Section – 6

Hydraulic Design of Bridge

 GUIDELINE 6
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

6. HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BRIDGES 6-1

6.1 Introduction 6-1

6.2 Design Considerations 6-1

6.2.1 Freeboard 6-1
6.2.2 Expected Scour 6-1
6.2.3 Hydrodynamic Loading 6-2
6.2.4 Buoyancy 6-2

6.3 Bridge Hydraulics 6-2

6.3.1 General 6-2
6.3.2 Flow Pattern at Typical Bridge Crossing 6-3
6.3.3 Key Terms Used in Hydraulic Design of Bridges 6-3
6.3.4 Typical Types of Flow 6-7

6.4 Backwater Computation for Type I Flow 6-8

6.4.1 Backwater Equation 6-8
6.4.2 The Backwater Coefficient 6-10

6.5 Water Level Difference Across the Approach Embankment 6-14

6.6 Location of Maximum Backwater 6-15

6.6.1 Normal Crossing 6-15
6.6.2 Eccentric Crossing 6-16
6.6.3 Skewed Crossing 6-16

6.7 Computer Modelling 6-16

6.8 Worked Example 6-20

6.8.1 Design Data 6-20
6.8.2 Design Procedure 6-20

6.9 References 6-25

FIGURES

Figure 6.1a: Flow Pattern at Typical Bridge Crossing 6-4

Figure 6.1b: Normal Crossing Wingwall Abutment 6-6
Figure 6.2: Aid for Estimating 6-7
Figure 6.3: Common Flow Types at Bridges 6-9
Figure 6.4: Base Curves for Backwater Coefficient -Subcritical Flow 6-11
Figure 6.5: Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Piers 6-13
Figure 6.6: Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Eccentricity 6-15
Figure 6.7: Skew Crossing 6-17
Figure 6.8: Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Skew 6-18
Figure 6.9: Differential Water Level Ratio Base Curves 6-19
Figure 6.10: Distance to Maximum Backwater 6-19
Figure 6.11: Cross-section for the Worked Example 6-21
Figure 6.12: Stage- Discharge Curve for the Worked Example 6-21
Figure 6.13: Bridge Cross-section for the Worked Example 6-23

TABLES
Table 6.1: Processed Hydraulic Data 6-20
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SYMBOLS used in SECTION 6

a = flow area (m2)

A1 = total water area at section 1 including backwater effect (m2)
A4 = water area at section 4 where normal stage is re-established (m2)
An1 = un-constricted cross-sectional area (m2)
An2 = cross-sectional area under the bridge below normal water surface (m2)
Ap = water area occupied by piers (m2)
b = width of the bridge opening (m)
bs = the full length of the skewed bridge (m)
d = hydraulic depth (m)
e = eccentricity
h*1 = total backwater (m)
h*3 = decrease in the water level downstream of the bridge from the normal stage (m)
h*b = backwater for a normal crossing without piers, eccentricity or skew (m)
h1* = total back water (m).
J = ratio of the area occupied by the piers to the gross water area of the constriction
k = conveyance (m3/s)
ka, kb, kc = conveyances corresponding to Qa, Qb and Qc (m3/s)
K* = total back water coefficient
Kb = the backwater coefficient for a bridge in which only the bridge opening ratio is considered
L* = distance from water line on the upstream side of the embankment to a point of maximum backwater (m)
M = bridge opening ratio
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
Q = total stream discharge at the cross-section (m3/s)
q = discharge at the sub-section (m3/s)
Qa, Qb, Qc = portion of the discharge approaching the bridge, as defined in Fig. 6.1a (m3/s)
r = hydraulic radius (m)
S0 = bed slope (m/m)
v = average velocity sub-section (m/s)
V1 = average flow velocity at the cross-section (m/s)
Vmax = the maximum average velocity through the bridge opening (m/s)
∆h = difference in water surface elevation across embankment (m)
∆Ke = incremental backwater coefficient due to eccentricity
∆Kp = incremental backwater coefficient due to piers
∆Ks = incremental backwater coefficient due to skew
α1,α2 = kinetic energy coefficient
φ = skew angle
σ, ω = correction factors

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6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF BRIDGES

6.1 Introduction

This Chapter covers the hydraulic design of bridges and associated environmental issues. The treatment
especially applies to Addis Ababa city area.

