Environmental Studies

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
UNIT-I
‘Environment’ is derived from the French word Environner which means to encircle (or) surrounding.

Definition:

“Environment is sum total of water, air and land, inter-relationships among themselves and also with
the human beings”.

The Multidisciplinary nature:

1. Env. Chemistry : In this area we study about the biogeochemical cycles. Ex: Carbon cycle, Nitrogen
cycle.
2. Env. Biology:- It explains the relationship among the organisms in the ecosystem. It deals with the
environmental sanitation.
3. Env. Engineering : Is the technical method used to minimize pollution and other industrial hazards.
Ex: construction of ETP (Effluent Treatment Plant)
4. Env. Biotechnology : Is the development of New crop varieties without disturbing environmental
condition.
5. Env. Sociology : Study of problems caused by human population and their activities.
6. Env. Computation : Identification of Location for the presence of Natural Resources using GIS
Software.

Need for public awareness:-

The United Nations Conference on environment and development held in Rio de Janero in 1992
popularly known as ‘Earth Summit’ followed by the world summit on sustainable development at Johannesburg
in 2002 have highlighted the key issues of global environment concern and have attracted the attention of the
general public towards the deteriorating environment. The public has to be educated about the fact that if we are
degrading our environment we are actually harming our own selves.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Is broad based and includes the areas of

1. Natural Resources – their conservation and management

2. Ecology and biodiversity
3. Environmental pollution and control
4. Social issues in relation to development and environment
5. Human population and environment

Environmental studies is very important since it deals with the most of the issues like safe and clean
drinking water, hygienic living conditions, clean and fresh air, fertile land, healthy food and development that is
sustainable

If we study the natural history of the areas in which we live, we would see that our surroundings were
originally a natural land scape where we live and modified by human beings. We breathe air, we use resources
from which food is made and we depend on the community of living plants and animals.

Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without protecting the earth,
Environmental intensive agriculture provider the goods for the society uses large amounts of natural resources
like water, minerals, wood, petroleum products etc., If it is to provide us with the resources we need in the long
term our natural resources can be compared with money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital will be
reduced to zero on the other hand. If we use only the interest, it can sustain us over the longer term. This is
called sustainable utilization (or) development.

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To understand all the different aspects of our environment we need to understand biology, chemistry,
physics, geography, resource management economics and population issues thus scope of Environmental
Studies is extremely wide and cover all aspects.

We live in a world where natural resources are limited without them life itself would be impossible.
We waste (or) pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; manufacturing processes create solid waste by
products that are discarded and the gases that pollute the air. Increasing amount of waste accumulate in our
environment leading to a variety of diseases and other adverse environmental impacts.

This situation will only improve if each of us begins to take actions in our daily life that will help in
preserve environment.

Productive Value: As scientists make new advances in fields like biotechnology they found the world’s
species contain large number of chemicals, which are the raw materials used for developing new medicines and
industrial products.

Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: This is created by developing national parks and wild life
sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed areas. A true wilderness experience not only has recreational value but is
an incredible learning experience one can appreciate the magnificence of mountain, the power of the sea, the
beauty of a forest and the vast expanse of the desert.

Green spaces and gardens are vital to the psychological and physical health of city dwellers. They
provide not only aesthetic and visual appeal but the ability to ensure that each individual is able to access a
certain amount of peace and transquility. Thus, urban environmental planners must ensure that there facilities
are created in growing urban complexes. There is a need to set-up well designed and properly managed
zoological parks and aquariums. These areas can be developed to mimic small-scale natural ecosystems.

INSTITUTIONS AND ORGANISATIONS IN THE FILED OF

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1. World wide fund for nature – India (WWF – I) New Delhi: This was started in 1969 the main focus is
on wild life education and awareness. It runs several programmes including the nature clubs of India
program for school children.

2. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) – New Delhi: The activities include organizing campaigns,
holding workshops and conferences. It is involved in publication of material in the form of
books, posters, video films, popular magazine known as ‘Down to Earth’ and also conducts
seminars on biodiversity-related issues.

3. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) – Ahmedabad: This was started in 1989. It produces a
variety of Educational material and trains the Environmental educators.

4. Bharathi Vidyapeeth Institute of Environment Education & Research (BVIEER) –Pune: The institute
has a Ph.d, masters and bachelors program in Environmental Sciences. It trains teachers and conducts
Environment education programmes. It has produced several teaching aids and a text book for UGC.
5. Uttarakhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN) – Almora: This is a nodal agency that supports NGO’s in need of
funds for their environment related activities its main target is sustainable resource use at the village
level through training school children. This program covers about 500 schools.

6. Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO’s initially Delhi based is now working from Pune and is active in
several other parts of India. It works on educational and awareness investigation and research, direct
action. In conducts outstation campus, student demonstrations, consumer awareness regarding organic
food and meetings with city administrators.

7. The Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural history (SACON) – Coimbatore: This
institution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream, which become a reality only after his demise. It evolved into an
independent organization based at Coimbatore in 1990. It conducts a variety of field programs that
have information on our threatened biodiversity.

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8. The Wild life Institute of India (WIT) – Dehradun: This institution was established in 1982, as a
major training establishment for forest officials and for research in wild life management. It has
produced a enormous amount of information on India’s biological wealth. It has an Environment
Impact Assessment (EIA) cell. It trains personnel in eco development and nature.
9. Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The BSI was established in 1890 at the Royal Botanical gardens,
Calcutta. It was closed down after 1939 and reopened in 1954. By 1955, the BSI had its headquarters
in Calcutta with circle officer at Coimbatore, Shilling, Pune and Dehradun. Between 1962 and 1979,
offices were established in Allahabad, Jodhpur, Portblair, Itanagar and Gangtok. The BSI currently has
nine regional centers. It carrier out surveys of plant resources in different regions.

10. Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): It was established in 1916. It has to do a systematic survey of
fauna in India. It has the collection of over one million animal specimens. This makes it one of the
largest collections in Asia based at the Indian Museums at Calcutta. It has done an enormous amount
of work on taxonomy and ecology. It currently operates from 16 regional centers.

11. The Madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT): It is the first crocodile breading centre in Asia, was
founded in 1976 to conserve Indian crocodiles. It started the first sea turtle surveys and conservation
programme in India. MCBT is the site of snake catcher’s cooperative society, which supplies all of
India’s snake and scorpion venom needed for the production of anti-venom and medical use. MCBT
also initiated the tribal women’s welfare society, which is primarily a society for reforestation of waste
lands and income generation projects.

PEOPLE IN ENVIRONMENT

1. CHARLES DARWIN : Charles Robert Darwin was born in 1809 in England. He was more
interested in Geology and Botany. He set sail for the round the world voyage on 27 th December, 1831
for five years in his ship called ‘The Beagle’. On 24 th November, 1859 his first book ‘Origin of
Species’ was released Darwin observed that all species including human evolved in due course of time
due to interaction of the existing species among themselves.

2. RACHEL CARSON : was born on 1907. She was a reader, great lover of birds. At age 10,
she first wrote a small article for a magazine for children. She continued her writings for periodicals
during her studies in the Pennsylvania College for women and later masters in Zoology. She joined a
Ph.D at marine biological laboratories Maryland. She worked as a junior aquatic biologist. Her first
book was sea-wind (1941). In the year 1962 she published a book known as ‘silent spring’ to realize
the effects of pollution on health in 1945. She fought against the use and abuse of DDT. She felt DDT
would destroy several creatures pushing them to extinction.

3. SALIM ALI: Dr. Salim Moizuddin Abdul Ali (1896 to 1987) was associated with birds and he
was known as ‘Birdman of India’. He studied the birds of nearly every region of the subcontinent. In
1927 he joined a job as a guide at Bombay’s Prince Charles’ Museum. He used to spend days
continuously observing birds how they live. In 1941 Salim Ali published the book called ‘Indian
Birds’ he took 20 years to write his 2 nd book called as ‘Hand book of birds of India and Pakistan’ on
12th November every year, Salim Ali bird count is conducted.

