ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

SCIENTIFIC WRITING

The term scientific writing commonly denotes the reporting of original research in journals, through scientific
papers in standard format. In its broader sense, scientific writing also includes communication about
science through other types of journal articles, such as review papers summarizing and integrating
previously published research. And in a still broader sense, it includes other types of professional
communication by scientists—for example, grant proposals, oral presentations, and poster presentations.
Related endeavors include writing about science for the public, sometimes called science writing.

Scientific writing is the transmission of a clear signal to a recipient. The words of the signal should be as
clear, simple, and well-ordered as possible. In scientific writing, there is little need for ornamentation.
Flowery literary embellishments—metaphors, similes, idiomatic expressions—are very likely to cause
confusion and should seldom be used in research papers. Science is simply too important to be
communicated in anything other than words of certain meaning. And the meaning should be clear and
certain not just to peers of the author, but also to students just embarking on their careers, to scientists
reading outside their own narrow disciplines, and especially to those readers (most readers today) whose
native language is other than English. Many kinds of writing are designed for entertainment. Scientific
writing has a different purpose: to communicate new scientific findings. Scientific writing should be as clear
and simple as possible.

Human beings have been able to communicate for thousands of years. Yet scientific communication as we
know it today is relatively new. The first journals were published about 350 years ago, and the IMRAD
(introduction, methods, results, and discussion) organization of scientific papers has developed within
about the past century. Knowledge, scientific or otherwise, could not be effectively communicated until
appropriate mechanisms of communication became available. Prehistoric people could communicate orally,
of course, but each new generation started from essentially the same baseline because, without written
records to refer to, knowledge was lost almost as rapidly as it was found.

SCIENTIFIC PAPER
A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. That short definition
must be qualified, however, by noting that a scientific paper must be written in a certain way, as defined by
tradition, editorial practice, scientific ethics, and the interplay of printing and publishing procedures.
To properly define “scientific paper,” we must define the mechanism that creates a scientific paper, namely,
valid (that is, primary) publication. Abstracts, theses, conference reports, and many other types of literature
are published, but such publications do not normally meet the test of valid publication. Further, even if a
scientific paper meets all the other tests, it is not validly published if it is published in the wrong place. That
is, a relatively poor research report, but one that meets the tests, is validly published if accepted and
published in the right place (a primary journal or other primary publication); a superbly prepared research
report is not validly published if published in the wrong place.
Most of the government literature and conference literature, as well as institutional bulletins and other
ephemeral publications, do not qualify as primary literature.
An acceptable primary scientific publication must be the first disclosure containing sufficient information to
enable peers (1) to assess observations, (2) to repeat experiments, and (3) to evaluate intellectual
processes;

1
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

moreover, it must be susceptible to sensory perception, essentially permanent, available to the scientific
community without restriction, and available for regular screening by one or more of the major recognized
secondary services. Various types of organization are used in descriptive areas of science. To determine
how to organize such papers and which general headings to use, refer to the instructions to authors of your
target journal and look at analogous papers the journal has published. Also, you can obtain general
information from appropriate source books. In short, the preparation of a scientific paper has less to do with
literary skill than with organization. A scientific paper is not literature. The preparer of a scientific paper is
not an author in the literary sense. As an international colleague noted, this fact can comfort those writing
scientific papers other than in their native language. Some old-fashioned colleagues think that scientific
papers should be literature, that the style and flair of an author should be clearly evident, and that variations
in style encourage the interest of the reader. Scientists should indeed be interested in reading literature,
and perhaps even in writing literature, but the communication of research results is a more prosaic
procedure.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS an organized and logical activity, and therefore reporting research must also
be well organized and logical.This unit provides the basic elements of the procedures and techniques that
will facilitate reporting research results. Through regular practice, using the techniques explained here, you
can gradually improve your skills in writing research papers.

Writing scientific papers

One common question researcher often ask is, 'Why should scientists write research papers?' The many
reasons include helping advance knowledge in a particular field, supporting the progression of a
professional career, satisfying the donor who provided the 􀆑 scientific writing for agricultural research
scientistsfunding for research, and of course, becoming famous. The most important reason to write
research papers and reports is to communicate—because effective communication is vital for science to
progress.

Characteristics of a good scientific paper

A good scientific paper should—
􀂉 present an accurate account of the research investigation
􀂉 be clearly written and easily understood
􀂉 follow the particular style of the scientific discipline
􀂉 be free of jargon and local slang
􀂉 have appropriate and adequate illustrative material, all of which should be relevant to the subject of the
report
􀂉 not contain any plagiarized material (plagiarism is a serious offence and is a serious charge against an
author; see unit 15)

Structure of a research paper

In general, a research report or paper is written using the IMRAD logic. This very simple format is
universally used in scientific reporting. The acronym IMRAD is derived from—
Introduction
Materials and methods
Results

2
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

And
Discussion
IMRAD form of presenting research papers 􀆑

The parts of a paper—in brief

A typical scientific research paper consists of the following elements, listed here in the order in which they
appear in the paper.
Title: As this is the 'label' of the paper, make it brief and suitable for indexing
Authors: List the names of the people who have done the work and written the paper
Postal addresses: Include full addresses, to enable readers to correspond with the authors
Abstract: Briefly describe the problem and the solution
Introduction: What is the problem? Define your parameters
Materials and methods: How did you study the problem? Enable others to repeat your experiment
Results: What did you find? Present data
Discussion: What do these findings mean? Discuss your results
Acknowledgements: Give credit or thanks to those who helped substantially
References: List your authority for statements made

Guidelines for the parts of a paper

These guidelines have been taken from Editing and publication: a training manual1; see the recommended
reading list at the end of this manual. Although the elements of a typical research paper follow one another
as listed above, we will deal with them here following the IMRAD form—often the order in which the parts
are written.