Computer models present versatile and effective design tools at present. One such program, HEC-RAS has
been discussed in sufficient detail.

To avoid complete reliance on computer modelling, to explain analytical background and also to provide
means of sanity checks on complex computer outputs, practical design procedures have been described.
The hydraulic aspects discussed in this Chapter include flow patterns commonly encountered in bridges,
computation of maximum backwater and its location, selection of the waterway width and the free board for
the bridge. Key aspects of the design procedure have been illustrated by means of a worked example. Main
topics covered in this Chapter are:

ƒ Environmental Considerations
ƒ Flow Patterns
ƒ Backwater Computation
ƒ Location of Maximum Backwater
ƒ Selection of Waterway Width
ƒ Selection of Freeboard
ƒ Computer Modelling
ƒ Worked Example

6.2 Design Considerations

Output of the hydraulic design includes dimensions of the bridge opening and treatment of the stream bed
and banks to prevent possible damages from scour and erosion. The main factors to be considered in the
bridge design include length of the bridge opening, free board, expected scour, hydrodynamic loading and
buoyancy. Basic considerations for waterway design should include (NAASRA 1989):

• water surface levels and velocity of flow for a flood of 100-year ARI or other design flood;
• incidence and type of debris and their impact on freeboard;
• acceptable limit of backwater;
• permissible stream velocity and its impact on afflux and scour; and
• requirements of stream improvements.

• Size and the shape of the opening should be decided with due regard to the above factors.

6.2.1 Freeboard

Case studies have shown that damage to the bridge deck can be attributed to the impact of sediment and
other floating material(Melville and Coleman 2000). Freeboard provides protection against such damage. It
is the clearance between the design approach water surface level and the low chard of the bridge. On the
minimum side the freeboard is provided to pass the anticipated debris and on the maximum side, if required,
it must meet the navigation needs. A freeboard of 1.5 m is usually provided for the bridges (ERA 2001).
Small streams with a smaller size of expected debris may require a free board less than 1.5 m. After a
careful consideration of the stream flow environment the Design Engineer may decide to reduce the free
board which must not be less than 1 m.
Expected Scour

The waterway constriction caused by a road crossing generates local scour. Abutments, piers and other
elements of the structure contribute to scour under and around the bridge. An important aspect of the bridge

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design is a correct assessment of the scour extent and appropriate protection for it. Scour protection has
been treated in sufficient detail in Chapter 8.
Hydrodynamic Loading

Calculation of hydrodynamic loading is a parameter of structural design of the bridge rather than its hydraulic
design which is the subject of the Chapter. The loading is a combination of static and dynamic forces of the
flowing water. Peak of the hydrodynamic load is considered to occur at the point of overtopping, rather than
at deeper submergence of the bridge.

6.2.2 Buoyancy

During bridge overtopping there is a tendency of the superstructure being pushed or lifted off the piers and
the abutment by a combination of buoyancy and the dynamic forces. Inundation reduces the weight and the
flowing debris contribute to the dynamic forces. The forces can be severe enough to cause failure.

Adequate anchorage devices at the piers and the abutments can resist failure due to buoyancy. Air release
holes installed in the deck between the girders assist in overcoming the problem. A continuous span resists
this type of failure better than a simply supported span.

6.3 Bridge Hydraulics

6.3.1 General

Cost considerations seldom permit bridging the entire width of the stream. In case of large streams,
approach embankments are extended on to the floodplain to achieve an appropriate level of constriction.

Selection of the waterway width is an important parameter of the hydraulic design. Excessive constriction of
the stream width can raise backwater to an unacceptable level. It can also generate flow velocity and shear
forces threatening the integrity of the structure its self. A detailed hydraulic model using a computer program
like HEC-RAS can present a thorough comparison of backwater and key design hydraulic parameters for
various width constriction options. Cost and key hydraulic parameters from the computer model should be
carefully compared for a trade off between cost and acceptable river behaviour.