4. Dr. M. S. SWAMINATHAN: Is regarded as the father of India’s green revolution. He is a

great agricultural organizer of projects. He was born in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu in 1925. He
worked as Director General of the International Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines. Many
Indian and foreign universities have conferred doctorates on him. He won several awards like ‘ Padma
Bhushan’ MegaSaySay Award in 1972 and ‘world food prize’ in 1987. He is presently the chairman of
Dr. Swami Nathan Research Institute, Chennai.

5. INDIRA GANDHI: As Prime Minister she played a very significant role in the preservation of
India’s wild life. During her period the network of protect area’s (PAS) grew from 65 to 298 and wild
life protection Act was formulated. She was the chairperson for the Indian Board for wild life.

6. S.P. GODREJ: was one of the India’s greatest supporters of wild life conservation and nature
awareness. Between 1975 and 1999 SP Godrej received 10 awards for his conservation activities. He
was awarded Padma Bhushan in 1999.

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7. ANIL AGARWAL: was journalist who wrote the first report on the state of India’s
Environment in 1982, he formed the CSE, an active NGO that supports various environmental issues.

8. SUNDERLAL BAHUGUNA : During 1970’s commercial loggers started large scale tree
felling in the gharwal region of Utter Pradesh in India land slides and floods resulted due to
deforestation with courage and determination, the village women, under the leadership of Sundarlal
Bahugana, wrapped their arms around the trees to protect them. This was known as ‘chipco
movement’ (or) ‘chipco andolan’. It was a slogan of planting 5fs Food, Fodder, Fuel, Fibre and
Fertilizer. The women of this area and Mr. Bahuguna undertook marches of total distance over 3000
km to propagate the movement.

9. MEDHA PATKAR : born in the year 1956. She is the Indian Social activist,
environmentalist and leader of ‘save narmada movement’. She received the right livelihood award.

10. M.C. MEHTA : Is India’s most famous environmental lawyer since, 1984, he has filed several
public interest litigations for supporting the cause of environmental conservation his most famous long-
drawn battler supported by the Supreme Court include protecting Tajmahal, cleaning up the Ganger
River, initiating the government to implement environmental education in schools and colleges.

11. WANGRI MAATHAI: Is kenya’s popular environmental activist and the deputy
environmental minister, has won the Noble Prize in the year 2004 for fighting poverty by trying to save
Africa’s forests. She is the first African women have got Nobel Prize. She is 64 year, is a zoology
professor who launched the green belt movement in Kenya. Her group was comprised mostly of
women, who planted millions of trees across the Africa.

ENVIRONMENTAL SEGMENTS

The global environment consists of four segments

1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Lithosphere
4. Bio sphere

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere is a blanket of gases and suspended liquids. It absorbs most of the
cosmic rays from outer space and major portion of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
Atmosphere has weight and exacts pressure. A liter of air weights around 1.3 gm.

2. Composition of Atmosphere: The atmosphere is composed of various gases and water vapor, trace
gases etc.

1. Nitrogen N2 – 78.08%
2. Oxygen O2 – 20.94%
3. Carbon dioxide – CO2 – 0.03%
4. Argon (Ar) – 0.934%
5. Neon (Ne) – 0.0018%
6. Helium – He – 0.00052%
7. Methane – CH4 – 0.00015%
8. Krypton – Kr – 0.00011%

Along with less amounts of Hydrogen, Nitrous Oxide, carbon monoxide, Xenon. Ozone, Ammonia,
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Nitric Oxide (No), Sulpher dioxide (SO2), Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).

Structure of the Atmosphere: Atmosphere is divided into four major layers

1. Troposphere: Is the lower portion of the atmosphere extending up to 18 km.
2. Stratosphere: It extends up to 50 km the temperature is nearly contact in this zone.
3. Mesosphere: Extends up to 80 km, here the temperature decreases slowly with the altitude.
4. Thermosphere (or) Ionosphere: It is an atmospheric layer at 100 to 400 km with ionized particle
shows effect on the propagation of radio waves

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2. HYDROSPHERE:

The hydrosphere consists of the ocean, seas, rivers, streams, glacier, lakes, reservoirs, polar ice caps
and ground water. Approximately 70.5% of the earth surface is covered with water mainly in the form of ocean.
It is estimated that the hydrosphere contains about 1360 million cubic km of water.

Composition of Natural Waters: The pure water is the one which contain two parts of hydrogen and
one part of oxygen by volume and weight. It consists of one part of hydrogen and eight parts of oxygen. It is a
liquid at room temperature with melting point 0 0 C; boiling point 100 0 C; density 1.0; specific heat 1.0 cal per g;
surface tension 73 dynes/cm at 200c and the viscosity about 0.01 poise at 200c. PH 7.0.

3. LITHOSPHERE :

Is the top crust of the earth on which the continents and oceans rest with an average thickness of 40 km
(continental region) and 10 to 12 km (ocean region). It forms only 3/10 th of the total surface of the earth.
Lithosphere is the soil mantle in which the biological activities takes place; but also the decomposition of
organic water is carried out by micro organisms in the soil.

4. BIOSPHERE :

It is that all the life forms of earth, including man use the life sustaining resources (air, water and food)
are with drawn from the biosphere and cycled through the biosphere for millions of years but now it has begun
to show signs of stress, primarily because of the impact of humans upon the environment.

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NATURAL RESOURCES
Life on this planet earth depends upon a large number of things and services provided by the nature
which are known as Natural Resources.

These are of two kinds.

1. Renewable Resources:- which can be regenerated within a given span of time ex-forests, wildlife,
wind energy, solar energy hydropower etc.

2. Non-Renewable Resources:- Which cannot be regenerated ex-fossil fuels like coal, petrol, minerals etc.

2.1 FOREST RESOURCES

Definition :

“A forest is a community or an ecosystem of biotic and non-biotic components consisting mostly of

trees or other woody vegetation growing more or less closely together. In addition to these we found small and
wild animals, different types of soil and climatic conditions”.

About 1/3 of the world’s land area is forested which includes closed as well as open forests. USSR,
Brazil, Canada and USA having higher forest covered land areas.

USES :
1. Commercial Uses:-

Major Products Minor Products

Wood Fuel Wood Bamboo Manmade

Forestry products

Tea Coffee Rubber Cardamom Cashew Spices

Fibers Grasses Tans & dyes Gums, Drugs, Lac Edible Oils
Resins insecticides

2. Forest Resources – Ecological Uses :

a. Production of Oxygen
b. Reducing global warming
c. Wildlife conservation
d. Regulation of Hydrological cycle
e. Soil Conversation
f. Pollution Control

Types of Forests:

1. Grass Land:
Grasses, flowering plants, animals like bison, wild beasts, sheep cattle and birds, reptiles etc.

2. Savanna:
Grass lands with occasional trees mostly consisting spines and thorns resistant to fire damage,
kangaroos, rodents are seen.

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3. Tropical Rain Forests:

Trees with extensive root networks like teakwood, climbing mammal’s lizards and tree frogs.

4. Deciduous Forests:
Fewer species mostly herbs and woody species like aspen, beech, oaks, birds like wood peckers, mice,
squirrels, deer, moles and rabbits are common.

5. Coniferous Forests:-
Trees show ecological adaptations (As per the Environmental conditions). It’s about 22.7% of the total
land is covered with forests in India. National tree of India is PIPAL.

Forests Protection and Management:

1. Reforestation: It means replantation of forests.

2. Agro Forestry: Development of fodder and fuel rich trees. Ex: Eucalyptus.
3. Taungya System: Forest culture plus agriculture.
4. Coppice System: Trees must cut down to the ground level to allow shoots to grow.
5. Forest (Conversation) Act, 1980.

Development of Forests:

The development of social forestry creates vast employment and money for the tribal people.

Ex: VSS – Vana Samrakshana Samithi.

National Policy Administration Peoples Participation Labor Extension & Publicity

planning Management Training Education Research Credit
Investment Export Linking with Forest Industries and Market.