INTRODUCTION
A good introduction is relatively short. In general it—
􀂉 tells why the reader should find the paper of interest
􀂉 tells why the author carried out the research
􀂉 gives the background the reader needs to understand and judge the paper with permission from the
author, Ian Montagnes, and the publisher, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
􀆑 scientific writing for agricultural research scientists Specifically it—
􀂉 defines the nature and extent of the problems studied
􀂉 relates the research to previous work—perhaps by a brief review of the literature, but only that which is
clearly relevant to the problem
􀂉 explains the objectives and method of investigation, including, if necessary, the reason why a particular
method was chosen
􀂉 defines any specialized terms or abbreviations to be used in what follows
Watch that—
􀂉 you lead logically to the hypothesis or principal theme
􀂉 you state the hypothesis clearly
􀂉 your introduction does all that it should in no more than two typewritten pages

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The simplest way to organize this section is chronologically. You must provide all the information needed to
allow another researcher to judge your study or actually repeat your experiment. The section includes—

3
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

􀂉 the design of the experiment

􀂉 any plants or animals involved, with exact descriptions (genus, species, strain, cultivar, line, etc.)
􀂉 The materials used, with exact technical specifications and quantities and their source or method of
preparation. (Generic or chemical names are better than trade names, which may not be universally
recognized)
􀂉 the assumptions made
􀂉 the methods followed, usually in chronological order, described with as much precision and detail as
necessary. (Standard methods need only be mentioned, or may be described by reference to the literature
as long as it is readily available.
Modifications of standard techniques should be described. If the method is new it should be described in
detail. Methods of interpreting data should be described as well as methods of finding data)

IMRAD form of presenting research papers 􀆑

Watch that—
􀂉 there are no ambiguities in abbreviations or names
􀂉 all quantities are in standard units
􀂉 all chemicals are so specifically identified that another scientist can match them exactly in repeating the
work
􀂉 every step is stated, including the number of replications
􀂉 all techniques are described, at least by name if they are standard or in as much detail as needed if you
have modified a standard technique or devised a new one
􀂉 nothing is included that does not relate to the results that follow
􀂉 there are no unnecessary details that may confuse the reader

RESULTS
This is the core of the paper, presenting the data that you have found. It is usually easiest to follow the
results if you present them in the same order as you gave the objectives in the introduction. Well presented
results—
􀂉 are simply and clearly stated
􀂉 report representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data
􀂉 reduce large masses of data to means, along with the standard error or standard deviation
􀂉 report repetitive data in tables and graphs, not in the text
􀂉 repeat in the text only the most important findings shown in tables and graphs
􀂉 include negative data—what was not found —if (but only if) they affect the interpretation of results
􀂉 give only data that relate to the subject of the paper as defined in the introduction
􀂉 refer in the text to every table and figure by number
􀂉 include only tables, figures and graphs that are necessary, clear and worth reproducing Watch out for
and avoid
􀂉 repetition of data
􀂉 unnecessary negative data
􀂉 unnecessary figures or graphs
􀂉 unnecessary words
􀆑 scientific writing for agricultural research scientists

4
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

DISCUSSION
Here you explain what the results mean and their implications for future study. This is the most difficult part
of the paper, in which you pull everything together and show the significance of your work. Your reader
should not end up saying, 'So what?' A good discussion—
􀂉 does not repeat what has already been said in the review of literature
􀂉 relates the results to the questions that were set out in the introduction
􀂉 shows how the results and interpretations agree, or do not agree, with previously published work
􀂉 discusses theoretical implications of the work
􀂉 states conclusions, with evidence for each
􀂉 indicates the significance of the results
􀂉 suggests future research that is planned or is needed to follow up the results

Be sure that you have—

􀂉 dealt with each of the originally stated objectives
􀂉 followed the order of your original objectives
􀂉 introduced previously (most likely in the introduction) the subject of each conclusion, so that none comes
as a surprise
􀂉 avoided unnecessary detail or repetition from preceding sections
􀂉 reported previously all methods, observations or results referred to in this section—none of these should
be mentioned for the first time
􀂉 interpreted the results and suggested their implications or significance

TITLE
The title of your paper will probably be read more than any other part, both by scientists scanning the
contents of a journal and by those depending on searches through secondary sources, which always carry
the title and author but may or may not carry abstracts. The title may be reprinted in bibliographies and
subject indexes, stored in bibliographic databases and cited in other articles. A good title may help future
researchers find important information, a poor title hamper them from doing so. A good title for a research
report—

IMRAD form of presenting research papers 􀆑

􀂉 contains as few words as possible (many journals limit titles to 25 words; some want fewer)
􀂉 describes the contents of the paper accurately
􀂉 describes the subject as specifically as possible within the limits of space
􀂉 avoids abbreviations, formulas and jargon
􀂉 usually omits the verb and is only a label
􀂉 is as easy to understand as possible
􀂉 contains key words, for the benefit of information retrieval systems
Be sure that you—
􀂉 cut out unnecessary words, especially like 'Some notes on . . .' or 'Observations on. . .'; make your title
come to the point
􀂉 write a title that is accurate and specific
􀂉 do not promise more than is in your paper; usually a title reports the subject of the research rather than
the results
􀂉 include as many key words as possible, as they will be used for indexing and computer searching

5
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

􀂉 make the most important words stand out, usually by putting them
first
􀂉 follow the style preference of the publication for which you are writing

AUTHORS
The names should—
􀂉 be complete enough to ensure proper identification; if there is any chance of confusion, use full names
instead of initials
􀂉 include only people who are truly authors
􀂉 be listed in a logical order—for instance, alphabetically or in order of importance to the work being
reported
􀂉 each be followed by an address, presented according to the style of the publication for which the paper
is being written
Remember that—
􀂉 only people who have made an important contribution to planning and carrying out the research should
be listed as authors
􀂉 anyone listed as an author should also have helped to draft the paper or have revised important parts of
it
􀆑 scientific writing for agricultural research scientists
􀂉 as collecting data is not enough to make a person an author, technicians and other helpers are usually
mentioned in the acknowledgements
􀂉 each co-author should give final approval to the version that is to be published
􀂉 unless names appear alphabetically, the first person listed is considered the senior author; others may
be listed according to the importance of contribution to the experiment. Sometimes the head of a laboratory
or institute wants to be considered an author of all papers coming from the organization; a proper place is
as the last author, recognized as a position of importance
􀂉 the battle to get listed as an author may become severe; it is wise to agree on authorship and order even
before the study begins, although they may be changed later

ABSTRACT
The abstract should be definitive rather than descriptive; that is, it should give facts rather than say the
paper is 'about' something. A good abstract
􀂉 is short–usually 200 to 250 words, usually in one paragraph
􀂉 stands on its own, is complete in itself (it may be published separately in secondary sources)
􀂉 reports the objective of the research, its extent or scope, the methods used, the main results including
any newly observed facts, the principal conclusions and their significance
􀂉 contains all the key words by which the paper should be indexed.
These are sometimes listed separately below the abstract It should not contain—
􀂉 references to tables or figures, as these appear only in the paper
􀂉 abbreviations or acronyms unless they are standard or explained
􀂉 references to literature cited
􀂉 any information or conclusion not in the paper itself
􀂉 general statements or abstracts; findings should be given as hard facts

6
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Here you can thank any institution or individual who helped significantly in your work This may be a
granting agency that

IMRAD form of presenting research papers 􀆑

supplied funds, a laboratory that supplied materials, or a person who gave advice. You can say here if your
work arose from your thesis. If there is no separate acknowledgements section you may include such
material in the introduction or as a footnote or endnote.