While some specifics are covered in the following description, the following are the general criteria related to
the hydraulic analyses for the location and design of bridges:

ƒ Backwater will not significantly increase flood damage to property upstream of the crossing;
ƒ Velocities through the structure(s) will not either damage the highway facility or increase damages to
adjacent property;
ƒ Maintain the existing flow pattern to the extent practicable;
ƒ Pier spacing, orientation, and abutment are to be designed to minimize flow disruption and potential
scour;
ƒ Select foundation design and/or scour countermeasures to avoid failure by scour;
ƒ Freeboard at structure(s) designed to pass anticipated debris and facilitate navigation where necessary;
ƒ Acceptable risks of damage or viable measures to counter the unpredictability of alluvial streams;
ƒ Minimal disruption of ecosystems and values unique to the flood plain and stream;
ƒ Provide a level of traffic service compatible with that commonly expected for the class of highway and
compatible with projected traffic volumes; and
ƒ Design choices should support costs for construction, maintenance, and operation, including probable
repair and reconstruction and potential liability.

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6.3.2 Flow Pattern at Typical Bridge Crossing

Constriction at the waterway alters the stream lines. Fig. 6.1 presents flow pattern at typical bridge crossing.
Following observations are of interest for the Designer.

ƒ Stream constriction has no impact on streamlines in the central region of the channel, while there is a
marked change near the embankment.
ƒ Constriction produces energy loss, a greater part of which occurs at expansion. A qualitative
presentation of the losses between section shown on Fig. 6.1a is given in Figure 6.1b.
ƒ As shown in Fig. 6.1 b, the water surface starts out above the normal stage at section 1, passes through
the normal stage close to section 2, reaches minimum depth in vicinity of section 3 and returns to normal
stage at a considerable distance downstream at section 4.
ƒ The constriction causes rise in the water surface level, denoted by symbol h1* in Fig. 6.1b. This rise is
termed as the bridge backwater on afflux and represents a major design parameter.

6.3.3 Key Terms Used in Hydraulic Design of Bridges

(a) Backwater

Backwater is the rise in water level caused by the bridge constriction. It is also known as afflux.

The Hydraulic computations carried out by computer models such as HEC-RAS, predict water surface at
desired locations which include the impact of constriction. Section 6.3.5 presents procedure for computing
backwater as a handy tool and also as an often needed sanity check on computer output.

(b) Conveyance (k)

Expression for flow velocity in Manning’s equation can be converted into an expression discharge as shown
in Eq. 6.1.

2 1
3
ar S0 2
q= (6.1)
n

where, a = flow area (m2 )

r = hydraulic radius (m)
S0 = bed slope (m/m)
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient

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Figure 6.1a: Flow Pattern at Typical Bridge Crossing

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

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Conveyance, k is defined as

q ar 2
k= = 3
1
S0 2 n
(6.2)

As shown in Eq. 6.2, the conveyance can be expressed as flow factor or geometric factor.

(c) Bridge Opening Ratio (M)

Bridge opening ratio, denoted by M, represents a degree of stream constriction at the crossing. It is defined
as ratio of the flow which can pass unimpeded through the bridge constriction to the total flow of the river.

Qb Q
M= = b (6.3)
Qa + Qb + Qc Q

Variables in Eq. 6.3 are defined in Fig. 6.1a. For the flow shown if Fig. 6.1, M = 210/350 = 0.60.

Relative discharge through three segments shown in Fig. 6.1 is directly proportional to the conveyance of the
segments as the bed slope is same. M can also be determined from conveyance relationship.

kb k
M = = b (6.4)
k a + kb + kc k

(d) Kinetic Energy Coefficient

Flow velocity over the stream width varies from zero along the banks to maximum along the deeper portion
of the stream. The average velocity head is not a true measure of the kinetic energy of the flow. A weighted
value of the kinetic energy is obtained by multiplying the average velocity head by a kinetic energy
coefficient, α1, defined as:

α1 =
∑ (qv ) 2

(6.5)
QV12

Where, v = average velocity (m/s) in the sub-section

q = discharge (m3/s) in the sub-section

Q = total stream discharge (m3/s) at the cross-section

V1 = average flow velocity (m/s) at the cross-section

Another coefficient α2 is used to do a similar velocity head correction under the bridge. While
α1 can be computed α2 is best obtained from charts based on observations from existing
bridges. Fig. 6.2 presents an aid for estimating α2 from a known α1.

