EC 3353

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

UNIT 1: SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES

 UNIT 1
SEMICINDUCTOR DEVICES
1.1 Semiconductors
Semiconductor is a class of crystalline solids which are intermediate in electrical
conductivity between a conductor and an insulator. Semiconductors are employed in the
manufacture of various kinds of electronic devices, including diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits. Such devices have found wide application because of their
compactness, reliability, power efficiency, and low cost. 

An extrinsic semiconductor is one that is doped with a specific impurity in order to

improve the conducting properties. This makes the semiconductor suitable for electronic
applications like diodes, transistors etc. 

1.1.1. P-type semiconductor

Depending on the kind of impurities added to the semiconductor it becomes either P-
type or N-type. In a P-type semiconductor, trivalent impurity from the III group elements is
added as the impurity. Trivalent impurities like Aluminium, Indium and Gallium are added to
the intrinsic semiconductor.  The trivalent impurities added provides extra holes known as the
acceptor atom. The majority carriers in a P-type semiconductor are holes.
1.1.2. N-type semiconductor
In an N-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurity from the V group is added to the pure
semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth etc. The
pentavalent impurities provide extra electrons and are termed as donor atoms. Electrons are
the majority charge carriers in N-type semiconductors. 

1.2. PN Junction Diode

A PN-junction diode is formed when a P-type semiconductor is fused to an N-type

semiconductor creating a potential barrier voltage across the diode junction. The PN junction
diode consists of a P-region and N-region separated by a depletion region where charge is
stored.
 The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the N-
side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. Figure 1.1 shows symbol and structure of
PN Junction Diode

Figure 1.1 Symbol and structure of PN Junction Diode

1.2.1. Forward Bias

In Forward bias, the positive terminal of the source is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal is connected to N side. The majority charge carriers in N and P regions are
attracted towards the PN junction. Figure 1.2 shows PN junction diode forward biasing.

. Figure 1.2 PN junction diode forward biasing

Width of the depletion layer decreases with the diffusion of the majority charge
carriers. With the increase in forward bias greater than the built-in potential, at a particular
value the depletion region becomes very much thinner so that a large number of majority
charge carriers can cross the PN junction and conducts an electric current.
1.2.2. Reverse Bias

In Reverse bias, the positive terminal of the source is connected to the N-side and the
negative terminal is connected to P-side. Majority charge carriers are attracted away from the
depletion layer.

. Figure 1.3 PN junction diode Reverse biasing

The width of the depletion layer increases, thereby electric field at the PN junction increases.
There will be no recombination of majority carriers taken place at the PN junction. Thus, no
conduction of electric current takes place.
The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small leakage current, due to
minority carriers generated at the depletion layer. Leakage current due to minority charge
carriers flows in the PN junction diode that can be measured in micro amperes. Figure 1.4
shows V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.

Figure 1.4 V-I characteristics of PN junction diode.

A curve between the voltage and current across the circuit defines the V-I properties of PN
junction diodes. The x-axis represents voltage, while the y-axis represents current.

1.2.3. Barrier Potential

The electric field that is produced in the depletion region acts as a barrier. External
energy must be exerted to allow the electrons to get through the barrier of the electric field.
The potential difference required for the electrons to be passed across the electric field is
called the potential barrier. The barrier potential of a P-N junction depends on the type of
material, amount of doping and temperature of the semiconductor. For silicon it is about
0.7V, for germanium, it is about 0.3V.

The formula used in the P-N junction depends upon the built-in potential
difference created by the electric field is given as:
E0=VT ln [ND.NA/ni2] (1.1)
Where,

 E0 is the zero bias junction voltage

 VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
 ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
 ni is the intrinsic concentration.
Figure shows P and N regions with donar and acceptor ions.

Figure 1.5 P and N regions with donor and acceptor ions.

1.2.4. Depletion region

 Depletion region or depletion layer is a region in a P-N junction diode where no
mobile charge carriers are present. Depletion layer acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of
electrons from n-side and holes from p-side. Figure 1.6 shows the depletion region.

Figure 1.6 Depletion region

1.2.5. Cut-in voltage or knee voltage

The forward voltage at which the flow of current during the PN Junction begins
increasing quickly is known as knee voltage. This voltage is also known as cut-in voltage.
This voltage is the least reverse voltage at which the PN Junction can behave without harm to
the current.
The cut-in voltage for silicon diode is approximately 0.7 volts. Germanium diodes
have cut-in voltage around 0.3 V. Figure 1.7 shows V-I characteristics of Silicon (Si) and
Germanium (Ge) diodes.
 Figure 1.7. V-I characteristics of Silicon (Si) and Germanium diodes

1.3. Zener diode

Zener diode is similar to a normal PN junction diode but it mainly works in the
reverse-biased state. However, when an ordinary PN junction diode is connected in reverse
biased condition, it is a Zener diode.
A Zener diode is nothing but a PN junction diode that has been heavily doped. Such a
diode has been specially designed for various important applications.

