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Introduction To Number Theory: Algebraic Structure Group

This document introduces algebraic structures, specifically groups. It defines the four properties an set and binary operation must satisfy to be a group: closure, associativity, an identity element, and inverse elements. Examples of infinite groups include integers under addition. Permutations on a set of objects is used to illustrate a finite group. Specifically, the set of permutations of three objects P3 is shown to satisfy the four group properties when the binary operation is composition of permutations.

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youssef safey
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125 views38 pages

Introduction To Number Theory: Algebraic Structure Group

This document introduces algebraic structures, specifically groups. It defines the four properties an set and binary operation must satisfy to be a group: closure, associativity, an identity element, and inverse elements. Examples of infinite groups include integers under addition. Permutations on a set of objects is used to illustrate a finite group. Specifically, the set of permutations of three objects P3 is shown to satisfy the four group properties when the binary operation is composition of permutations.

Uploaded by

youssef safey
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Introduction to

Number Theory

Lecture 6

Algebraic Structure
Group

By
Dr. Safaa Amin
• Cryptography requires sets of integers and specific
operations that are defined for those sets. The combination
of the set and the operations that are applied to the
elements of the set is called algebraic structure.. In this
lecture we will define three common algebraic structures:
Groups, Rings and Fields
Groups, rings and fields are mathematical objects that share a lot of things
in common. You can always find a ring in a field, and you can always find a
group in a ring.
WHAT DOES IT TAKE FOR A SET OF OBJECTS TO
FORM A GROUP?
• A set of objects, along with a binary operation (meaning an operation
that is applied to two objects at a time) on the elements of the set,
must satisfy the following four properties for the set of objects to be
called a group:

1- Closure with respect to the operation.


Closure means that if a and b are in the set, then the element a ◦ b = c
is also in the set. The symbol ◦ denotes the operator for the desired
operation.
2- Associativity with respect to the operation.
Associativity means that (𝑎 ◦ 𝑏) ◦ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ◦ (𝑏 ◦ 𝑐).
3- Guaranteed existence of a unique identity element
with regard to the operation. An element e would be called an identity
element if for every a in the set, we have a ◦ e = a.
4- The existence of an inverse element
for each element regarding the operation. That is, for every a in the set,
the set must also contain an element b such that a ◦ b = e assuming that
e is the identity element.
Infinite Groups vs. Finite Groups
(Permutation Groups)
• Infinite groups, meaning groups based on sets of infinite size, are
rather easy to imagine. For example:
• Example 1: The set of all integers — positive, negative, and zero —
along with the operation of arithmetic addition constitutes a group.
• Example 2: The set of all even integers — positive, negative, and zero
— under the operation of arithmetic addition is a group.
• Example 3: The set of all ODD integers — positive, negative— under
the operation of arithmetic addition is not a group. (it is not closed
under addition ex. 𝑂𝑑𝑑 + 𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 3 + 5 = 8
Infinite Groups- Examples
• Example 4: For a given value of N, the set of all 𝑁 × 𝑁 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 over real
numbers under the operation of matrix addition constitutes a group.
• Example 5: The set of all 3 × 3 nonsingular matrices, along with the matrix
multiplication as the operator, forms a group. [What do you think is the
identity element for this group? By the way, this group, denoted GL(3), plays a
very important role in computer graphics and computer vision. GL stands for
‘General Linear’.]
• Example 6: The set of all 3 × 3 nonsingular matrices, along with the matrix
Addition as the operator, not a group.. Because it is not closed under addition
- Invertible matrix+ invertible matrix may equal non-invertible matrix
But what about finite groups?
An Example That Illustrates the Binary
Operation of Composition of Two Permutations
What About the Other Three Conditions that P3
Must Satisfy If It is a Group?
• Since it is a small enough set, we can also easily demonstrate that P3 obeys the
associativity property with respect to the composition-of-permutations operator. This we
can do by showing that for any three elements ρ1, ρ2, and ρ3 of the set P3, the following
will always be true
• Again, because P3 is a small sized set, we can easily demonstrate that
for every ρ ∈ P3 there exists another unique element π ∈ P3 such that
• ρ ◦ π = π ◦ ρ = the identity element
• For each ρ, we may refer to such a π as ρ’s inverse. For the sake of
convenience, we may use the notation −ρ for such a π
PermuationExample –in summary
Case #1 𝒁𝟓 ,∗
Case #2 𝒁𝟔 ,∗
Conclusion

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