DEFORESTATION
Major Causes :
1. Shifting Cultivation
2. Fuel Requirement
3. Raw Material for Industrial Use
4. Development of Projects
5. Growing Food Needs
6. Overgrazing
Major Effects on Environment :

1. Effects existence of many wildlife species

2. Biodiversity is lost
3. Hydrological cycle gets affected
4. Soil erosion and loss of fertility
5. In hilly areas it leads to landslides

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WATER RESOURCES

Water is a vital natural resource which forms the basis of all life about 97% of water found in the
oceans remaining 3% for drinking, irrigation and industry.

% OF TOTAL WATER ON THE EARTH

1. Ocean 97.6%
2. Ice & Snow 2.07%
3. Ground Water 0.28%
4. Lakes and Reservoirs 0.009%
5. Atmosphere 0.001%
6. Biological moisture in plants & animals 0.005%

The main source of water on this earth is only Rainfall. It is formed by “hydrological Cycle”. It is the
process which includes evaporation condensation precipitation

Out of the total rainfall in an area 41% is lost by evaporation, 40% by run-off, 10% retained as soil
moisture, 9% seeps and forms the ground water.

Precipitation occurs in various forms :

1. Drizzle – Involves minute drops appearing as to float in air.
2. Rain – Is the drops of liquid water, which are larger than drizzle.
3. Snow – Is the moisture as solid state.
4. Dew and Frost – Formed due to condensation of moisture directly on the surfaces of objects, plants, animals
soil etc.
5. Sleet – Is in the form of small grains (or) pellets of ice.
6. Hail – consists of balls (or) lumps of ice.

Annual rainfall determines the type of vegetation in any region.

Heavy rainfall throughout the year – ever green forests.
Heavy during winter and low during summer – sclerophyllous forests (Shrubs, stunted in height with
leathery thick evergreen leaves)
Heavy during summer low during winter – grass lands
Rainfall is scanty – deserts – Xerophytic vegetation
The minimum requirement of water on per capita basis is about 135 Lt / day.
There are three kinds of available water forms on this earth. They are 1) Surface Water, 2) Ground
Water, 3) Marine Water

1. Surface Water : The water coming through precipitation (rainfall, snow) when does not percolate down
into the ground (or) does not return to the atmosphere as evaporation (or) transpiration loss, found in
streams, lakes, ponds, wet lands (or) artificial reservoirs known as surface water.
2. Ground Water : About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources is in the form of ground water and it is
about 35-50 times more that of surface water supplies. A layer of sediment (or) rock that is highly
permeable and contains water is called aquifer.
Unconfined aquifers: - Which are overlaid by permeable earth materials.
Confined aquifers: - Which are sandwiched between two impermeable layers of rock (or) sediments.

3. Marine Water: Most of the rivers ultimately join to form the ocean. The place where river joins with
the sea is known as “Eusterine”. The river carry different kinds of pollutants which mixing in the sea

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water. These include sewage, industrial effluents, synthetics, agrochemicals, solid wastes, plastics,
metals and waste heat released by industries.

MINERAL RESOURCES

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition
and characteristic physical properties.

METALLIC MINERALS

Sl.
Metal World Reserves Uses
No.
1 Aluminum Australia, Guinea, Jamaica Packing food items, utensils, electronics
2 Chromium CIS, South Africa For making steel, textile / tanning industry
3 Copper U.S.A., Canada, Chile, Zambia Electric / Electronic Goods, construction vessels
4 Iron South America, Canada Heavy Machinery
5 Lead North America Leaded Gasoline, Car Batteries
6 Manganese South Africa, Brazil Making Heat resistant steel
7 Platinum CIS Catalytic converter, medical uses
8 Gold South Africa, Canada Ornaments, aerospace
9 Silver Canada, Mexico Photography, Electronics
10 Nickel Canada Chemical industry, steel alloys

CIS – (The Commonwealth of Independent State i.e. 12 Republics of Farmer USSR)

NON – METALLIC MINERALS

1. Silicate minerals – sand and gravel for construction bricks etc.

2. Lime Stone – Used for concrete, building stone, used in agriculture for neutralizing acid soils, used in cement
industry.
3. Gypsum – Used in plaster wall – board, in agriculture
4. Potash – Used as fertilizers
5. Sulphur Pyrites – Used in medicine, car battery, industry

Some major minerals of India :

a) Energy generating minerals :

Coal and Lignite: West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P., A.P.
Uranium: Jharkhand, A.P (Nell ore, Nalgonda), Meghalaya, Rajasthan (Ajmer)

b) Other commercially used minerals :

Aluminum (Bauxite Ore): West Bengal, Tamilnadu, M.P., Maharashtra
Iron: Jharkhand, Orissa, M.P., A.P., Karnataka, Maharashtra & Goa
Copper: Rajasthan (Khetri), Bihar, A.P. and Uttaranchal.

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Environmental Impacts of Mining

1. Devegetation and defacing of Landscape:

The top soils as well as the vegetation are removed from the mining area to get access to the deposit,
leading to soil erosion.

2. Subsidence of land:
Subsidence of mining areas often results in tilting of buildings, cracks in houses, buckling of roads,
bending of rail tracks and leaking of gas from cracked pipeline leading to serious disasters.

3. Ground water contamination: -

Sulphur usually present as an impurity is known to get converted into sulphuric acid through microbial
action, thereby making the water acidic. Some heavy metals also get leached into the ground water and
contaminate it posing health hazards.

4. Surface water pollution:

The acid mine drainage often contaminates the nearby stream and lakes killing aquatic animals.

5. Air pollution:
In order to separate and purity the metal form other impurities in the ore, smelting is done which emits
enormous quantities of air pollutants damaging the vegetation.
Ex: SPM, Arsenic, Cadmium, Lead

6. Occupational Health hazards:

Most of the miners suffer from various respiratory and skin diseases due to constant exposure to toxic
substances. They suffer from asbestosis, silicosis, black lung disease etc.

Remedial Measures:

1. The high grade ores can be used.

2. The bacterium thiobacillus has been successfully and economically used for the removal of the toxicants.
3. Restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating them with appropriate plant species.

LAND RESOURCES
Soil especially the top soil is classified as a renewable resource because it is continuously regenerated
by natural process through at a very slow rate. About 200-1000 years are needed for the formation of one inch
or 2.5 cm.of soil depending upon the climate and the soil type.

SOIL EROSION :

Definition: - The movement of soil components, especially surface litter and top soil from one place to another.
Soil erosion is basically of two types based on the cause of erosion.

1. Normal Erosion or Geologic Erosion :

Caused by the gradual removal of top soil by natural process.

2. Accelerated erosion :
This is mainly caused by anthropogenic (man made) activities and the rate of erosion is much faster
than the rate of formation of soil. There are two types of agents which cause erosion.

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i. Climatic Agents : Water and wind are the climatic agents of soil erosion.

Water induced soil erosion :

a) Sheet erosion: When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil from a large surface area.
It is called sheet erosion. This is due to run-off water.
b) Rill erosion: When there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger – shaped
groves or rills over the area it is called rill erosion.
c) Gully erosion: It is more prominent type when the rainfall is very heavy, deeper
cavities of U or V shaped are formed.
d) Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on scopes of hills and mountains.
e) Stream Bank erosion: During rainy season, when fast running streams take a turn in some other
direction, they cut the soil and make caves in banks.

Wind induced soil erosion :

a) Saltation : This occurs under the influence of direct pressure of stromy wind and the soil
particles of 1-1.55mm diameter move up in vertical direction.
b) Suspension : Here fine soil particles (less than 1mm dia) which are suspended in the air
and taken away to distant places.
c) Surface Creep : Here larger particles (5-10mm dia) creep over the soil surface along with
wind.
ii. Biotic agents: Excessive grazing and deforestation are the major biotic agents. Over grazing –
35%, deforestation – 30%, unsustainable methods of farming – 28%.