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Figure 6.1b: Normal Crossing Wingwall Abutment

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

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6.3.4 Typical Types of Flow

Types of flow have bearing on backwater computation. Subcritical flow, characterised by normal depth of
flow being above the critical depth, has downstream control and allows for the use of conservation of energy
principle for computation of the backwater. The supercritical flow occurs when the normal depth of flow is
less than the critical depth. No backwater calculations are warranted for this type of flow because the flow
has upstream control.

Three types of flow, labelled as types I, II, and III in Fig. 6.3 may be encountered in bridge waterway design.
Flow Type II has been further subdivided into IIA and IIB, as discussed below. The long dashed lines shown
on each profile present normal water surface, or the stage the design flow would assume prior to placing a
constriction in a channel. The solid lines present the configuration of the water surface on the centre line of
the channel in each case, after the bridge is in place. The short dashed lines present critical depth, or critical
stage in the main channel and critical depth within the constriction, for design discharge in each case.

(a) Type I Flow

Normal water surface is above the critical depth everywhere. The backwater expression for this type of flow
is obtained by applying the conservation of energy principle between section 1 and 4 (Fig. 6.1a).

(b) Type IIA Flow

Flow Type II has been described as Flow Type IIA and IIB. For Flow Type II, the normal depth of flow
remains above critical depth in the unconstricted channel but it passes through critical depth at the
constriction. Once the critical depth is penetrated, the water surface upstream of the constriction, and thus
the backwater, becomes independent of the conditions downstream. Thus the backwater expression for
Type I flow is not valid for Type II flow.

Figure 6.2: Aid for Estimating

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

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(c) Type IIB Flow

The water surface for Type IIB flow starts out above both normal water surface and critical depth upstream,
passes through critical depth in the constriction, next dips below critical depth downstream of the constriction
and returns to normal.

A backwater expression applicable to both Types IIA and IIB flow has been developed by equating the total
energy between section 1 (Fig. 6.1a) and the point at which the water surface passes through critical stage in
the constriction.

(c) Type III Flow

The normal water surface is below the critical depth for Type III flow. This implies a supercritical flow
generated by steep gradient. Theoretically backwater should not occur for this type of flow and the
supercritical flow has upstream control. For this type of flow an undulation of the water surface is more likely
in the vicinity of the constriction.

6.4 Backwater Computation for Type I Flow

This section presents a summary of methods for calculating backwater due to bridge constriction in different
flow conditions.

6.4.1 Backwater Equation

The expression for backwater computation upstream of a bridge constriction is as follows:

Vn22 ⎡⎛ A ⎞ 2 ⎛ A ⎞ 2 ⎤ V 2
h = K α2
*
1
*
+ α 1 ⎢⎜⎜ n 2 ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ n 2 ⎟⎟ ⎥ n 2 (6.6)
2g ⎢⎣⎝ A4 ⎠ ⎝ A1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2 g

Where h1* = total back water (m).

K* = total back water coefficient.

α1 and α2 =kinetic energy coefficients as defined in Section 6.3.3d.

An2 = gross area (m2) under bridge below normal water surface.

Vn2 = average velocity (m/s) in constriction.

A4 = water area (m2) at section 4 where normal stage is re-established.

A1 = total water area (m2) at section 1, including backwater effect.

Equation 6.6, based on subcritical flow condition, is reasonably valid if the channel reach it covers is
essentially straight, the cross-section area of the stream is fairly uniform and the bed slope is approximately
constant.

The computation are based on iterative procedure. The backwater should be computed using first of the two
terms in the right-hand side of Eq. 6.6 as the total area A1, depends on it. Second iteration will involve the
use of the entire Eq. 6.6.