REFERENCES
The reference list must include all works cited in the text and no works not cited. See unit 7 for detailed
information on preparing your reference list.

TABLES AND FIGURES

See units 8 and 9 for information and guidelines on how to prepare your tables and figures.

The ‘backbone’ of a scientific report

A scientific paper has four main parts: Introduction - Materials and Methods - Results - And Discussion
(IMRAD). This is the backbone of your report. Some handbooks indicate that ‘Conclusion and
recommendations’ are part of Discussion, while others argue that it constitutes the fifth main part of the
report. In addition to the main body of the report, there are of course other elements, which come before or
after the central part of the report or paper. The title, abstract, acknowledgments, and list of references are
all examples. We shall consider these latter items in their place, after the paper has been written. Some
specific rules should guide authors in writing each of the main parts.

Introduction

There is no clear-cut rule regarding the length of the introduction of a scientific paper. The ambiguous rule
is that it should be no longer than necessary to introduce the paper and encourage the reader to stay with
you into the full treatment. As a guideline, consider the following remarks:

• Present first, with all possible clarity, the nature and scope of the problem investigated. Relate it to
some “higher” good, for example, to solve a social problem, to overcome an economic constraint,
to find an answer to a pressing question, or to advance knowledge. Where and how does the
problem appear? How wide are its impacts?
• Review the pertinent literature to orient the reader; use only literature pertaining directly to the
study, rather than the bibliography of the author’s reading on the subject. The purpose of the
literature review is to give the reader background to understand the work.
• Then indicate the method of the investigation. If necessary, state the reasons for the choice of a
particular method. Identify the method, but do not describe it. That will come in a section of it’s
own. Let the reader know how you went about the study.

7
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

• State the principal results of the investigation. A scientific paper is not a suspense novel. The
reader wants to know early whether you found significant results. However not in detail, that comes
in another section.
• State the main conclusions suggested by the results. Describe, in brief, what the results mean.
• You will derive conclusions and argue for their support in the final, main section of the paper.

An introduction can also contain a section on the objectives. However, this may also be a separate part of
the report. Objectives state exactly what you intended to achieve or perform. These are steering wheels of
a properly designed research activity. Limit yourself to few, manageable objectives.

Materials and methods

The materials section gives an exact description of materials used, their quantities and sources. The main
purpose of the methods section is to describe the experimental design (and defend it if necessary) and to
give enough detail that a competent worker could repeat the experiment. Widely known methods need only
to be identified: randomised complete block design with your n replications is enough said. If you have
adapted a known and published method, merely describe the adaptations. Write the methods section in the
past tense, giving references only if methods are new or not well known. Do not mix results in this section!

Results

The results section contains, first, an overall description of the experiment: the big picture, not a repeat of
the materials and methods section. It is about results — clearly presented with support to prove or defend
your findings. Second, representative data (not endless repetition) are presented. The data should relate to
the problem you stated and the results you claim. Not everything you recorded or observed will be
mentioned. Think about the following remark “The compulsion to include everything, leaving nothing out,
does not prove that one has unlimited information; it proves that one lacks discrimination.”

Well-presented results:
• Give only data that relate to the subject and objectives of the paper;
• Are clearly stated in a straight forward manner;
• Reduce large masses of data to means along with standard errors and standard deviation;
• Report repetitive data in tables and figures, not in text;
• Include negative data, e.g. what was not found though was in the objectives;
• Refer to every table and figure in the text;
• Avoid using jargon and repetitions.

Discussion

This section explains what the results mean and their implications for future research, extension and policy.
This is the most difficult part of the paper, as it requires the researcher to show application of the findings.
Readers of your report should not end up saying, “So What”. Instead they should be satisfied with your
findings and arguments. A good discussion:
• Does not repeat what was already said in the review of literature
8
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

• Relate the results to the research questions or hypothesis

• Presents principles, relationships, and generalizations shown by the results.
• Show how the results and interpretations agree/relate or disagree with previously published work
• Indicates the significance of the results (theoretical implications and practical applications).

Conclusion and recommendations

This is usually written toward the end of the main text. The conclusion provides a brief restatement
(summary) of the salient findings and the implications of the results. The intention is to complete the
orientation of a reader who has studied the preceding text.

Depending on the writing style, the subject and objectives of the study, the conclusion can be followed by
recommendations. The recommendations provide some suggestions for improvements, i.e. suggestions for
policy and further research.

The ‘head and tail’ of a report

Before and after the backbone (or the body) of the report (see 16.5), there are important elements, which
need careful attention from any author.

Title
A good title describes in the fewest possible words the contents of the paper. A title may be too short:
Studies of Maize Diseases, for example. It can also be too long. Some words that make titles longer are
‘Investigations into’, ‘Observations on’, and ‘Studies of’.

Titles are labels not sentences. Your audience uses them for window-shopping. Hence they must describe
the text in five to 15 words where possible. (25 words is really the maximum). Titles must also be in clear,
correct syntax. Avoid abbreviations, jargon, proprietary names, and unusual or outdated terminology.

When deciding on the title, remember that titles help in cataloguing, indexing, and retrieval of information.
Think about how you would look for this type of information in an index. Finally, make a good title by trial
and error. Test versions on your friends before you make a final decision.

Authors
Include names of all authors and their full contact addresses. However, only people who have made
important contributions should be included as authors. Unless the names are listed alphabetically, the first
name is regarded the principal author, while others may be listed according to their relative contributions.