SOIL CONSERVATION:

i. Contour farming: On gentle slopes, crops are grown in rows across rather than up and down. Each row
planted horizontally along the slope.

ii. Terracing: It is used on still steeper slopes are converted into a series of broad terraces which run
across the contour.

iii. Strip Cropping: Here strips of crops are alternated with strips of soil saving cover crops like grasses or
legume crops.

iv. Alley cropping: It is a form of inter cropping in which crops are planted between rows of trees or
shrubs. This is also called Agro forestry.

v. Wind breaks or shelter belts: These help in reducing erosion caused by strong winds. The trees are
planted in long rows along the cultivated land boundary so what wind is blocked. The best way to
control soil erosion is to maintain adequate vegetation cover over the soil.

ENERGY RESOURCES

A source that can provide adequate amount of energy in a usable form over a long period of time.
There sources are of two types.

1. Renewable resources which an be generated continuously in nature and are in exhaustible Ex: Wood, Solar
Energy, Wind Energy, Hydro power, Geothermal Energy. These are also known as non-conventional sources
of energy.
2. Non-renewable resources which have accumulated in nature over a long span of time and cannot be quickly
replenished when exhausted. Ex: Coal, Petrol Natural gas and nuclear fuels like Uranium and Thorium.

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COAL

Coal was formed 255 – 350 million years ago by the plants buried after death in to the soil, due to the
heat and pressure gradually converted into the coal.

Occurrence: India has about 5% of world’s coal and Indian coal is not very good interms of heat capacity.
Major coal fields in India are Bokaro, Singrauli, Godavari vally. The coal states of India are Jharkand, Orissa,
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, anthracite occurs only in J & K.

Composition: Coal contains ash in amounts ranging form 10-40% and 3-4% Sulphur, Trace amounts of
Mercury, Uranium and Thorium.

Coal form and their properties

Sl. Calorific Value
Form Physical Appearance Chemical Composition
No. (B/U / Pound)
1 Peat Brown and Porous Carbon up to 35-39% -
Dense dark brown or
2 Lignite Carbon up to 70% 8,300 – 11,000
Black rock
Black with dull starry
3 Bituminous Carbon up to 85% 11,000 – 14,000
luster
Hard brittle burning
4 Anthracite Carbon nearly 100% 14,000
without smoke

PETROLIUM

The plants and animals which live in the aquatic environs like seas and oceans buried within the ground
under the anaerobic conditions converted to crude oil.

Crude oil is a complex mixture of alkane hydrocarbons. Hence it has to be purified and refined by the
process of fractional distillation. The super gaints in the petroleum reserves are USSR, Mexico, Libya, Algeria
and Venezuela. India is oil – poor country.

Composition : Crude oil consists of large varieties of hydrocarbons which are broadly grouped into paraffin’s,
napthenes and aromatics. In addition sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen are usually present in small quantities.

Crude Petrolium Fractions

Sl.
Fraction Boiling Point (0C) No. of atoms
No.
1 Petrol 40 – 100 4
2 Naptha 100 – 160 4 – 10
3 Kerosene 160 – 250 10 – 16
4 Lubricants 3500C 25

Petrol is a mixture of volatile liquid hydrocarbons which is vaporized before entering the cylinder of
the engine or combustion. The straight chain alkanes as obtained from the crude petroleum are not ideal as
engine do not burn uniformly in the cylinder. This causes engine knock, results in both engine wear and
wastage of petrol. This can be improved by addition of branched chain hydrocarbons like tetraethyl lead, known
as anti knock agent. But lead is source of serious environmental pollution.

The stability of petrol as fuels is measured in terms of rating known as octane number given to each
hydrocarbon.
NATURAL GAS

It contains principally methane. If the methane content is more than 95% it is known as dry natural
gas. If larger amounts of ethane, propane and butane are present it is called wet natural gas. This wet natural
gas is recovered and used as LPG – Liquid Petroleum Gas. Another constituent of natural gas is hydrogen

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sulphide present in small amounts. Certain American gas fields contain up to 5% helium gas which is a
valuable noble gas. Some new gas fields have been found in Tripura, Jaisalmer, Off-shore area of Mumbai and
the Krishna Godavari Delta compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as an alternative to petrol and diesel for
transport of vehicles.

NON – CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES

SOLAR ENERGY

SUN is the ultimate source of energy, directly or indirectly forms all other form of energy.

“The amount of energy actually reaching the earth surface per unit time per unit area perpendicular to
the sun’s rays is called as “Solar Constant”. The value is about 1.34 KW per Sq.m or 1.4 Kilo Joules / Second /
m2.

Solar Energy Collection:

We have several techniques for collecting solar energy like

1. Solar Cells: These are also known as photovoltaic cells made of thin wafers of semiconductor materials
like silicon and gallium. When solar radiations fall on them a potential difference is produced which
causes flow of electrons and produces electricity. Silicon can be obtained from silica or sand, which is
abundantly available and inexpensive.
The potential difference produced by a single PV cell of 4 cm2 size is about 60 mille amperes.

A group of solar cells joined together in a definite pattern form a solar panel which can produce large
amounts of solar energy and can produce electricity enough to run street – light, irrigation water pump
etc.

Solar cells are widely used in calculators, electronic watches, traffic signals.

2. Solar Cooker: Solar cookers make use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiations using a mirror
directly on to a glass sheet which cover the black insulated box within which the raw food is kept.
Solar cooker with spherical i.e. concave or parabolic reflector have grater efficiency.

3. Solar Water Heater: It consists of an insulated box painted black from inside and having a glass lid to
receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted copper coil through which cold water is
made to flow in which gets it heated and flow out into a storage tank, and then supplied through pipes
into buildings like hotels and hospitals.

4. Solar Furnace: Here thousands of small plane mirrors are arranged concave reflectors all of which
collect the solar heat and produce as high a temperature as 30000C.

5. Solar Power Plant : A large scale concave reflectors cause boiling of water to produce steam which
drives the turbine and generator to produce electricity. A solar power plant (50 K Watt capacity) has
been installed at Gurgaon, Haryana.

WIND ENERGY

The high speed winds have a lot of energy in them as Kinetic energy due to their motion. The driving
force of the winds is the sun. The rotational motion of the blades drives a number of machines like water
pumps, flour mills and electric generators.

The power that a wind mill can extract from the wind is directly proportional to the air density, the area
that is swept out by the wind mill blade and the cube of the wind speed (Speed 3). The ideal location for wind
mills are coastal regions, open grass lands, hilly regions. Particularly mountain passes where the winds are
strong and steady.

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The minimum wind speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15Km/hr. The wind
mill with a 90mt. blade is capable of producing four times more power than that of 45mt. with 60mt tower
height.
Ex: A unit with two large blades (made of fiber glass) that of 100mt. on a tower 60mt. tall can generate
2.5MW of electricity in winds between 22.5 and 72 Km/hour.

The wind power potential of our country is estimated to be about 20,000 MW, while at present we are
generating about 1020MW. The largest wind farm of our country is near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu generating
380 MW electricity. Wind energy is very useful as it does not cause any air pollution. After the initial
installation cost, the wind energy is very cheap the average capital cost of the installation is Rs.30million per
MW while the average cost of generation ranges from Rs.2.00 to 2.25 per KWh.

It is believed that by the middle of the century wind power would supply more than 10% of world’s
electricity.

HYDRO POWER

The water flowing in a river is collected by constructing a big dam where the water is stored and
allowed to fall from a height. The blades of the turbine located at the bottom of the dam move with the fast
moving water which in turn rotates the generator and produces electricity. We can also construct mini or micro
hydal power plants on the rivers in hilly regions for the production of hydro energy on a small scale, but the
minimum height of the water falls should 10 meters. The hydropower potential of India estimated to be about 4
x 10” Kw / hour.

Hydropower does not cause any pollution and there are multi purpose projection helping in controlling
floods used for irrigation navigation etc.

