FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS

SCIENCE

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. List six different property classifications of materials that determine their applicability.
2. Cite the four components that are involved in the design, production, and utilization of
materials, and briefly describe the interrelationships between these components.
3. Cite three criteria that are important in the materials selection process.
4. (a) List the three primary classifications of solid materials, and then cite the distinctive
chemical feature of each. (b) Note the four types of advanced materials and, for each, its
distinctive feature(s).
5. (a) Briefly define “smart material/system.” (b) Briefly explain the concept of “nanotechnology”
as it applies to materials.

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INTRODUCTION
The beverage container is a well-known item that is made
from three different types of materials. Aluminum (metal) cans,
glass (ceramic) bottles, and plastic (polymer) bottles are used to
package beverages.

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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The ability of individuals to generate and use things to
meet their requirements has been integrally linked to the
development and advancement of civilizations throughout history.
In reality, the level of material development of early civilizations
has been used to classify them (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).

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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Only a few number of materials were available to the early people,
all of which were found naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With
time, they developed processes for creating materials with qualities that
were superior to those of natural materials, such as pottery and various
metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that heat treatments and the
addition of other compounds might modify the qualities of a material.
Materials utilization was purely a selection process at this period, involving
selecting the best material for a given application based on its qualities
among a limited collection of materials.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Subdividing the discipline of materials science and engineering
into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines is
sometimes useful. Materials science, strictly speaking, is the study of
the links that exist between the structures and properties of
materials. Materials engineering, on the other hand, is the process of
developing or engineering a material's structure to create a
predetermined set of attributes based on these structure–property
correlations.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
A materials scientist's job is to design or synthesize new
materials, whereas a materials engineer's job is to produce new
products or systems using existing materials and/or to develop
materials processing processes.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Structure is a hazy phrase at this point that requires some
explanation. In a nutshell, a material's structure usually refers to the
arrangement of its interior components. Subatomic structure is made
up of electrons within atoms and their interactions with their nuclei.
Structure refers to the arrangement of atoms or molecules in relation
to one another at the atomic level. Microscopic refers to the next
larger structural domain, which contains vast groupings of atoms that
are generally agglomerated together and is subject to direct view
using a microscope. Finally, macroscopic structural elements are those
that can be seen with the naked eye.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative
qualities of solid materials can all be classified into one of six groups. There
is a certain type of stimulus for each that can elicit varied responses. Elastic
modulus (stiffness), strength, and toughness are examples of mechanical
qualities that connect deformation to an applied load or force. The stimulus
for electrical qualities like electrical conductivity and dielectric constant is
an electric field. The heat capacity and thermal conductivity of solids can be
used to describe their thermal behavior. The response of a material to the
introduction of a magnetic field is demonstrated by magnetic characteristics.
The stimulus for optical qualities is electromagnetic or light radiation;
example optical properties include index of refraction and reflectivity. Finally,
deteriorative properties are related to a material's chemical reactivity.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Processing and performance are two more key components in
the science and engineering of materials, in addition to structure and
characteristics. The structure of a material will be determined by the
relationships between these four components and how it is handled.
Furthermore, the performance of a material is determined by its
qualities. As shown in the schematic image on the next slide, the
interaction between processing, structure, properties, and
performance is as follows. The links between these four components
in terms of material design, production, and use are highlighted
throughout this work.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Processing Structure Properties Performance

The four components of the discipline of materials science and

engineering and their interrelationship.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Three aluminum oxide thin disk specimens that have been laid atop a printed
sheet to show their variances in light-transmittance characteristics. The disk on the left is
translucent (meaning that some of the reflected light passes through it), whereas the one in
the center is transparent (meaning that some of the reflected light passes through it). The
right-hand disk is opaque, which means that no light goes through it. These variances in
optical properties are the result of structural changes in these materials, which are the
result of how the materials were produced.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
In figure, a snapshot of three thin disk specimens put over some
printed matter, illustrates these processing-structure-properties-
performance principles. The optical characteristics (i.e., light transmittance)
of the three materials are obviously different; the one on the left is
transparent (i.e., practically all reflected light goes through it), whereas the
disks in the middle and on the right are translucent and opaque, respectively.
All of these specimens are made of aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is
a single crystal, meaning it has a high degree of perfection, which gives it its
transparency. The one in the middle is made up of a lot of tiny single crystals
that are all connected; the borders between these little crystals scatter
some of the light reflected from the printed page, making this substance
optically transparent.