Abstract
An abstract is a very important part of an article and is best placed before the text of the manuscript so that
the reader can get a quick overview of the essence of the author’s research. The abstract should be written
as the last task of the paper. Never try to write an abstract before the completion of the paper. Always
make sure that an abstract has all the components of the important aspects of the paper.

9
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

The formulation of an abstract into a short paragraph forces the author to express precisely the most
important information of the research. An abstract is supposed to be an accurate representation of the
contents of a document. It is intended to be intelligible in itself, without reference to the paper, but not a
substitute for it. The abstract informs the readers on the value of the scientific paper. It is from the abstract
that readers are able to go through the entire report in a summary form: it guides the reader through
sections of interest and it helps the reader on the decision as to whether to read the entire paper or not.

An abstract should include such information as the following:

▪ A brief reason, rationale and/or justification of carrying out the research (Why did you start?).
▪ Statement summary on methodology (What did you do and how did you do it?).
▪ A summary of significant results both negative and positive (What did you find out?).
▪ Main conclusions and recommendations (What do your findings mean?).

The major controlling factor in any abstract is that “it should be as short as possible” but very informative.
The shortening should not compromise the information. Different journals give different indications for the
length of the abstract. Most common is between 250-350 words. Sometimes only very short abstracts of
100-150 words are allowed. The abstract can then only be indicating the contents. Wording in the abstract
should be consistent with those of the main paper. Abstracts do no not contain illustrations and are
composed of only one paragraph. Only significant outstanding results should be included in any abstract.
The minor and supporting results, as well as detailed descriptions of experiments, organisms, standard
methods, techniques and references to the literature should be reserved for the main paper.

Acknowledgements
Possible elements in acknowledgements are:
▪ Significant technical help and sources of special equipment and materials.
▪ Outside financial assistance, such as grants, contracts or fellowships.

Table of contents
The first draft can be made at the beginning of the writing process (to help to get started). Generally it will
be modified during the writing process (to help to orient the writer). After the completion of the report or
paper, a careful check has to be made in order to make sure that the table of contents reflects exactly the
structure of the report (to guide the reader).

List of abbreviations and acronyms

This list should contain all the abbreviations and acronyms used in the text.

References
Literature cited in the text should refer to well-documented sources of additional background information for
readers who may find the subject pertinent to their own fields of interest and wish to know more about it. No
reference should be included in the article unless it can be verified against the original document.
References to be cited in an article can be either published or unpublished documents.

10
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

Published documents include journal articles, books, technical reports, catalogued theses and
dissertations, patents, maps, recordings, and other similar matter available to the public and to libraries, by
subscription, purchase, lease, or free distribution. References to published documents are usually listed in
a bibliographic reference section at the end of the article.

Practices for citing references in the text vary widely, but the Harvard system (name and year) is the most
commonly used. When citing references and elaborating the bibliographic references section, don’t forget
to :
▪ Check all parts of every reference against the original publication before submitting the manuscript;
▪ Make sure to follow the style for references used by your intended publisher;
▪ Indicate all names of authors; (Avoid writing, for instance ‘Bisanda, et al.,1999’. Instead you can
write: ‘Bisanda, S., H. Mwangi, H. Verkuijl, A. J. Moshi and P. Anandajayasekeram 1999’.)
▪ Remember that the accuracy of all reference material is the responsibility of the author, not the
copy editor.

Unpublished documents include handwritten or typewritten documents (such as letters, diaries, or field
notes) held by individuals or libraries in single copies or distributed primarily to limited segments of the
scientific community. If you must refer to unpublished data, papers in press, other secondary literature or
personal communications of resource persons, refer to them as footnotes to the text. They are not listed in
the reference list. However, references to articles accepted for publication but not yet published and to
unpublished documents held in a library or archival collection accessible to the public are most often listed
in the bibliographic reference section.

Review, rewriting and editing

Informal review

After you have written a mature draft, ask one or two colleagues to read and to be really critical about it. By
doing so, it is useful to remember that eventual criticisms on your document refer to the way you’ve used
words, not to the whole of your personality! If your colleague has comments or does not understand certain
paragraphs, you can be pretty sure other readers will have these problems too. His or her inputs can help
you write a report that will gain credit for you. It will also help to reduce the number of formal remarks that
will be made at later stages. That should more than offset the quick, brief pain of having your writing
criticized.

Peer review

After a process of informal review and rewriting, the final draft can be submitted for formal review. Most
research organizations have developed procedures for internal review, before products are sent to clients
or to publishers. In other cases, external peer reviewers are requested to give comments. In any case, the
formal internal review will also lead to remarks and suggestions. Remember again that readable,
understandable writing comes mainly from rewriting.
11
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

Editing

After you have worked closely on a manuscript (writing it, revising and reorganizing it) you may not notice
that a word is misspelled or missing or that a section is incomplete. You know what it is supposed to say,
and when you read it over, your brain fills in the missing pieces. That is one reason editors exist. An editor
can look upon your manuscript with an objective eye and can read it for continuity and coherence because
s/he is looking at it for the first time. If there is a sentence that doesn’t make sense, the editor will notice it
because s/he doesn’t know what you intended to say.

The other main reason that editors exist is because authors are not expected to know everything. You may
be at the top of your field in statistical analysis, but your spelling may be terrible, or you may always get
confused by to, too, and two. Or you may not be a native speaker of the language you are writing in, and
you may get gendered pronouns mixed up or use the wrong prepositions. The editor’s job is to find things
like that and to make sure that your manuscript is consistent in style that it makes sense, and that spelling
and punctuation are correct.

There are basically two things that occur when a manuscript is edited:

▪ Mechanical editing: the editor reads the manuscript closely and checks for consistency in spelling,
capitalization, use of headings, citations, punctuation, and other elements of style.
▪ Substantive editing: this involves editing for content and readability. It may also include rewriting or
reorganizing text, and the editor may suggest other ways of presenting the material.

Final remark

Writing usually ranks less than top priority with most scientists. This module suggests areas where
scientists can probably get the best benefit-cost ratio from time they invest in improving their written
reports. The contents of this module can only learned by doing: nobody has ever greatly improved his or
her writing just by talking about writing!

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

A statistical design is a plan for the collection and analysis of data.