TIDAL ENERGY

Ocean tides produced by gravitation forces of sun and moon contain enormous amounts of energy. The
‘high tide’ and ‘low tide refers to the rise and fall of water in the oceans. During high tide, the sea – water flows
into the reservoir of the barrage and runs the turbine, which in turn produces electricity. During low tide, when
the sea – level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage reservoir flows out into the sea and again turns the
turbine the bay of fundy Canada having 17 – 18m high, tides has a potential of 5,000 MW of power generation.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

The energy produced from the hot rocks present inside the earth is called geothermal energy. The heat
comes from the fission of radio active material naturally present in the rocks we can artificially drill a hole up to
the hot rocks by putting a pipe in it make the steam or hot water gush out through the pipe at high presence
which runs the turbine of a generator to produce electricity. In USA and New Zealand, there are several
geothermal plants working successfully.

BIOMASS ENERGY
a) Energy Plantations : Solar energy is trapped by green plants through photosynthesis and converted into
biomass energy. Fast growing trees like cotton, Leucaena, Sugarcane, Sweet Sorghum, Potato, Ceral
etc are some of important plantation.

b) Petro – Crops : Certain Latex containing plants like Jetropha (bio-disel) are rich in hydrocarbons and
can yield oil like substance under high temperature and pressure. This oily material may be burned in
diesel engines directly or may be refined to form gasoline.

c) Agricultural and urban waste biomass : Crop residue, bagasse (sugarcane residue) coconut shells,
peanut hulls, cotton stalks etc are some of the common agricultural wastes which produce energy by
burning. In Brazil 30 years of electricity is obtained from burning bagasse. In rural India animal dung
cakes are burnt to produce heat.

The burning of plant residues or animal wastes cause air pollution and produce a lot of ash as waste
residue. Therefore, more useful to convert the biomass into biogas.

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BIOGAS
Biogas is produced by anaerobic degradation of plant and animal wastes in the presence of water. It
contains 66% methane and 33% of carbon dioxide remaining as hydrogen sulphide. Biogas is a nonpolluting,
clean fuel which is very useful for rural areas where a lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available.
A volume of 4cu.m of biogas can be used for
i. Generating 5KWh of electricity
ii. Cooking food for 25 persons
iii. Running a 5HP engine for 1½ hour and
iv. Lighting a lamp for 25 to 28 hours.
The sludge left over after biogas production can be used as a fertilizer.

HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is a combustible gas. In the combustion process it combines with oxygen (150 KJ per gram).
Hydrogen is a clean pollution free energy – rich fuel. A major problem however is the fire and explosion.
Hydrogen can be produced by
i. By thermal dissociation of water (at 30000K or above)
ii. Electrolysis of water can produce hydrogen and oxygen when the current flow through it.
iii. Photolysis of water in the presence of sunlight to release hydrogen.
Presently, H2 is used in the form of liquid hydrogen as a fuel in spaceships.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

Nuclear energy can be generated by two types of reactions.

i. Nuclear Fission: The isotopes are split into lighter nuclei on bombardment by neutrons to
release large amounts of energy through a chain reaction. Uranium-235 is the most commonly used
material.

ii. Nuclear Fusion: Two isotopes of a light element are forced together at extremely high
temperatures (1 billion0C) until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus releasing enormous energy in the
process. Deoterium may be fused to form the Helium to release huge amounts of energy. Any leakage
from the reactor may cause nuclear pollution. Disposal of the nuclear waste is also big problem.

Nuclear power in India is still not very well developed. There are four nuclear power stations with an
installed capacity of 2005 MW. These are located at Tarapur (M.H.), Ranapratap Sagar near Kota
(Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (T.N.) and Narora (U.P.)

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IMPACT OF HUMANS UPON THE ENVIRONMENT

The life forms live in equilibrium with their environment. The population and activities of every
species are governed by the resources available to them. Interaction among species is quite common; the
waste product of one species may form the food supply of another species.

Human alone have the potential to gather resources from beyond their immediate surroundings
ad process them into different and more versatile forms. This has made human to thrive and flourish
beyond natural constraints. As a result of which the pollutants due to man made activities has
overloaded the system, and the natural equilibrium is disturbed.

Thus in return a polluted environment poses a threat not only to human health, but also to
aesthetic and cultural enjoyment and economic wellbeing.

EFFECTS OF TIMBER EXTRACTION

The major effects of timber extraction on forests and tribal people include:

1. Poor logging results in degraded forest.

2. Soil erosion, especially in slopes.
3. floods may be intensified
4. loss of bio diversity
5. Climatic changes such as lower precipitation.
6. forest fragmentation

DAMS – Benefits and Problems

The various benefits of dams are:

1. Hydro electricity generation

2. Ensuring a year-round water supply
3. Transfer of water from areas of excess to areas of deficit using canals.
4. flood control and soil protection
5. Irrigation during dry periods.

Some of the disadvantages/problems of dams are: The upstream problems.

1. Displacement of tribal people.

2. Loss of forests, flora and fauna
3. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs
4. Loss of non-forest land
5. Reservoirs induced causing earthquakes.

The down stream impacts include.

1. Water logging and salinity due to over irrigation

2. Climatic changes
3. Reduced flow silt deposition
4. Flash floods
5. Salt water intrution at river mouth.

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FOOD RESOURCES

Food is the Chief essential materials which the body needs for its well-being. These essential materials
are called “nutrients” human diet is not restricted to any special category of food. Man can eat a
variety of foods, of plant and animal origin.

Sources of Food :

1. Crops : Out of about 2, 50,000 species of plants, only about 3,000 have been tried as agricultural
crops, only 300 are grown for food, and only 100 are used on a large scale. Ex: wheat, rice, corn,
potatoes, sorghum, sugarcane, bananas and coconut.
2. Live Stock : Domesticated animals are an important food source like cattle, sheep, goats, camel
etc,. Meat and Milk are mainly consumed by more developed nations of North America, Europe and
Japan who consume about 80% of the total.
3. Aquaculture : Fish and Seafood contribute about 70 million metric tons of high quality protein to
the world’s diet.

WORLD FOOD PROBLEMS

During the last 50 years world grain production has increased almost three times, thereby increasing
per capita production by about 50%. But, at the same time population growth increased at such a rate
in less developed countries that it out stripped food production. Every year 40 million people (fifty
percent of which are young children between 1 to 5 years) die of under nourishment and malnutrition.
This means that every year our food problem is killing as many people as were killed by the atomic
bombs dropped on Hiroshima during world war – II. These statistical figures emphasize the need to
increase our food production equal distribution and also to control population growth.

Indian Scenario : Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops, an estimated 300 million
Indians are still under nourished. India has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three
times population to feed. The world Food Summit, 1996 has set the target to reduce the number of
undernourished to Just half by 2015.

IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURE

1. Traditional Agriculture and its impacts :

a. Deforestation : The slash and burn of trees in forests to clear the land for cultivation and
frequent shifting result in loss of forest cover.

b. Soil Erosion : clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind, rain and storms, thereby
resulting in loss of tap fertile layer of soil.

c. Depletion of Nutrients : During slash and been the organic matter in the soil gets destroyed
and most of the nutrients are taken up by the crops within a short period, thus making the soil nutrient
poor areas.

2. Modern Agriculture and its impacts :

a. Fertilizer related problems : Most of the chemical fertilizer used in modern agriculture has nitrogen
phosphorus and potassium (N.P.K) which are essential macro nutrients excessive of these cause
micronutrient imbalance. Ex: Deficiency of zinc in soil

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b Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the field often leach deep into the soil and ultimately contaminate the
ground water when the nitrates in the water exceeds 25 mg/L they cause “Blue Baby Syndrome” (or)
methaemoglobanemia which effects the infants.

c. Excessive use of N and P fertilizers in the agricultural fields leads to another problem relater to water
bodies known as “Eutrophication” (formation of algal bloom). They are often toxic and affect the food
chain of particular water bodies.