Figure 1.7 Zener diode symbol

1.3.1. Zener Breakdown

When a reverse-biased voltage is applied across the terminals of a highly doped PN

junction diode, the depletion region of the diode will begin to expand. Because of this
voltage, a large number of carriers electrons and holes will be generated.

(i) The depletion region has electrons on one side and holes on the other side. These
charge carriers will help to create a very powerful electric field across the diode’s
junction.
(ii) The magnitude of the generated electric field will depend on the magnitude of the
reverse voltage applied. As the reverse-biased voltage is increased, the magnitude of
the generated electric field will also increase.
(iii) This electric field will start to exert a force on the electrons which are present in the
valence band. It will start to pull the electrons in the higher energy band which is also
known as the conduction band.
(iv) In this way, a huge number of electrons will enter the conduction band and help in the
conduction process. This process is called Zener breakdown.
1.3.2. Avalanche Breakdown
(i) In a PN junction device, the free electrons move across the depletion region. As a
result, they possess velocity and because of this, these electrons will also possess
kinetic energy.
 (ii) The minority charge carriers will randomly move inside the semiconductor device
because of their velocity. These electrons will collide with other stationary
electrons that are tightly held to the atom because of covalent bonding.
(iii) The bound electrons will break the covalent bond and help in the process of
conduction by moving into the conduction band. This occurs due to the high-
velocity electrons that are moving in the depletion region.
(iv) These electrons transfer some of their kinetic energy to the stationary electrons
causing them to move. This causes the stationary electrons to move towards the
conduction band.
(v) As the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage across the diode increases, the kinetic
energy will also increase. This will cause more and more electrons to collide with
one another resulting in the generation of current.
(vi) This high current can cause the breakdown of the diode. This phenomenon is also
called Avalanche Breakdown.

Figure 1.8 shows the V-I characteristics of Zener diode with Zener break down and
Avalanche Breakdown.

Figure 1.8. V-I characteristics of Zener diode

The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:

(i) Forward Characteristics

(ii) Reverse Characteristics
1.3.3. Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode.
From the graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of any
other P-N junction diode.

1.3.4. Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation

current I0 flows across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers.
As the reverse voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current
increases drastically and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. We
call this voltage breakdown voltage or Zener voltage (Vz).

1.3.5. Zener Diode Specifications

Some commonly used specifications for Zener diodes are as follows:

 Zener/Breakdown Voltage – The Zener or the reverse breakdown voltage ranges

from 2.4 V to 200 V, sometimes it can go up to 1 kV while the maximum for the
surface-mounted device is 47 V.
 Current Iz (max) – It is the maximum current at the rated Zener Voltage (Vz –
200μA to 200 A)
 Current Iz (min) – It is the minimum value of current required for the diode to
breakdown.
 Power Rating – It denotes the maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate. It is
given by the product of the voltage of the diode and the current flowing through it.
 Temperature Stability – Diodes around 5 V have the best stability
 Voltage Tolerance – It is typically ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz) – It is the resistance to the Zener diode exhibits.
Difference between Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown is given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Difference between Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown Zener breakdown

Avalanche breakdown occurs mainly due to Zener breakdown is due to the high
the collision that takes place between the intensity of the electric field.
carriers.

Width of the depletion region is thick. Width of the depletion region is thin.

The concentration of doping at the junction The concentration level of doping is high at
is at the minimum. the junction.

Focused on the production of a pair of Mainly the production of electrons focused

electrons and holes. here.

The intensity of the electric field is low. The intensity of the electric field is strong
enough.

The coefficient of temperature is of positive The coefficient of temperature is of

value. negative value.

The ionization that occurred here is due to The ionization in this breakdown is due to
the influence of the collision effect. the strong intensity of the electric field.

Once it undergoes the breakdown the As the reverse voltage is removed from the
junction gets destroyed completely it diode the junction gets back to its normal
cannot retain back its position. position.
1.4. BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device which consists of two

PN-junctions formed by sandwiching either P-type or N-type semiconductor material
between a pair of opposite type semiconductors. The primary function of BJT is to increase
the strength of a weak signal, i.e., it acts as an amplifier.
There are two types of BJTs −
● NPN Transistor
● PNP Transistor
1.4.1. NPN Transistor
An NPN-transistor is composed of two N-type semiconductor materials which are
separated by a thin layer of P-type semiconductor. The two terminals viz. Emitter and
Collector are taken out from the two N-type semiconductor and the Base terminal is from the
P-type semiconductor.
In BJT symbol, the arrow on the emitter terminal indicates the direction of
conventional current in the emitter with forward bias. For NPN-transistor, the conventional
current flows out of the emitter as indicated by the outing arrow.