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Figure 6.3: Common Flow Types at Bridges

Source: AUSTROASDS 1994

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6.4.2 The Backwater Coefficient

The Determination of backwater coefficient is an important step in backwater computation. Two symbols are
interchangeably used in this Section for backwater coefficients. The symbol Kb is the backwater coefficient
for a bridge in which only the bridge opening ratio, M, is considered. This is known as the base coefficient
and the curves on Figure 6.4 are called base curves. In addition to M there are factors which affect the
backwater coefficient K*. These factors are:

ƒ Effect of M and abutment shape;

ƒ Effect of piers in normal and skew crossings;
ƒ Effect of eccentricity; and
ƒ Effect of skew.

The following description covers the above effects on the backwater coefficient.

(a) Effect of M and Abutment Shape (Base Curves)

Figure 6.4 shows the base curve backwater coefficient, Kb, plotted with respect to M, for wingwall and
spillthrough abutments. Note how the coefficient, Kb, increases with channel wingwall constriction. For
bridges over 60 m length, regardless of abutment type, the lower curve is recommended because abutment
geometry becomes less important to backwater as the bridge length increases.

(b) Effect of Piers in Normal Crossings

Backwater caused by the introduction of piers in a bridge constriction is treated as an incremental backwater
coefficient designated by ∆Kp, which is added to the base curve coefficient. The value of incremental
backwater coefficient ∆Kp, is dependent on the ratio that the area of the piers bears to the gross area of the
bridge opening, the type of piers, the value of the bridge opening ratio, M, and the skew of piers to the
direction of flood flow. The ratio of the water area occupied by piers Ap, to the gross water area of the
constriction, An2, both based on the normal water surface, is assigned to the letter J. In computing the gross
water area, An2, the presence of piers in the constriction is ignored. The incremental backwater coefficient for
the more common types of piers and pile bents can be obtained from Figure 6.5.. The procedure is to enter
chart A on Fig. 6.5 with proper value of J and read ∆K, and then obtain the correction factor, σ, from chart B
for opening ratios other than unity. The incremental backwater coefficient is then:

∆Kp = σ∆K (6.7)

The incremental backwater coefficient for pile bents can be considered independent of diameter, width, or
pile spacing, but should not be increased if there are more than five piles in a bent. A bent with 10 piles
should be given a value of Kp about 20 percent higher than those shown for bents with five piles. If there is a
possibility of debris collecting on the piers, it is advisable to use a larger value of J to compensate for the
added obstruction.

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Figure 6.4: Base Curves for Backwater Coefficient -Subcritical Flow

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

For a normal crossing with piers, the total backwater coefficient becomes:

K* = Kb (Fig.6.4) + ∆Kp (Fig. 6.5) (6.8)

(c) Effect of Piers in Skew Crossings

In case of skew crossings, the effect of piers is treated as explained for normal crossings except of the
computation of J, An2, and M. The pier area for a skew crossing, Ap, is the sum of individual pier area normal
to the general direction of low, as illustrated by the sketch on Figure 6.5.. Note how the pier width, Wp, is
measured when the pier is not parallel to the general direction of the flow. The area of the constriction, An2,
for skew crossings, is based on the projected length of bridge (Fig. 6.5). Again, An2 is a gross value and
includes the areas occupied by piers. The value of J is the pier area, Ap, divided by the projected gross areas
of the bridge constriction, both measured normal to the general direction of flow. The computation of M for
skew crossings is also based on the projected length of bridge (Section 6.4.2e).