3. Pesticide related Problems: The first generation pesticide include chemicals like sulphar, arsenic, lead
(or) mercury to kill the pests. DBT discovered by Paul Mueller in 1939. After 1940, a large number of
synthetic pesticides came into use have a number of side effects like
i) Creating resistance in pests
ii) Death of non-target useful organism
iii) Biological magnification.

4 Water Logging: In adequate drainage causes excess water to accumulate and increases water table
level, under this type of conditions, pore-spaces in the soil get fully drenched with water and the soil-
air gets depleted. As the water table riser roots of plants do not get adequate air for respiration.
Mechanical strength of the soil decline the crop plants get lodged and crop falls.

5. Salinity Problem: Saline soils are characterized by the accumulation of soluble salts like sodium
chloride, sodium sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride etc in the soil profile. As their
electrical conductivity is more, the P++ usually exceeds 8.0. Salinity causes stunted plant growth and
lower crop yield. The most-common method for getting rid of salts is to flush them out by applying
more good quality water to such soils

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ECOSYSTEMS
The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Heackel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek words Oikos –
home + logos – Study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting
with their surroundings. The surroundings consist of living (biotic) and physical (a biotic) components.

An ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their
non-living environment.

Structure of an Ecosystem :

1. Biotic Structure :

a) Producers : These are mainly the green plants which can synthesize their food by utilizing CO 2, water and
sunlight known as “Photosynthesis”.

b) Consumers : All organisms which get their food by feeding upon other organisms are called Consumers
which are of following types.

i. Herbivores : They feed directly on Producers and hence also known as primary consumers. Ex:
Rabbit, insects

ii. Carnivores: They feed on other consumers also known as Secondary Consumers. ex: Frog, Snake,
big Fish etc.

iii. Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. Ex: humans, fox, birds.

iv. Detrivores: They feed on the dead organisms’ wastes of living organisms.
ex: Earthworms

II. Abiotic Structure :

The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure.

a) Physical Factors : The sun light and shade, average temperature, rainfall, wind, Lattitude, soil type,
water availability.

b) Chemical Factors : Availability of Major essential nutrients like carbon nitrogen phosphorus, potassium,
hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur.

Functions of an Ecosystem :
Major functions of an ecosystem are:
i. Food chain, food webs and edaphic structure
ii. Energy flow
iii. Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycle)
iv. Primary and secondary production
v. Ecosystem development and regulatio

FOOD CHAINS

The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain.
Ex: Grass Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk. There are two types of food chains.

1. Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants and ends with carnivores.
Ex: Grass Rabbit Snake

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2. Detrious Food Chain : It starts with dead organic matter which is consumed by decomposers.
Ex: Dead organic matter fungi bacteria (saprophytes)
Both the food chains occur together in natural ecosystems, but grazing food chain usually
predominates.
FOOD WEB

Is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels,
so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each level.

Food webs give greater stability to the ecosystem. In a food chain if our species becomes extinct then
the species in the subsequent trophic levels are also affected. In a food web, on the other hand, there are a
number of options available at each trophic level so if one species is affected, it does not affect other trophic
levels.

i) Grain etc Mouse Hawk

ii) Grain etc Mouse Snake Hawk
iii) Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
iv) Grass Insect Sparrow Hawk
v) Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
All the above five grazing food chain are inter linked with each other at different points, forms a food
web. Besides those given above the food chains may also have commences like owls, vulture, wolver, rabbits,
man etc, and if so, then the food may be even complex.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem. Starting with producers at
the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is known as an ecological pyramid. These are of three
types.

1. Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. We may
have upright or inverted pyramid.

Hawks Hyper parasites

Carnivores Parasites
Herbivores
Frogs, bir Herbivores
Producers Producers
2. Pyramid of Biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food
chain. This can also be upright or inverted.
The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. The total biomass of producers is much
less as compared to herbivores.

3. Pyramid of Energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of
pyramid. It gives the best representation of the trophic relationships and it is always upright.

At every level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration etc. from
producers to top carnivores.

ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM

Flow of energy in an ecosystem takes place through the food chain and it is unidirectional. The flow of
energy follows two laws of Thermodynamics.
1st Law : It states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it can be transformed from
one form to another.
2nd Law : It states that energy dissipates as it is used or in other words. Its gets converted from a more
concentrated to dispersed form.

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Energy Flow Models :

a. Universal Energy Flow Model : As the flow of energy taken place there is a gradual loss of energy at
every level there by resulting in less energy available at next trophic level.

b. Single Channel Energy Flow Model : The flow of energy takes place in a unidirectional manner
through a single channel of green plants to herbivores and carnivores.

c. Double channel or Y-shaped Energy Flow Model : In nature both grazing food chain and detirous food
chain operate in the same ecosystem. However, sometimes it is the grazing food chain which
predominates. It happens in main ecosystem.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

An orderly process of changes in community structure and function with time through modification in
the physical environment also known as climates. There are two types of succession.

A. Hydro sere: This type of succession starts in a water body like pond. The community consists of
phytoplanktons, which are free floating algae, diatoms etc. Gradually there are replaced by rooted
submerged plants followed by rooted floating plants.

B. Xero sere: This originates on a bare rock which lacks water and organic matter. The community
consists of Crustaceans and Lichen. These Lichens produce weak acids and help in disintegration of
rock, a process known as weathering. Then comes the community of mosses, followed by herbs,
shrubs and finally the forest

MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

1. FOREST ECOSYSTEM

The different components of a forest ecosystem are:

Abiotic Component:

There are inorganic as well as organic substances present in the soil and atmosphere, dead organic
debris, litter accumulation, temperature climate. Moreover, the light conditions are different due to complex
stratification.

Biotic Components:

1. Producers: - There are mainly trees that show much species diversity such as Tectonia grandis, shorea
rubusta and Pinus besides trees there are also present shrubs and a ground vegetation.
2. Consumers: - There are herbivores include as ants, flies, beetles, leaf hopper, bugs and spiders. Larger
animals like elephants, nilghai, deer, squirrels and mangooses etc. Carnivores like snakes, birds,
lizards, fox, lion, tiger etc.
3. Decomposers: - There are wide variety of microorganism including fungi like Aspergillus, Fusarium,
Trichoderma bacteria like Bascillus, Clostridium, Psedomonas and Actinocycetes.

2. GRASS LAND ECOSYSTEM

Grass lands occupy, roughly 19% of the earth’s surface. The various components are

Abiotic Component :

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These are the nutrients present in soil and the aerial environment. Thus the elements like C, H, O, N,
P, S etc. are supplied by Carbon dioxide, Water, Nitrates, Phosphates and Sulphates etc. present in air and soil
of the area.

Biotic Component:

1. Producers: They are mainly grasses like Cyanodon, Digitaria etc besides few shrubs.

2. Consumers : Grazing animals as cows, buffaloes, deers, sheep, rabbit, mouse, termites and millipeds
etc. that feed on the leaves of grasses, carnivores like fox, jackals, snakes, birds etc.

3. decomposers : The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of different forms like fungi as
species of Mucor, Aspergillus, Pencillium, Cladosporium, Rhizopus, Fusarium etc. and some bacteria
like actinomycetes. They being back the minerals into the soil thus making them available to the
producers.

3. DESERT ECOSYSTEM

Deserts occupy about 17% of land, occurring in the region with an annual rainfall less than 25cm.

Aboitic Component :

Evaporation exceeds precipitation The atmosphere is very dry hence why the soil gets cooled up
quickly, making the nights cool. Day time with extreme temperatures.

Biotic Component :

1. Producers : There are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses. The shrubs have widespread, branched
root systems. Few succulents like Cacti along with Lichens and Xerophytic mosses may also be
present.
2. Consumers : These are reptiles and insects able to live under xeric conditions there are also some
nocturnal rodents and birds.

3. Decomposers : These are very few, as due to poor vegetation and the amount of dead organic matter is
correspondingly less. They are some fungi and bacterial mostly which are thermophilic.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS

1. POND ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic Component : The chief substances are heat, light PH value of water and the basic inorganic, organic
compounds such as water, carbondioxide, oxygen, calcium, nitrogen, phosphates amino acids, humic
acids etc.