It mainly deals with the following parameters.
1. Replication
2. Randomization
3. Local control
However the selection of an efficient design requires careful planning in advance of data collection and also
analysis
12
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

REPLICATION

A B D A

C D B C

B A D C

A. Complete randomized design (CRD)

B. Randomized complete block design (RCBD)

A. COMPELETLY RANDOMIZED DESIGN (CRD)

Where the treatments are assigned completely at random so that each treatment unit has the same
chance of receiving any one treatment.
This is suitable for only the experiment material is homogenous. (Ex: Laboratory experiments,
green house studies etc.)
Not suitable for heterogenous study. (Ex: Field experiments)

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT BY LOT

We have an experiment to test feeding potential of predator:

To find which one is the best -----
t=3, r=4

Treatment: Pred1, Pred2, Pred3

Prey: Insect1

Treatment: Insect Pest1, Insect Pest2, Insect Pest3

Prey: Pred1

13
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

Layout of CRD:

The step by step procedures for randamization and layout of a CRD are given for a field experiment with
four treatments with five replications.
Determine the total number of experimental units (n) as the number of treatments and number of
replications.

❑ n=r×t→4×5=20
❑ The entire experimental material is divided in to “n” number of experiments.
❑ Ex: five treatments with four replicatoins. We need 20 experimental units. the 20 units are number
as follows……

1 2 3 4 5
T5 T3 T2 T1 T5

6 7 8 9 10
T4 T1 T4 T2 T3

11 12 13 14 15
T2 T3 T5 T2 T3

16 17 18 19 20
T5 T4 T1 T4 T1

Analysis of variance:

There are two sources of variation among these observations obtained from a CRD trial.

1. Treatment variation
2. Experimental error
The relative size of the two is used to indicate whether the observed difference among the treatment is real
or due to chance.

Calculations:
1. Correction factor (C.F) = (GT)2/n
2. Total sum of squares (total ss) =total ss-c.f
3. Treatment sum of squares (TSS)=TSS-cf
4. Error sum of squares (ESS)=total ss – TSS
These results are summarized in the ANOVA table & the mean squares and F are calculated.

14
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

ANOVA table:

Source DF MS F P
Treatments 3 32.2667 50.11 0.0000
Interval 4 12.2000 18.95 0.0000
Replication 3 2.4333 3.78 0.0152

Treatment* Interval 12 1.2667 1.97 0.0448

Error 57 0.6439
Total 79
CV 47.20
Grand Mean 1.7000
DF degree of freedom; MS mean square
a Significant
b Highly significant
NS Non-significant

B. RANDOMIZED COMPLETE BLOCK DESIGN

Most widely used experimental designs in agricultural research.

The design also extensively used in the fields of biology, medical, social sciences and also business
research.
Experimental material is grouped in to homogenous sub groups… the sub group is commonly termed as
block. Since each block will consists the entire set of treatments , a block is equivalent to a replication.
Ex: in field experiments, the soil fertility is an important character that influences crop responses.
Hence the treatments applied at random to relatively homogenous units with in each block and replicated
over all the blocks, the design is known as a RCBD.
Divides the group of experimental units into n homogeneous groups of size t.
These homogeneous groups are called blocks.
The treatments are then randomly assigned to the experimental units in each block - one treatment to a unit
in each block.

LAYOUT OF RCBD

Let us consider that the experiment is to be conducted on 4 blocks of land, each having 5 plots.
Now we take in to consideration five treatments, each replicated 4 times, we divide the whole experimental
area in to 4 relatively homogenous blocks and each block into five plots or units. Treatments allocated at
random to the units of a block.

15
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

A sample layout of a randomized complete block design with six treatments (A,B,C,D,E and F) and four
publications.

BLOCK-I BLOCK-II BLOCK-III BLOCK-IV

Elements of Experimentation

Agricultural research seeks answers to key questions in agricultural production whose resolution could lead
to significant changes and improvements in existing agricultural practices. Unlike the journalist's
experiment, however, scientific research must be designed precisely and rigorously to answer these key
questions. In agricultural research, the key questions to be answered are generally expressed as a
statement of hypothesis that has to be verified or disproved through experimentation. These hypotheses
are usually suggested by past experience observations, and, at times, by theoretical considerations. For
example, in the case of the Filipino journalist, visits to selected farms may have impressed him as he saw
the high yield of some selected rice plants and visualized the potential for duplicating that high yield
uniformly on a farm and even over many farms. He therefore hypothesized that rice yields in farmers field
were way below their potential and that, with better husbandry, rice yields could be substantially increased.

Theoretical considerations may play a major role in arriving at a hypothesis. For example, it can be shown
theoretically that a rice crop removes more nitrogen from the soil than is naturally replenished during one
growing season. One may, therefore, hypothesize that in order to maintain a high productivity level on any
rice farm, supplementary nitrogen must be added to every crop.
Once a hypothesis is framed, the next step is to design a procedure for its verification. This is the
experimental procedure, which consists of four phases:
1. Selecting the appropriate materials to test
2. Specifying the characters to measure
3. Selecting the procedure to measure those characters
4. Specifying the procedure to determine whether the measurements made support the hypothesis

In general, the first two phases are fairly easy for a subject matter specialist to specify. In our example of
the maize breeder, the test material would probably be the native and the newly developed varieties. The
characters to be measured would probably be disease infection and grain yield. For the example on

16
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

maintaining productivity of rice farms, the test variety would probably be one of the recommended rice
varieties and the fertilizer levels to be tested would cover the suspected range of nitrogen needed. The
characters to be measured would include grain yield and other related agronomic characters. On the other
hand, the procedures regarding how the measurements are to be made and how these measurements can
be used to prove or disprove a hypothesis depend heavily on techniques developed by statisticians. These
two tasks constitute much of what is generally termed the design of an experiment, which has three
essential components:

1. Estimate of error
2. Control of error
3. Proper interpretation of results

1. ESTIMATE OF ERROR
Consider a plant breeder who wishes to compare the yield of a new rice variety A to that of a standard
variety B of known and tested properties. He lays out two plots of equal size, side by side, and sows one to
variety A and the other to variety B. Grain yield for each plot is then measured and the variety with higher
yield is judged as better. The difference among experimental plots treated alike is called experimental error.
This error is the primary basis for deciding whether an observed difference is real or just due to chance.
Clearly, every experiment must be designed to have a measure of the experimental error.