(d) Effect of Eccentricity

As can be seen from Fig. 6.6, the symbols Qa and Qb are used to represent the portion of the discharge
obstructed by the approach embankments. If the cross-section is very asymmetrical, so that Qa is less than
20 percent of Qc, or vice versa, the backwater coefficient will be somewhat larger than for comparable values
of M shown on the base curves. The magnitude of the incremental backwater coefficient, ∆Ke, accounting for
the effect of eccentricity, is shown on Fig. 6.6. Eccentricity, e, is defined as 1 minus the ratio of the lesser to
the greater discharge outside the projected length of the bridge, or:

e= (1- Qc/Qa) where Qc < Qa (6.9)

or
e= (1- Qa/Qc) where Qc > Qa (6.10)

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The largest influence on the backwater coefficient due to eccentricity will occur when a bridge is located
adjacent to a bluff where a floodplain exists only on the side and the eccentricity is1.0. The overall backwater
coefficient for a very eccentric crossing with the wingwall abutments and piers will be:

K* = Kb (Fig.6.4) + ∆Kp (Fig. 6.5) + ∆Ke (Fig. 6.6) (6.11)

(e) Effect of Skew

The method of computation for skew crossings differs from that normal crossings in that the bridge opening
ratio, M, is computed on the projected length of the bridge rather than on the full length. The length is
obtained by projecting the bridge opening upstream parallel to the general direction of flood flow as
illustrated in Figure 6.7. The general direction of flow is the direction of the flood flow as it existed prior to the
placement of embankments in the stream.

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Figure 6.5.: Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Piers

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

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Incremental backwater coefficient for skew can be obtained from Figure 6.8. the coefficient varies with the
opening ratio, M, the skew angle, φ, with the general direction of the flood flow, and alignment of the
abutment faces.

It may be noted that the incremental backwater coefficient, ∆Ks, can have a negative as well as positive
value. The negative values result from the method of computation and do not indicate that rhe backwater will
be reduced by employing a skew crossing. Total backwater coefficient for a skew crossing with abutment
faces aligned with the piers and flow would be:

K* = Kb (Fig.6.4) + ∆Kp (Fig. 6.5) + ∆Ke (Fig. 6.6)+ ∆Ks (Fig. 6.8) (6.12)

It was found from the model tests that crossings with skew up to and angle of 20o produced no objectionable
results for any of the four abutment shapes investigated. For larger angles flow concentrations at abutments
produced eddies reducing efficiency of the waterway and increasing the potential for scour.

6.5 Water Level Difference Across the Approach Embankment

Difference of the water level across the approach embank denoted by the symbol, ∆h, is sketched on Fig.
6.9. This difference is used in computing distance to maximum backwater and this Section covers its
computation.

Constructed from the model data, base curves are presented on Figure 6.9 for determination of water level
difference across the approach embankments. As a first step compute the backwater, h*b, for a normal
crossing, without piers, eccentricity or skew. For the given M, read the ordinate, Db, from the base curves
(Fig. 5.13) and compute h*3, decrease in the water level downstream of the bridge from the normal stage,
from the following relation.

⎡ 1 ⎤
h3* = hb* ⎢ − 1⎥ (6.13)
⎣ Db ⎦

Water surface elevation on the downstream side of the embankment is the water surface elevation of the
normal stage less h*3. The model study indicated that while piers increase the back water, they do not have
a measurable impact on h*3.

For eccentric crossing, h*3 is obtained through a slightly different relation from the one shown in Eq. 6.13.
First step of reading Db from Fig. 6.9 is the same as for normal crossing. In case of eccentric crossing:

⎡ 1 ⎤
(
h3* = hb* + ∆he* ⎢ ) − 1⎥ (6.14)
⎣ Db ⎦

Vn22
Where, ∆he* = ∆K eα 2
2g
The difference in water surface across the embankment is :

∆h = h1* + h3* + S 0 L1−3 (6.15)

Where, h*1 = total backwater, including the effect of piers and eccentricity,
S0L1-3 = normal fall in the stream bed between sections 1 and 3.

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Figure 6.6: Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Eccentricity

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

6.6 Location of Maximum Backwater

This section covers determination of distance, L*, from water line on the upstream side of the embankment to
a point of maximum backwater (Fig. 6.10). (Fig. 6.9).

6.6.1 Normal Crossing

For normal crossing, L* may be obtained from Fig. 6.10 using the following parameters:

∆h = difference in water surface elevation (m) across embankment

_
An2
y=
b
An2 = cross-section (m2) under the bridge below normal water surface

b = width (m) of the waterway

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6.6.2 Eccentric Crossing

Eccentric crossing with extreme asymmetry perform much like on half of a normal symmetrical crossing with
a marked contraction of the jet on one side and very little contraction on the other.

