (7.51)

Grey RE limb darkening

I(0, µ) 3 2
= (µ + ). (7.52)
I(0, 1) 5 3

Schwarzschild (1906)

Limb darkening I(0, µ)/I(0, 1)

r/R µ Observed Radiative equilibrium Convective equilibrium
0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.20 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.97
0.40 0.92 0.97 0.95 0.95 0.92 0.87
0.60 0.80 0.92 0.87 0.88 0.80 0.70
0.80 0.60 0.81 0.73 0.76 0.60 0.44
0.90 0.44 0.70 0.63 0.66 0.44 0.27
0.98 0.20 0.49 0.47 0.52 0.20 0.08
1.00 0.00 ≈ 0.40 0.33 0.40 0.00 0.00
 Grey Extinction and Mean extinction

Monochromatic transport equation

dKν (z) dKν (z)
4 =4 = Fν (z) (7.53)
dτν −κν (z)ρ(z) dz
Mean extinction
Z ∞ dKν (z) 1 Z ∞ dKν (z)
4 dν ≡ 4 dν. (7.54)
0 −κν (z)ρ(z) dz κ(z) 0 −ρ(z) dz

Z ∞ dKν (z) Z ∞
4 dν = Fν (z) dν = F (z) (7.55)
0 −κν (z)ρ(z) dz 0

Flux weighted mean

R∞ Z ∞
0 κν (z) Fν (z) dν Fν (z)
κ(z) ≡ R∞ = κν (z) dν. (7.56)
0 Fν (z) dν F (z)
0

1 Z ∞ dKν (z) 1 dK(z)

4 dν = 4 , (7.57)
κ(z) 0 −ρ(z) dz κ(z) −ρ(z) dz
∞ R Z ∞
1 0 [1/κν (z)] (dKν (z)/dz) dν 1 dKν (z)/dz
≡ R∞ = dν. (7.58)
κ(z) 0 (dKν (z)/dz) dν
0 κν (z) dK(z)/dz

Eddington approximation plus LTE

1 1
K ν ≈ J ν ≈ Bν (7.59)
3 3
Rosseland extinction
1 Z ∞ 1 dBν /dT 1
≈ dν ≡ . (7.60)
κ 0 κν dB/dT κR
Stellar interior
" #1/4
3 3
T (τR) = Teff τR + q(τR ) (7.61)
4 4
Rosseland optical depth
dτR = −κR ρ dz. (7.62)
Radiation
σ 4 3
J(τR) = S(τR ) = B(τR) = T (τR) = [τR + q(τR )] F, (7.63)
π 4
 Line Blanketing

Backwarming
R∞ 0
0 Fν dν F0 0 4
(σ/π) Teff
R∞ = = =1−f (7.64)
0 Fν dν F (σ/π) Teff 4

Teff = (1 − f )−1/4 Teff

0 0
≈ (1 + f /4) Teff . (7.65)
Cooling rate per line
h i
Φul (z) = 4π ανl 0 (z) Sνl 0 (z) − J ν0 (z) ; (7.66)

LTE RE condition
Z ∞ Z ∞
κν (0) Jν (0) dν = κν (0) Bν (0) dν (7.67)
0 0

Scattering lines
εν0
Sνl 0 (0) − J ν0 (0) ≈ √ Bν ≈ εν0 Bν0 . (7.68)
1 + εν0 0

Münch (1946)
Chapter 8

Weighting function
dBν /dT
G≡ (8.1)
dB/dT

H I/H− ratio for log Pe = 1.3, Te = 6000

N (H I) U (H I)
log − = −0.1761 − log Pe + log + 2.5 log Te − θ χ = 7.64 (8.2)
N (H ) U (H− )
Boltzmann factor
−12
e−hν/kT = 10−1.6021×10 log(e) (χ/kT )
= 10−(5040/T ) χ = 10−θ χ (8.3)
Paschen continuum

n3 n3 g3 −hν/kT 18 −θ χ
≈ = e = 10 = 9 × 10−10.1556 = 6.2 × 10−10 (8.4)
N (H I) n1 g1 2

Rydberg series limits

n2
λn ∼ 91.16 2 (8.5)
Z

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ...
HI n2/Z 2 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 ...
He II n2/Z 2 1/4 1 9/4 4 25/4 9 49/4 16 ...

79
 The Balmer Discontinuity

Balmer jump in F and G stars

κ(λ > 364.7) σλ (H− ) N (H− )
= − − < 1, (8.6)
κ(λ < 364.7) σλ (H ) N (H ) + σλB NH (n = 2)

Balmer jump in F stars

κ(λ > 364.7) σλ (H− )NH (n = 1) −3/2 hν/kT σλ (H− )
∼ Ne T e e ∼ Ne Te−3/2 e2hν/kT . (8.7)
κ(λ < 364.7) σλ NH (n = 2)
B σλB

Balmer jump in hotter stars

κ(λ > 364.7) σλP NH (n = 3)
∼ ∼ e−hν/kTe . (8.8)
κ(λ < 364.7) σλB NH (n = 2)
Chapter 9