1.1 Replication
In the same way that at least two plots of the same variety are needed to determined the difference among
plots treated alike, experimental error can be measured only if there are at least two plots planted to the
same variety (or receiving the same treatment). Thus, to obtain a measure of experimental error,
replication is needed.

1.2 Randomization
There is more involved in getting a measure of experimental error than simply planting several plots to the
same variety.

2. Control of error

Because the ability to detect existing differences among treatments increases as a good experiment
incorporate all the size of the experimental error decreases, possible means of minimizing the experimental
error. Three commonly used techniques for controlling experimental error in agriculture research are:

1. Blocking
2. Proper plot technique
3. Data analysis

2.1 Blocking
By putting experimental units that are as similar as possible together in to as a block and by assigning all
treatments same group (generally referred into each block separately and independently, variation among
blocks can be measured and removed from experimental error. In field experiments where substantial

17
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

variation within an experimental field can be expected, significant reduction in experimental error is usually
achieved with the use of proper blocking.

2.2 Proper Plot Technique

For almost all types of experiment, it is absolutely essential that all other factors aside from those
considered as treatments be maintained uniformly for in variety trials where the treatments all experimental
units. For example, in variety trials where the treatments consist solely of the test varieties, it is required
that all other factors such as soil nutrients, solar energy, plant population, pest incidence, and an almost
infinite number of other environmental factors are maintained uniformly for all plots in the experiment.
Clearly, the requirement is almost impossible to satisfy. Nevertheless, it is essential that the most important
ones be watched closely to ensure that variability among experimental plots is minimized. This is the
primary concern of a good plot technique. For field experiments with crops, the important sources of
variability among plots treated alike are soil heterogeneity, competition effects, and mechanical errors.

2.3 Data Analysis

In cases where blocking alone may not be able to achieve adequate control of experimental error, proper
choice of data analysis can help greatly. Covariance analysis is most commonly used for this purpose. By
measuring one or more covariates-the characters whose functional relationships to the character of primary
interest are known-the analysis of covariance can reduce the variability among experimental units by
adjusting their values to a common value of the covariates. For example, in an animal feeding trial, the
initial weight of the animals usually differs. Using this initial weight as the covariate, final weight after the
animals are subjected to various feeds (i.e., treatments) can be adjusted to the values that would have
been attained had all experimental animals started with the same body weight. Or, in a rice field experiment
where rats damaged some of the test plots, covariance analysis with rat damage as the covariate can
adjust plot yields to the levels that they should have been with no rat damage in any plot.

1.3 PROPER INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

An important feature of the design of experiments is its ability to uniformly maintain all environmental
factors that are not a part of the treatments being evaluated. This uniformity is both an advantage and a
weakness of a controlled experiment. Although maintaining uniformity is vital to the measurement and
reduction of experimental error, which are so essential in hypothesis testing, this same feature greatly
limits the applicability and generalization of the experimental results, a limitation that must always be
considered in the interpretation of results.

Consider the plant breeder's experiment comparing varieties A and B (Section 1.1). It is obvious that the
choice of management practices (such as fertilization and weed control) or of the site and crop season in
which the trial is conducted (such as in a rainy or dry environment) will greatly affect the relative
performance of the two varieties. In rice and maize, for example, it has been shown that the newly
developed, improved varieties are greatly superior to the native varieties when both are grown in a good
environment and with good management; but the improved varieties are no better, or even poor when both
are grown by the traditional farmer's practices. Clearly the result of an experiment is, strictly speaking,
applicable only to conditions that are the same as, or similar to, that under which the experiment was

18
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

conducted. This limitation is especially troublesome because most agricultural research is done on
experiment stations where average productivity is higher than that for ordinary farms. In addition, the
environment surrounding a single experiment can hardly represent the variation over space and time that
is so typical of commercial farms. Consequently, field experiments with crops and years, in research
stations are usually conducted for several crop seasons and on farmers' fields, to insure that the results
will apply over a wide range of environments.

CONCEPT OF SYNOPSIS

The purpose and content of a synopsis Everybody needs to bring a 1-2 page synopsis for the seminar
Synopsis: A synopsis is a tool for the writing process.

It has three main objectives:

1) It helps verbalising the idea of the paper and at the same time makes it more concrete. It is a tool for
thinking the subject and argument of the paper through.

2) It helps you to focus and structure the paper. A good synopsis can save you from reading source
material that later turns out not to be of use to the paper.

3) It serves the purpose of informing your supervisor about the project and thereby making a more focused
and in-depth supervision possible.

What should a synopsis include?

1) A motivation for the choice of subject. Why do you think it is an interesting subject and how can the
paper contribute new knowledge?

2) An outline of the paper’s subject and a description of the literature that you want to relate to.

3) A preliminary thesis statements. What is it precisely that you want to investigate and what are your
research questions?

4) A short discussion of the argument of the paper. What do you expect to find or what argument are you
going to advocate?

5) A reflection over the strategy of analysis or method. Is the paper a case study, will it make use of the
comparative method, is it a theoretical discussion etc? Remember that you need an argument for why for
example the comparative method is central to answering your research questions.

6) An account for the type of materials and sources that you want use, that is, what is the base texts and
why have you chosen these relating to your research questions.

19
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

7) An outline of the structure of the paper and its main sections. Which elements are necessary to answer
the thesis statement of the paper? Necessary is a key word here, since 10 pages of review of a given
theorist isn't necessary if you really only need one specific argument for your paper.

8) A list of the 5-10 most important books or articles on the subject of your paper.

9) In general, account for your deselection throughout the synopsis. This information can be just as
important as your choices and shows that you have an overview of the given subject matter.

Scientific Publications

A scientific publication is a document—in ‘‘hard’’ (paper) or ‘‘soft’’ (electronic) form—that reports the results
of original research. Research (noun) as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary is the systematic
investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
The Merriam Webster Dictionary explains research as careful or diligent search, especially investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in
the light of new facts, or

Introduction
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. A scientific paper is a valid and permanent
publication that presents results of an original investigation and adds to the previous state of knowledge in
such a way that potential users can assess the observations, repeat the experiments, and evaluate if the
conclusions are justified by the data. Given that the investigations can be of a wide and varied nature, the
publication of the results can be of various types. Although abstracts of such presentations will be available
to fellow scientists, they do not become recognized as full research publications until they successfully
undergo rigorous peer review and meet the style and formatting criteria of journals. For that reason, the
most widely recognized form of a scientific publication is a paper in a research (peer-reviewed) journal.
Before going into the details of the nature and requirements of a research paper, let us briefly consider the
nature of common scientific publications.