If value of eccentricity, e, is greater than 0.7, use Fig. 6.10A for reading the ratio L*/b and then multiply this
ratio by a correction fact, ω, obtained from Fig. 6.10C.

6.6.3 Skewed Crossing

To obtain the approximate distance to maximum backwater, L*, for skewed crossings, the same procedure is
recommended as for normal crossings except the ordinate of Figure 6.10 is read as L*/bs, where bs is the full
length of the skewed bridge.

6.7 Computer Modelling

HEC-RAS is a comprehensive modelling tool which includes hydraulic design of bridges as discussed in this
Chapter. In fact, because of huge amount of computations involved, the hand calculations can not replace
computer modelling. Therefore, a computer program, like HEC-RAS should preferably be used for bridge
design.
Hydraulic computations of HEC-RAS are based on user defined cross-sections upstream and downstream of
the bridge with given details of bridge opening, abutments and piers etc. The data input is interactive through
self-explanatory tables and set in easy to use MS Window Environment.

The model computes water levels taking into account all energy losses. The energy losses are computed in
three parts:

ƒ in the downstream reach where expansion in flow takes place;

ƒ in the structure itself; and
ƒ in the reach upstream of the structure.

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Figure 6.7: Skew Crossing

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

Energy losses due to friction, expansion, and contraction are computed according to basic hydraulic
equations. Hydraulic losses are computed by one of the following approaches:

ƒ Energy Equation (Standard Step Method);

ƒ Momentum Balance Method;
ƒ Yarnell Method; and
ƒ FHWA WSPRO Method.

The HEC-RAS Hydraulic Reference Manual provides a thorough treatment of the procedures employed for
the hydraulic calculations. Two types of flow are basically treated through or over the bridge:

1. Low Flow: When the flow is below the highest point on the low-chord of the bridge opening.
Principles of open-channel flow apply in this case; and

2. High Flow: When the flow is in contact with the highest point on the low-chord. Principles of pressure
flow are used and, if applicable, flow over the bridge is computed as weir flow.

HEC-RAS includes the bridge as part of the channel reach being modelled. It can also perform the bridge
scour calculations for design of the protection works.

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Figure 6.8: Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Skew

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

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Figure 6.9: Differential Water Level Ratio Base Curves

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

Figure 6.10: Distance to Maximum Backwater

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

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6.8 Worked Example

6.8.1 Design Data

Cross-section is relatively constant in a straight reach in the bridge vicinity and also normal to the general
direction of flow. Stream cross-section is shown in Figure 6.11.

Q = design discharge = 220 (m3/s)

S0 = average slope in vicinity of bridge = 0.00042 (m/m)

Bridge structure will be constructed utilising 5 number 0.5 m diameter piles at each pier.

Bridge abutments will be spillthrough type with 1.5:1 slope.

6.8.2 Design Procedure

Step 1: Stage-discharge curve.

River cross-section is shown on Fig. 6.11.

Table 6.1 shows processed hydraulic data.

Table 6.1: Processed Hydraulic Data

Sub- n a p r=a/p r2/3 q K v=q/a qv2

Section (m2) (m) (m) (m3/s) (q/S01/2) (m/s)

0.0 - 30.0 0.04 55.3 30.2 1.83 1.50 42.4 2069.2 0.77 25.1
30.0 - 39.0 0.07 27.4 9.0 3.04 2.10 16.8 822.2 0.61 6.2
39.0-46.5 0.07 26.2 7.5 3.49 2.30 17.7 861.7 0.67 7.9
46.5-56.0 0.035 47.3 11.0 4.30 2.64 73.2 3573.6 1.55 175.9
56.0-64.0 0.07 28.0 8.0 3.50 2.31 18.9 922.1 0.67 8.5
64.0-75.0 0.07 33.0 11.0 3.00 2.08 20.1 980.6 0.61 7.5
75.0-102.5 0.04 44.2 27.7 1.60 1.37 30.9 1508.9 0.70 15.1
An1 = 261.4 Q= 220 Σqv2= 246.2

Figure 6.1 shows the stage-discharge curve.