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Finally, the specimen on the right is made up of a huge
number of very small holes or blank spaces in addition to many
small, interconnecting crystals. These pores also scatter reflected
light effectively, making the material opaque. As a result, the
crystal boundaries and pores in all three specimens are different,
affecting the optical transmittance qualities. Furthermore, each
material was created utilizing a different method of processing.
And, of course, if optical transmittance is a critical metric for the
final in-service application, each material's performance will differ.

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WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING?
Many applied scientists and engineers, whether mechanical,
civil, chemical, or electrical, may be confronted with a material
design dilemma at some point. A transmission gear, a building's
superstructure, an oil refinery component, or an integrated
circuit chip are all examples. Materials scientists and engineers, of
course, are experts who are deeply involved in the research and
development of materials.

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WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE
AND ENGINEERING?
Choosing the proper material among the dozens of options available is sometimes the most
difficult part of a materials problem. The final decision is usually dependent on a number of factors. First
and foremost, the in-service conditions must be identified, as these will determine the material's
qualities. Only very rarely does a material have the best or most optimal combination of attributes. As a
result, it may be essential to trade one trait for another. Strength and ductility are a classic example;
typically, a material with strong strength would have limited ductility. A reasonable compromise between
two or more attributes may be required in such instances.

The deterioration of material qualities that may occur during service operation is a second
selection concern. Exposure to high temperatures or corrosive conditions, for example, can cause severe
mechaanical strength loss.

Finally, economics is likely to be the most important consideration: How much will the final
product cost? A material with the ideal set of features may be discovered, but it is too expensive. Again,
some form of compromise is unavoidable. Any costs paid during fabrication to achieve the required
shape are included in the finished piece's price.
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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Metals, ceramics, and polymers are the three major categories

that solid materials have been divided into. This classification system is
based mostly on chemical composition and atomic structure, and
most materials fit into one of two categories. Composites, which are
designed mixtures of two or more different materials, are another
option. Following that is a quick description of various material classes
and typical properties. Advanced materials, which include
semiconductors, biomaterials, smart materials, and nanoengineered
materials, are another type of material employed in high-tech
applications.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Metals
This set of materials contains one or more metallic elements (e.g., iron, aluminum,
copper, titanium, gold, and nickel) as well as nonmetallic elements (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and
oxygen) in modest proportions. Metals and their alloys have very ordered atom
arrangements and are relatively dense in compared to ceramics and polymers. Mechanically,
these materials are quite stiff and strong, but they are also ductile (i.e., capable of substantial
quantities of deformation without fracture) and fracture resistant, which explains their
widespread usage in structural applications. Nonlocalized electrons, or electrons that are
not bound to specific atoms, are abundant in metallic materials. These electrons are directly
responsible for many of the properties of metals. Metals, for example, are excellent
conductors of electricity and heat and are not visible light translucent; a polished metal
surface has a shiny aspect. Furthermore, several of the metals (e.g., Fe, Co, and Ni) have
magnetic properties that are desirable.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Ceramics
Ceramics are mixtures of metallic and nonmetallic materials, with oxides, nitrides, and
carbides being the most common. Aluminum oxide (or alumina, Al2O3), silicon dioxide (or silica,
SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4), and, in addition, what some refer to as classic
ceramics—those made of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), cement, and glass—are all typical ceramic
materials. Ceramic materials are relatively stiff and robust mechanically—their stiffnesses and
strengths are equivalent to those of metals. Furthermore, they are usually extremely difficult.
Ceramics have long been known for their exceptional brittleness (lack of elasticity) and susceptibility
to fracture. Newer ceramics, on the other hand, are being developed to have better fracture
resistance; these materials are utilized in cookware, cutlery, and even vehicle engine parts. Ceramic
materials are also more resistant to high temperatures and severe environments than metals and
polymers because they are insulative to the flow of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical
conductivities). Ceramics can be transparent, translucent, or opaque in terms of optical properties,
and some oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) have magnetic properties.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Polymers
Polymers include things like plastic and rubber. Many of them are organic molecules made
up of carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic components in their chemical makeup (i.e., O, N, and
Si). They also have very massive molecular structures, which are frequently chainlike in character and
feature a carbon atom backbone. Polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate
(PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber are some of the most prevalent and well-known polymers.
These materials usually have low densities, and their mechanical properties differ from those of
metallic and ceramic materials—they are not as stiff or robust as these other material kinds.
However, because of their low densities, their stiffnesses and strengths are often equivalent to metals
and ceramics on a per-mass basis. Furthermore, many of the polymers are ductile and flexible (i.e.,
plastic), making them easy to mold into complicated shapes. Chemically, they are relatively inert and
unreactive in a wide variety of conditions. The polymers' tendency to soften and/or breakdown at low
temperatures is one of their significant drawbacks, which limits their application in several cases. They
are also nonmagnetic and have poor electrical conductivities.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Familiar objects that are