Types of Scientific Publications

• Research (Journal) Paper
• Review Paper
• Book Chapter
• Conference Paper/Abstract/Poster
• Thesis/Dissertation
• Short Communication/Research Report
• Monograph

Research (Journal) Paper

Research journals publish new and original research results and are the most widely recognized type of
research publication. Papers published in these journals present new knowledge that has been generated
by accepted, rigorous procedures of investigation. The most common form of a research paper involves a
hypothesis that is tested by accepted experimental methods leading to well-founded conclusions. Journals

20
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

have specific policies and criteria for accepting articles for publication; however, all follow the peer-review
system by which the manuscripts submitted for publication are reviewed by independent, competent
authorities in the subject, based on whose recommendations the editor makes the decision to accept or
reject the manuscript.

Review Paper
Reviews present the state-of-the-art or cutting edge of knowledge on the chosen subject. These include
authoritative discussion by competent research leaders in the subject. A review paper synthesizes and
evaluates reported results by analyzing and interpreting the findings in a specific field, and often identifies
future directions in research. The review paper, however, is based on papers and information that have
already been published, yet the stigma of dual publication does not arise because the review nature of the
paper is made obvious in the title of the paper and/or the journal that publishes it (e.g., Annual Review of
Plant Biology).

Book Chapter
These are somewhat similar to research reviews. Various types and forms are available depending on the
scope of the book of which the chapter forms a part.

Conference Paper and Abstracts

A conference paper that presents the results of research in a professional conference is often the first step
in communicating research results before a paper is ready for submission to a journal and peer review.
Following discussion in the conference, the paper may be improved and published in the conference
proceedings, or developed further into a full journal paper. Conference Abstracts, as the name indicates,
are abstracts of conference papers that may or may not actually be presented at the conference, and are
included in the book of abstracts that some conferences publish in print for limited circulation or online,
which is the current trend. But such abstracts are often written several months ahead of the conference and
therefore may not contain the full body of results that will be presented at the conference. Thus, the
abstracts are ephemeral in nature and are not rated as high quality research publications; some journals do
not even allow such abstracts to be cited as valid literature citations in manuscripts.

Theses and Dissertations

These are written documents of sustained research conducted by graduate students for periods from two to
four or more years, and are presented in descriptive style with elaborate literature review. They will result in
various types of publications such as journal papers, review articles, and conference papers. The words
‘‘thesis’’ and ‘‘dissertation’’ are used differently in the US and other parts of the world. In the US, a thesis
refers to a research document for the Master degree and the dissertation for the doctoral degree (Ph.D.),
whereas in Europe and some other parts of the world, a thesis is often submitted for a Ph.D. degree and a
dissertation for a Master degree; there are also undergraduate (Bachelor degree) theses/dissertations in
some places.

Short Communication/Research Note

Some journals allow publication of incomplete or initial results as Short Communications or Research
Notes. The objective is to disseminate interesting trends and results that have not yet been conclusively
proven. Short communications are prepared in the same format as research papers, but every section is

21
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

shorter than the corresponding section in a research paper. Some journals also publish readers’ responses
to research papers and authors’ rebuttal to such responses, both of which are considered scientific
publications.

Monograph
A monograph provides an authoritative account of a research topic, and is often much lengthier than
research articles or review papers. Some monographs may contain results of specific investigations, but
mostly they provide a synthesis of several years of work on a specific subject over a long period of time by
one or a group of experts. Overall, journal papers have the highest ranking in terms of technical content,
value, and recognition. The relative ranking for other types of research publications is variable depending
on a number of factors such as the type of journal or other publication in which they appear, if they are
peer-reviewed, and so on.

Journal Articles and Location-Specific Research

Science is international, and the knowledge communicated through scientific papers should be of universal
application. Some explanation, however, is needed here about the universality of results based on location-
specific research and their application to agriculture and natural resource management.

Basic and Applied Research

Research, as described earlier, involves investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application
of such new or revised theories or law… Within the limits of these attributes, a distinction can be made
between basic and applied research depending on the nature and scope of research. Basic or fundamental
research investigates processes and mechanisms; research dealing with such issues as DNA and
fundamental processes of nitrogen fixation or photosynthesis falls under this category. The objective of
basic research is advancement of knowledge, not necessarily direct application of the results. Results of
such research may eventually be widely applicable with far-reaching consequences; but that is an after-
effect, not an objective. Applied research involves application of research results to solve specific problems.
Sometimes two categories of applied research are recognized in agricultural sciences: strategic and
adaptive. Strategic research refers to innovative application of basic-research results to solve practical
problems in the medium-to-long term. An example is the development of dwarf cultivars of cereals
especially rice, maize, and wheat through the application of advances in basic research disciplines such as
plant physiology and genetics. Adaptive research, on the other hand, refers to development of location-
specific technologies for solving practical problems of an immediate nature; the use of agro-forestry
technologies for soil conservation in a specific location is an example. Sometimes strategic research is
described as an inter phase between basic and applied research.

Importance of Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are an integral part of a well-written scientific paper. Usually they appear in the Results
section, but there are exceptions. Readers typically study the tables and figures before reading the text (in

22
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

the ratio of about 10 to 1; i.e., for every ten persons who look at the tables and figures, one reads the full
manuscript); thus, the tables and figures attract readers’ attention the most after the

Title and the Abstract.

Tables and figures are used to present data (quantitative data and illustrations for trends or comparisons)
that cannot clearly be presented in text. By the same token, if the information can be presented clearly in
the text, do not present it as tables or figures. Do not assume that a table or figure is always a must. Some
beginners might think that a table or graph or chart somehow adds importance to the data and enhances
the appeal of the paper. That is a wrong notion. Indeed, attempts to dress up scientific data are doomed to
failure.