Step 2: Minimum length of the bridge opening, b.

Assume, Vmax, the maximum average velocity through the bridge opening.
Vmax = 2.2 m/s

Q
b= _
= 23.8 Average depth of flow in constriction = 4.2 (m) as shown on Fig. 6.13
Vmax y

Assume a deck level of 36.5 m.

Try a bridge length of 34 m.

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Figure 6.11: Cross-section for the Worked Example

Figure 6.12: Stage- Discharge Curve for the Worked Example

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

Step 3: Flow Type.

Fr = V / gd Where, d = hydraulic depth =98.9/30.6 = 3.23 m

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Fr = 0.39 < 1.0 Flow is subcritical – Type I.

Step 4: Conveyance

See Table 6.1

Step 5: Kinetic energy coefficient

Vn1 = Q/An1 =220/261.4 = 0.84 m/s (Table 6.1)

α1 =
∑ (qv ) 2

= 246.2/ (220x0.842) = 1.59

2
QVn 1

Step 6: Bridge Opening Ratio

M = Qb /Q = (17.7+73.2+18.9)/220 = 0.5

Step 7: Backwater coefficient

Kb = 1.12 (Fig. 6.4)

An2 = 98.9 m2 (Fig. 6.13)

For 2 piers, each comprising 5x0.5m diameter piles with height of 3.5 m exposed to the
flow, area of obstruction,

Ap = (0.5x3.5)2 = 3.5 m2

J = Ap/An2 = 3.5/98.9 = 0.035

From Fig. 6.5 A, for M = 1.0. ∆K = 0.12

Fig. 6.5B, for M = 0.5, σ = 0.68
∆Kp = Kσ = 0.12x0.68 = 0.082

∆Ks = 0 (eccentricity less that 20%)

∆Kp = 0 (no skew)

K* = Kb + ∆Kp + ∆Ke + ∆Ks = 1.12+0.082+0+0 = 1.202

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Figure 6.13: Bridge Cross-section for the Worked Example

Source: AUSTROADS 1994

Step 8: Backwater, h*1

First term of the Eq. 6.6

Vn22
K *α 2 = 1.202x1.3x0.25 = 0.39 m (first approximation of h*1)
2g
A1 = An1 + h*1W = 261.4+(0.391x104.4) = 302.22

⎡⎛ A 2
⎞ ⎛ An 2 ⎞
2
⎤V 2
Then, α 1 ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ n 2 = 0.014
n2

⎢⎣⎝ A4 ⎠ ⎝ A1 ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2 g

Total backwater = 0.391+0.014 = 0.405 m

Step 9: Check assumed deck level of 36.5 m

At Bridge Opening

Stage height 35.00

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Clearance under the bridge 1.0

Structural depth of the bridge deck 1.0

Minimum deck level 37.0

Along embankment where water level is affected by backwater

Stage height 35.00

Backwater 0.41
Minimum freeboard 1.0

Minimum deck level 36.41 m

Bridge deck level of 37.0 m is acceptable.

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6.9 References
Austroads-Australia (1994),“Waterway Design- A Guide to the Hydraulic Design of Bridge, Culverts and
Floodways”, AUSTROADS National Office, Sydney.

Ethiopian Road Authority (ERA-2001), “Draft Drainage Design Manual”, Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia.

HDS1 (1978) - Federal Highway Administration, “Hydraulics of Bridge Waterways”, US Department of

Transportation.

HEC-RAS (2001) - Hydrologic Engineering Center, “HEC-RAS – River Analysis System – version 3”, US
Army Corps of Engineers.

Melville, B. W. and Coleman, S. E. (2000),“Bridge Scour”, Water Resources Publications, LLC.

NAASRA (989), “Bridge Water Ways – Hydrology and Design”, National Association of Australian State
Road Authorities Working Group, Sydney.

NAASRA (1986),” Road Surface Drainage”, National Association of Australian State Road
Authorities, Sydney.

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