made of metals and metal Common objects that are Several common objects that are
alloys (from left to right): made of ceramic materials: made of polymeric materials: plastic
silverware (fork and scissors, a china teacup, a tableware (spoon,
knife), scissors, coins, a building brick, a floor tile, fork, and knife), billiard balls, a
gear, a wedding ring, and a and a glass vase. bicycle helmet, two dice, a lawn
nut and bolt. mower wheel (plastic hub and rubber
tire), and a plastic milk carton.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Composites
A composite is made up of two (or more) distinct materials from the previously
mentioned categories of metals, ceramics, and polymers. A composite's design goal is to
achieve a mix of attributes that no single material can match, as well as to include the best
characteristics of each of the component components. Different combinations of metals,
ceramics, and polymers represent a wide range of composite kinds. Furthermore, some
naturally occurring materials, such as wood and bone, are composites. However, the
majority of the composites we address in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made).
Fiberglass, in which minute glass fibers are inserted into a polymeric material, is
one of the most prevalent and well-known composites (normally an epoxy or polyester).
The polymer is more flexible than the glass fibers, which are relatively robust and stiff (but
also fragile). As a result, fiberglass is stiff, robust, and flexible. Furthermore, it has a low
density.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Bar chart of room-temperature density values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and
composite materials.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Bar chart of room-temperature stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for various metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Bar chart of room-temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength) values for various metals,
ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Bar chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e., fracture toughness) for various
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Bar chart of room-temperature electrical conductivity ranges for metals, ceramics,

polymers, and semiconducting materials.

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ADVANCED MATERIALS

Advanced materials refer to materials that are used in high-technology (or

high-tech) applications. Electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, and
so on), computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry are
examples of high technology devices and products. Traditional materials with
improved qualities, as well as newly invented high-performance materials, are
examples of advanced materials. They can also be made of any substance (e.g.,
metals, ceramics, or polymers) and are typically pricey. Semiconductors,
biomaterials, and "materials of the future" (smart materials and nanoengineered
materials), which we will explore next, are examples of advanced materials.
Following chapters go on the properties and applications of a variety of these
modern materials, such as those utilized in lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic
information storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and fiber optics.

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ADVANCED MATERIALS

Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that fall somewhere
between those of conductors (metals and metal alloys) and insulators
(ceramics and polymers). Furthermore, the existence of minute
quantities of impurity atoms, which may be regulated over very small
spatial regions, has a significant impact on the electrical properties of
these materials. Over the last three decades, semiconductors have
enabled the development of integrated circuitry, which has completely
transformed the electronics and computer industries (not to mention
our lives).
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ADVANCED MATERIALS

Biomaterials
Biomaterials are used in implanted components to replace
diseased or damaged bodily parts in humans. These materials must not
produce poisonous compounds and must be compatible with bodily
tissues (i.e., they must not cause biological reactions that are harmful).
Metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors are just a
few of the materials that can be employed as biomaterials. The online
Biomaterials Module, for example, discusses some of the biomaterials
used in prosthetic hip replacements.
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ADVANCED MATERIALS

Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a class of cutting-edge
materials that are currently being created and will have a major
impact on many of our technologies. The adjective smart denotes
the ability of these materials to detect changes in their
surroundings and then respond in preset ways to these
changes—characteristics that are also found in live beings.
Furthermore, the "smart" notion is being used to more complex
systems that combine smart and traditional materials.
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ADVANCED MATERIALS

Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are a novel material class with interesting
characteristics and enormous technological potential. Metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites are the four primary categories of
nanomaterials. The nano-prefix signifies that the dimensions of these
structural entities are on the order of a nanometer (10–9 m)—in
most cases, less than 100 nanometers (equal to around 500 atom
diameters)—in contrast to these other materials, they are
characterized by size rather than chemistry.
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