Journals do not allow too many tables and figures; the usual range is three to four each for a full research
paper. Therefore, be judicious in the selection of materials to be presented as tables or figures. Climatic
data during the study period is a ‘‘usual candidate’’ for a table or figure in papers reporting agricultural field
experiments. Although such information may be important for understanding the results, it can often be
mentioned in a sentence or two. In some situations, however, such as while reporting the results from multi-
location experiments, it will be necessary to
summarize in a table the site characteristics of the different locations (climate, soil type, and other relevant
features). The point is that, unless there are convincing reasons, avoid using tables or figures for reporting
the information that is not a part of, nor is essential for explaining, the results reported. Furthermore, do not
present the same data in tables and graphs because that will mean repetition of the same information. Data
presented in a table or figure should not be repeated in the text either, except that selected data may be
picked and used in discussion.

Common abbreviations used in writing

Bibliog. Bibliography, bibliographer, bibliographic, bibliographical
c., ca. Circa, about (used with approximate dates: c. 1756)
cf. Confer, compare
ch., chs. Chapter(s)
diss. Dissertation
ed., eds. Edited by, editor(s), edition(s)
e.g., Exempli gratia, for example (see e.g.,/i.e.)
enl. Enlarged (as in rev. and enl. Ed)
esp. Especially
et al. Et alii, and others
etc., Et cetera, and so forth
f., ff. And the following page(s) or line(s)
fig. Figure
fwd. Foreword, foreword by
i.e. Id est, that is
l., ll. Line, lines
MS, MSS Manuscript, manuscripts
NB Nota Bene, take notice, mark well (always capitalized)
n.d. No date (of publication)
n.p. No place (of publication); no publisher

23
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

n. pag. No pagination
p., pp. Page, pages
pref. Preface, preface by
proc. Proceedings
pseud. Pseudonym
pub (publ.) Published by, publisher, publication
rept. Reported by, report
rev. Revised by, revision; review, reviewed by
sic Latin for ‘‘so’’ or ‘‘thus’’: when used within brackets it means ‘‘it appeared thus’’
soc. Society
supp. Supplement
trans. Translated by, translator, translation
viz. Videlicet, namely
vol., vols. Volume, volumes
vs., v. Versus, against (v. preferred in titles of legal cases)

Oral Presentations in Relation to Scientific Writing

As pointed out earlier, both scientific writing and oral presentations are forms of communication of your
research findings to others working in the same field. While the content of both types of communications
may be the same, there are some distinct differences as well. Words used in written communication are
different from those in an oral presentation. Words such as ‘‘Now, I would like to explain …’’ or ‘‘Now we
move on to …’’ are never used in scientific writing, although they are popular in oral communications.
Irrespective of the way in which you choose to communicate your findings, your goal remains the same—to
ensure that your research reaches others in your field. Oral presentations also provide an opportunity to
‘‘add a face to the words’’; in other words, the author gets the opportunity to clarify doubts and explain
things that may not be clear in writing.

Oral Presentation
• Keep your audience in mind
• Begin your presentation with a title slide that includes author names and affiliations
• Introduce your topic and provide an outline of your presentation
• Include the following sections in the presentation: Introduction, Objectives and Hypotheses, Materials and
Methods, Results and Conclusions
• Include Acknowledgment and Reference slides as appropriate
• Note that bulleted points are easier to read than long sentences
• Use appropriate font size and colors for your slides
• Use tables or figures to present the information, but do not repeat the same information in tables and
figures
• Maintain professionalism in manners and attire during poster presentation
• Maintain eye contact with audience
• Remain polite while answering questions.

Poster Presentation
• Keep to a single idea when creating a poster
• Keep to the size of poster as defined by the conference organizers

24
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

• Display the title of your presentation prominently

• Follow the title with author names and their affiliations
• Include the following sections in the poster: Introduction, Objectives and Hypotheses, Materials and
Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions
• Include Acknowledgment and Reference sections as appropriate
• Arrange the poster contents to read down columns and from left to right
• Note that bulleted points are easier to read than long sentences
• Ensure that the poster is aesthetically pleasing to attract readers’ attention
• Avoid using dark colors as poster background
• Use appropriate font size and colors for your poster display
• Explain the abbreviations when first used in the poster
• Use tables or figures to present the information, but do not repeat the same information in tables and
figures
• Make sure that the presentation is ‘‘reader-friendly’’ and self-standing, i.e., the reader should be able to
understand the poster in the absence of the author
• Maintain professionalism in manners and attire during poster presentation.

KEY TERMINOLOGY

Abstract An informative digest of the significant content and conclusions of the primary source material. It
is intended to be intelligible in itself, without reference to the paper, but not a substitute for the paper. It is
best to place it between the title and the text of the manuscript. It contains about 250 words.
Active sentence A sentence in which a subject takes direct action.
Annotation A brief comment or explanation about a document or its contents, usually added as a note
after the bibliographic citation of the document.
Clause A series of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a complex or
compound sentence.
Easy reading level Text with sentences averaging about 12 to 15 words each and under 1.6 syllables per
word, calculated according the FLESCH test.
Extract One or more portions of a document selected to represent the whole.
FLESCH test A method to measure the reading ease of a text, by calculating the average number of words
per sentence and the average number of syllables per word and putting the results into a formula.
IMRAD A scientific paper has four main parts: introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion
sections.
Paragraph A subdivision of a text, that consists of one or more sentences. It deals with one point or gives
the words of one speaker, and begins on a new line.
Passive sentence A sentence in which a subject is acted upon.

25
ENT-606 Scientific Writing & Presentation

Sentence A group of words that convey a meaning. It begins with an initial capital letter and ends with a full
stop.
SPW Average syllables per word (day 1/session 2/handout 1)
Squid technique A writer is unsure of his facts or reasoning, so he or she retreats behind a protective
cloud of ink.
Summary A brief restatement within the document (usually at the end) of salient findings and conclusions.
It is intended to complete the orientation of a reader who has studied the preceding text.
Synoptic A concise first publication in a directly usable form of key results selected from an available but
previously unpublished paper. It differs from an abstract (which it contains) in that it is often a combination
of text, tables, and figures, and may contain 2000 words.
Title A label that uses the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents of the paper.
Word One or more characters with conveying a meaning with blank space before and after.
WPS Average words per sentence

26