Biotic Component :

1. Producers : There are antotrophic, green plants and some photosynthetic bacteria. The common
species are Tropa, Nymphaea, Hydrilla, Vallisneria, some free floating forms as Azolla, salvinia,
Wolfia, Eichhornia, Lemna etc. also occur in the pond. Algae – Ulothrix, spirogyra, Cladophora and
Oedogonium, Volvox, Diatoms, Chlamydomonas, are some flagellates.
2. Consumers : Most of them are herbivores (200 planktons) like rotifers, protozoans – Euglena,
Crustaceans like Cyclops. There are some Large fish that feed on smaller fish.
3. Decomposers : These are also called as micro consumers. Fungi like Rhigopus, Pencillium, Alternaria
and Trichoderma are most common decomposers in water and mud of the pond.

2. OCEAN (MARINE) ECOSYSTEM

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Abiotic Components :

Chemical Composition due to being saline, other physico – chemical properties like dissolved oxygen,
light and temperature.

Biotic Component :

1. Producers : These are mainly Phytoplankton’s are such as diatoms. Flagellates and some microscopic
algae. Besides them, a number of macroscopic seaweeds, brown and red algae are also present.
2. Consumers : These are herbivores like mollusks, small fish crustaceans etc carnivores like Herring,
Shad, and Mackerel fish. There are other higher carnivores fish like cod, Haddock, Halibut fish.

3. Decomposers : The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of producers and macro
consumers are chiefly bacteria and some fungi.

3. ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM

An estuary is a semi – enclosed coastal body of water which has a connection with sea. Ex:-river
mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes and water bodies behind beaches.

Abiotic Component :

These are the transition zones which are strongly affected by tidal action constant mixing of water stirs
up the silt which makes the nutrients available for the producers. There are wide variations in the stream flow,
tidal currents, temperature and salinity.

Biotic Component :
They have all the three kinds of producers like Macrophytes, Microphytes and Phytoplanktons. There
are many migratory species of fishes like eels and salmons which half of the life is spent in fresh water and half
in salt water.

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BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSEVATION

Definition :

Biodiversity refers to “The variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the
ecosystems in which they occur”. This can be subdivided into three levels as:

1. Genetic Diversity : When the genes within the same species show different versions due to new
combinations, it is called genetic variability. Ex: All rice varieties belong to the species Oryzasativa,
but there are several varieties of rice which show differ in the colour, size, shape, aroma and nutrient
content. This is the genetic diversity of the rice.
2. Species Diversity : This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different
species of community.
3. Ecosystem Diversity : This is the variability found in Ecosystems structure and functions along with
variations in physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.

BIOGEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

It has been classified into Ten biogeographic zones. Each of these zones has its own characteristic
climate, soil, topography and biodiversity.

1. Trans Himalayan – Upper Region

2. Himalayan – North West, West, Central and East Himalayan
3. Desert – Kutch, Thar, Ladakh
4. Semi Arid – Central India, Gujarath
5. Western Ghats – Malabar Coast, Mountains
6. Deccan Peninsula – South, Nagpur
7. Gangetic Plains – Upper and lower gangetic plain
8. Nort – East India – Brahmaputra Valley, North – Eastern Hills
9. Islands – Andaman, Lakshadweep
10. Coasts – West and East Coast.

Value of Biodiversity

The value of biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and aesthetic
value is enormous.

1. Commercial Value:

a. Food: - A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food its about 80,000 edible
plant species.

b. Drugs and Medicine: - About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for
medicine. Ex: Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called Pencillium, Tetracyclin
from Bacterium; Quinine to cure malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree.

c. Fuel: - Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels like coal, petrol and
natural gas are also products of biodiversity.

d. Productive use: - Tusks of elephant, musk of deer, silk worm, wool from sheep Lac from Lac insects,
Raw material for pulp and paper.

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2. Social Value:

These are the values associated with the social value, customs, religion and spiritual aspects of the
people. Ex: Tulsi, Peepal Mango, Lotus, etc. the leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in worship or
the plant itself is worshipped. Many animals like cow, snake are also have social value.

3. Ethical Value:

It is also known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like “all life must be preserved” based on
the concept of ‘Live and Let Live’.

4. Aesthetic Value:

People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit areas where they can enjoy
the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is known as ‘eco-tourism’ and it is estimated
that to generate about 12 billion dollars of revenue annually.

5. Ecological Service Value :

It refers to the services provide by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of
floods, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, pollutant absorption, cycling of water, their role as
carbon sinks, reduction of the threat of global warming etc.

HOT SPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed as hot spots of
biodiversity. The term was introduced by Myers (1988). There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity
on a global level out of which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayan and Western
Ghats.

a. Eastern Himalayas : There are numerous deep and semi – isolated valleys in Sikkim which are
extremely rich in endemic plant species. In an area of 7298 km 2 of Sikkim about 4250 plant species are
found.

b. Western Ghats : It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in M.H., Karnataka, Tamilnadu and
Kerala having rich plant species, amphibions, Lizards. It is reported that only 6.8% of the original
forest’s are existing today, while the rest has been deforested or degraded.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Human activity is the major threat to biodiversity and following are the chief causes of extinction of
species caused by man to fulfill its needs.
1. Habitat destruction.
2. Habitat fragmentation – Habit at occupied wide areas are now often divided up into pieces by roads,
fields, towns, canals, power lines etc.
3. Habitat pollution.
4. Introduction of exotic species.
5. Diseases
6. Shifting or Jhum cultivation.

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA

The international union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the Red
Data Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals. In India, nearly 450 plant
species 150 mammals, 150 Species of birds are identified as endangered.

a. Reptiles : Gharial, Green Sea Turtle, Tortoise, Python.

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b. Birds : Great Indian Bastard, Peacock, Pelican, Siberian White Crane.

c. Mammals : Wolf, Red Fox, Sloth Bear, Red Panda, Tiger, Leopard, Hyena, Lion.

d. Plants : Species of Orchids, Medicinal plants like Rauvolfia Serpentina, the sandalwood Santalum,
Cycas etc.

1. Extinct : A species when it is not seen in the wild for 50 yr at a streach.

2. Endangered : A species when its number has been reduced to a critical level or
whose habitats have been reduced.
3. Vulnerable : A category of a species population is facing continuous decline
due to over exploitation.
4. Rare : Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present but are a
risk.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic, ecological and
optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity. There are two types of approaches
biodiversity conservation.

1. In – situ Conservation (Within habitat):

This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in nature itself. These include

a. Biosphere Reserves : Conserve some representative ecosystems as whole for long term.

b. National Park : Is an area dedicated for the conservation of wild life along with its environment.
Ex : - Khaziranga – Assam – Rhino, Ghir – Gujarat – Lion , Bandipur – Karnataka – Elephant, Jim
Corbett – U.P. – Tiger

c. Wild life Sanctuaries : Are also protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of
wild life is prohibited. Ex: Hazaribagh – Bihar – Tiger, Leopard, Nal Sarovar Bird – Gujarat – Water
Birds Sanctuary.

II. Ex – Situ Conservation (Out side habitats)

This is done by establishment of gene banks, seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections
etc. In India we have following important gene bank / seed bank facilities.

i. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) – New Delhi – here agricultural and
horticultural crops and their wild relatives are preserved by cryo – preservation of seeds, pollen etc. by
using liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -1960C. Ex : Rice, Tomato, Onion, Carrot, Chilli,
Tobacco etc.

ii. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at Karnal, Haryana. It preserves the
semen of domesticated animals.

iii. National Facility for plant – tissue culture, repository (NFPTCR) for the development of a facility of
conservation of varieties of crop plants / trees by tissue culture.

S.BALACHANDAR
M.Sc, M.Tech (PhD) NET SET

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QUESTION BANK
Basics of Environmental Studies
1. Write about the importance of education on environmental issues and concerns.