81
 Abundance Determination

Abundance of element E
NE
AE ≡ , (9.1)
NH
H = 12 scale
A12(E) ≡ log NE − log NH + 12. (9.2)
Relative abundance
[X] ≡ log Xstar − log XSun . (9.3)
Metallicity
[Fe/H] = log(NFe /NH )star − log(NFe /NH )Sun (9.4)
Population
nLTE
l
nl = bl nLTE
l = bl NH AE , (9.5)
NE
Line extinction coefficient
√ " #
πe2 λ2 nLTE H(a, v) bu
αλl = bl l NH AE flu 1 − e−hc/λkT (9.6)
me c c NE ∆λD bl
Equivalent width
Ic − Iλl
Z
Wλ = dλ (9.7)
line Ic

Z Fc − Fλl
Wλ = dλ. (9.8)
line Fc
 Curve of Growth

Schuster-Schwarzschild atmosphere
Iλ = Bλ (TR) e−τλ + Bλ (TL)(1 − e−τλ ) (9.9)
Optical thickness of reversing layer
√ 2 2
πe λ0 f
τλ = σ λ N i = Ni H(a, v) ≈ τλ0 H(a, v) (9.10)
me c c ∆λD
Line depression

Ic − Iλ Bλ (TR) − Bλ (TL)
Dλ ≡ = (1 − e−τλ ) = Dmax (1 − e−τλ ) (9.11)
Ic Bλ (TR)
Line depth
Bλ (TR) − Bλ (TL )
Dmax ≡ (9.12)
Bλ (TR)
Equivalent width
Z
Wλ = Dmax (1 − e−τλ ) dλ. (9.13)
line
Weak lines
2
Dλ ≈ Dmax τλ0 e−(∆λ/∆λD ) (9.14)
√ πe2 λ20
Wλ ≈ Dmax τλ0 π ∆λD = f Dmax Ni. (9.15)
me c c
Saturated lines
Wλ ≈ Q Dmax ∆λD (9.16)
Strong lines
a a ∆λ2D
τλ = τλ0 √ 2 = τλ0 √ (9.17)
πv π ∆λ2

Z
Wλ = Dmax (1 − e−τλ ) dλ
line r
√ Z 2
= Dmax ∆λD τλ0 (a/ π) (1 − e−1/u ) du
√ line
∼ Dmax ∆λD τλ0 a (9.18)
 Curve of Growth

Milne-Eddington atmosphere
bc
Bλ (τλ) = B0 + τλ (9.19)
1 + ηλ
bc 2
Fλ (0) = B0 + (9.20)
1 + ηλ 3
Fc (0) − Fλ (0)
Dλ ≡
Fc (0)
(2/3) bc ηλ /(1 + ηλ )
=
B0 + (2/3)bc
ηλ
= Dmax (9.21)
1 + ηλ
Equivalent width
Z Z ηv
Wλ = Dλ dλ = Dmax ∆λD dv
line line 1 + ηv
Z
Wλ η0H(a, v)
= dv (9.22)
Dmax ∆λD line 1 + η0 H(a, v)

Wλ √
= π η0 for η0  1 (9.23)
Dmax ∆λD
Wλ
= 2−4 for η0 > 1 (9.24)
Dmax ∆λD
Wλ q
= π 3/2 a η0 for η0  1. (9.25)
Dmax ∆λD
 Empirical Curve of Growth

Abscissa
log X = log C + log(gf λ0 ) − χ 5040/Texc (9.26)
Boltzmann
Ni ∼ gi e−Ei /kT = gi 10−χi 5040/Texc (9.27)
Sensitivities

log Wλ large γ

large ∆ λ D

small γ
small ∆ λ D

log X

Wright (1948)
Chapter 10

87
 Radiative Transfer Rap
specic intensity I (~r; ~l; t) erg cm, s, Hz, ster, 2 1 1 1

emission coecient j erg cm, s, Hz, ster, 3 1 1 1

extinction coecient  cm,  cm part,  cm g,

1 2 1 2 1

source function S = P j = P 
radial optical depth  (z ) = Rz1  dz
0 0

plane-parallel transport  dI =d = I , S

incoming rays I,( ; ) = , R  S (t ) e, t , = dt =
0
 (  )

outgoing rays I ( ; ) = + R1 S (t ) e, t , = dt =

+

(  )

emergent intensity I (0; ) = R 1 S (t ) e,t = dt =

+
0


Eddington-Barbier I (0; )  S ( = )

+

F (0)  S ( = 2=3)

+

mean intensity J (z) = R, I d

1
2
+1
1

ux H (z) = R,  I d = F =4 = F =4
1
2
+1
1

mean mean intensity J ' = R 1 R, I '( ,  ) d d

0
1
2 0
+1
1 0

Schwarzschild equation J ( ) = R 1 S (t ) E (jt ,  j) dt

1
2 0 1

lambda operator  [S (t )] = J ( )

photon destruction " =  =( +  )
a a s

coherent scattering Sl = (1 , " ) J + " B

two-level atoms " = C =(C + A + B B )
0 21 21 21 21

complete redistribution Sl = (1 , " ) J ' + " B0 0 0

S (0) = p" B
0 0

isothermal atmosphere

89