2. Describe the multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies

3. Write a detailed note on the role of various organizations in the field of the environment and their
contribution to better management of resources

4. Discuss the importance of nature with respect to the following statements.

a. There is an urgent need to protect all living species.
b. Nature provides us with various options on how we utilize its goods and services

5. Discuss the importance of Environmental studies with respect to the following statements.
a. We live in a world where natural resources are limited.
b. Green spaces and gardens are vital to the psychological and physical health of city dwellers

6. Explain briefly about the following components of environment.

a) Atmosphere b) Lithosphere
c) Hydrosphere d) Biosphere

7. Explain the need for students from all courses to be aware of environmental issues.

8. Write briefly about the scope of Env. Studies.

9. Discuss the value of nature with respect to the following statements.

a. A true wilderness experience is an incredible learning experience.
b. The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect of the living and non-living part of
our earth

10. What is the role-played by the following individual environmental thinkers?

a) Indira Gandhi b) Sunderlal bahuguna
c) SP Godrej d) Anil Agarwal

11. What are the factors leading to the increased resource consumption on earth in recent years?

12. What is the role of science and engineering in the protection of environment?

13. Knowledge about the environment is not an end, but rather a beginning, explain.

14. Discuss the impact of man on environment mentioning the major environmental issues.

15. Examine the relationship between environment and ecosystem.

16. What do you understand by biotic and a biotic parts of nature? Explain the interaction and interdepency
of these

17. Write a short notes on Environmental impact Assessment.

18. What is meant by habitat?

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19. Give a brief account of human interference with the environment

20. Define the term Environment in context of human being.

21. Briefly describe the need of public awareness about the environment

22. Differentiate between climate and microclimate

23. Why mineral water bottles should not be used for longer periods?

24. What is an ESP?

25. What do you mean by Environmental Biotechnology?

Natural Resources
1. Write a brief note on
a) Non-renewable resources b) Renewable resources
c) Joint forests management. D) Floods as a serious environmental hazard

2. Write briefly about the unequal consumption pattern of the developed and developing countries

3. Explain the common courses and environmental impacts of deforestation.

4. a. Write a short note on the mineral resources of India.

b. List the possible social impacts of mining on local communities.

5. Explain the benefits and associated problems by construction of dams.

6. Compare the various kinds of alternative energy resources available on this earth.

7. Differentiate between renewable, non-renewable and sustainable resources of energy

8. Enumerate the methods of prevention of soil erosion.

9. Define the term desertification, what are the efforts to prevent the same.

10. Explain the causes the occurrence of landslides.

11. Explain the impacts of timber extraction.

12. Environmental damages caused by mining last long after the mine has closed Explain.

13. List the problems associated with the Chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

14. With a neat sketch explain the working of a fuel cell.

15. Explain the possible contributions of individuals towards energy conservation.

16. Discuss the various types of land degradation with its causes and solutions.

17. What is water logging? What are its effects on the environment?

18. Discuss the use of bioenergy as a non-conventional source of energy.

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19. Discuss the role played by the non-conventional energy resources towards the protection of the
environment.

20. What is soil? Explain its composition and formation?

21. Discuss in detail the water cycle

22. Write about sustainable water management.

23. What is Taungya system of agro forestry?

24. What is resident time of water in the air

25. What is mine spoil?

26. What is meant by energy plantation?

27. Name the basic resources of the earth mentioned in our ancient literature?

28. How the world’s natural resources classified?

29. Explain why soil resources are important for human welfare?

30. What are the main sources of energy in the world today?

31. What is an aquifer? Describe its types.

32. What are environmental impacts of ground water usage?

33. What are the impacts of overgrazing on agriculture?

34. Discuss the impacts of modern agriculture on crop production

35. What is mining? Describe different methods of mining?

36. Explain the value of mineral resources as natural recourses?

37. Give an account of water crisis and conflicts over water

38. Explain about Eutrophication?

39. Define Pedology.

40. How can mineral recourses can be preserved?

41. What is the global energy consumption pattern?

42. What are the pros and cons of nuclear power?

43. How can we improve energy efficiency?

44. Why are fossil fuels non-renewable?

45. What are the prospects of getting more hydropower?

Ecosystems
1. What do you understand by food chain a in an ecosystem

2. How does a complex food web protect the ecosystem from degradation?

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3. Explain the significance of presenting balance in various kind of ecosystems illustrate with examples.

4. Describe the structure and functions of ecosystems.

5. Define ecosystem and list components of an ecosystem.

6. Briefly explain the manner in which ecosystems are destroyed by human activities.

7. Write a detailed note on the forest ecosystem, bringing out its functions

8. Explain the role of produces consumers and decomposers in an ecosystem.

9. Discuss the environmental factors affecting the performance of an aquatic ecosystem.

10. Describe how you would methodically record the elements and resources in an ecosystem and assess its
functioning.

11. Describe the energy flow in an ecosystem

12. What are biogeochemical cycles? How does nitrogen circulation occurs in nature

13. What are the basic differences of community, ecosystem and biome?

14. What is an ecological succession? Mention its types.

15. Briefly explain an aquatic ecosystem.

16. What do you mean by biomagnification ?

17. Explain the concept of ecological pyramid

18. Explain the functioning of a hydrological cycle

19. What is Detrius?

20. What type of ecological pyramid is always upright?

21. What are pioneer species?

22. What is xerosere and hydrosome?

23. Why the decomposers were called as micro consumers?

24. Explain the concept of food chain.

25. What do you mean by climax?

26. Give the silent features of pond ecosystem

27. What is grassland ecosystem and what are the activities in grassland?

28. Explain the process of succession in a newly formed pond

29. What is the role-played by autographs in an any ecosystem

30. What is the primary source of energy for all living organisms?

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31. How are ecosystems classified?

32. How does an ecosystem get established?

33. What are cycles in ecosystems?

34. How are different biomes distributed in the world?

35. What are the important types of forests in India?

36. What are coral reefs?

37. Why are estuaries and coastal wetlands important?

Biodiversity and its conservation

1. Write a brief note on biodiversity and ecosystem diversity.

2. Explain the evolution of diverse species in an ecosystem

3. Why is it necessary to maintain biodiversity?

4. What are the different services that are contributed in various ways by biodiversity?

5. What do you understand by endemic and endangered species? How are they categorized give some
examples of such species in India.

6. List some common plant and animal species of India.

7. What is ‘in-situ’ and ‘ex-situ’ conservation of biodiversity? Explain briefly about each

8. What do you understand by the term biodiversity? Write briefly about the different kinds of diversity
in organisms

9. What is an integrated protected area system? How do these contribute to preservation of biodiversity?

10. List the biogeographically zones of India.

11. Define the term Hotspot in Biodiversity.

12. Discuss the status of India as a mega diverse nation of biodiversity

13. Explain the efforts taken towards conservation of biodiversity in India.

14. Is biotechnology a threat to biodiversity? Substantiate your answer with examples.

15. What are national parks? Name few such parks in India

16. What is Cryopreservation

17. What are botanochemicals

16. Define Exotic species

17. Name the two hotspots of India

18. Expand IUCN and WWF

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19. What is the major cause of extinction of species?

20. Name the most rich biodiversity places of India

21. Name the plants which yield drug for Malaria and Cancer

22. What is the impact of altitude and latitude on the distribution of biodiversity?

23. Differentiate between national parks and sanctuaries

24. Give any two significances of conservation of biodiversity

25. What is meant by species richness?

26. What is meant by Alpha diversity?

27. Which were called as rare species?

28. Discuss the values of biodiversity

29. What is the role-played by Biosphere reserve

30. What do you mean by Red Book?

31. Describe the benefits of biological diversity

32. How many species are there in this world?

33. What is the level of biodiversity in India?

34. What will be the impact of biodiversity lost?

35. What actions have we taken to conserve India’s biodiversity?

S.BALACHANDAR
M.Sc,M.Tech (PhD) NET SET

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