Figure 1.9 NPN – transistor symbol

1.4.2. PNP Transistor

A PNP-transistor is composed of two P-type semiconductors which are separated by a

thin layer of N-type material. The two terminals viz. Emitter and Collector are taken out from
the two P-type semiconductor layers and the Base terminal is taken from the N-type
semiconductor. For the PNP-transistor, the conventional current flows into the emitter as
indicated by the inward arrow.
 1.10. Figure PNP - transistor

Important Facts about BJT

● There are two PN-junctions, hence a transistor may be regarded as a
combination of two back-to-back connected diodes.
● The collector region is wider than both emitter and base. The base is much
thinner than both emitter and collector. During the transistor operation, a lot of
heat is generated at the collector, hence the collector is made larger to dissipate
the heat.
● A transistor has three sections of doped semiconductors. The one section is
called the Emitter, the other is called the Collector, and the middle section is
called the Base and forms two PN-junctions between emitter and collector.
● In general, the emitter-base junction of the BJT is made forward-biased,
whereas the collector-base junction is reverse-biased.
● The resistance of forward-biased junction is very small as compared to that of
the reverse-biased junction.
● The emitter is heavily doped so that it can supply a greater number of charge
carriers (electrons or holes) to the base. The base is lightly doped and very
thin, hence it passes most of the charge carriers injected by the emitter to the
collector. The doping concentration of the collector region is moderate.

1.4.3. Working Principle of BJT

The emitter-base junction of BJT is forward-biased, whereas the collector-base

junction is reverse biased. The forward bias of the emitter-base junction causes the emitter
current to flow and this emitter current entirely flows in the collector circuit. Therefore, the
collector current depends upon the emitter current and nearly equal to the emitter current.
1.4.3.1. Working of NPN Transistor
The emitter-base junction is forward-biased and collector-base junction is reverse
biased as shown in Figure 1.11.

 The forward bias causes the flow of electrons from the N-type emitter into the P-type
base.
 This constitutes the emitter current (IE). As these electrons flow through the p-type
base, they tend to combine with the holes.
 Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence, only a small number electrons
(less than 5%) combine with the holes to constitute the base current (IB).
 The remaining (more than 95%) electrons cross over the base region and reach to the
collector region to constitute the collector current (I C). In this manner, the entire
emitter current flows in the collector circuit.

Figure 1.11. Working of NPN Transistor

The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents.

IE=IB+IC (1.2)

1.4.3.2. Working of PNP Transistor

For the PNP-transistor, the forward bias of emitter-base junction causes the flow of
holes in the P-type emitter region towards the N-type base as shown in Figure 1.12. This
constitutes the emitter current (IE). As these holes cross into the N-type base region, they
tend to combine with the electrons. Since the base is lightly doped and very thin, hence only
a small number of holes (less than 5%) combine with the electrons. The remaining (more
than 95%) cross the base and reach into the collector region to constitute the collector current
(IC).
In this manner, the entire emitter current flows into the collector circuit. It may be
noted that the current conduction inside the PNP-transistor is due to the movement of holes.
However, in the external connecting wires, the current is still due to the flow of electrons.

Figure 1.12. Working of PNP Transistor

Again, the emitter current is the sum of collector current and base current.
IE=IB+IC (1.3)

1.4.4. BJT Biasing

Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the
circuit. A BJT has two PN-junctions viz. emitter-base junction and collector-base junction.
Application of proper DC voltage at the two junctions of the BJT is known as BJT or
Transistor Biasing.

Figure 1.13. BJT Biasing

(i) When a transistor used as an amplifier, the emitter-base junction is forward biased
and collector-base junction is reverse biased. If the transistor is operated under this
bias condition, then it is said to be operating in the active region.
(ii) When both the junctions are forward biased then the transistor is said to be operating
in the saturation region. The transistor operated in saturation region acts like a
closed switch and the collector current becomes maximum.
(iii) When both the junctions are reverse biased, the transistor is said to be operating in
the cut off region.

The BJT operated in cut off region acts as an open switch and a very small collector current
(in µA) flows from emitter to collector. This current is called reverse leakage current and is
due to minority charge carriers (electrons in p-region and holes in n-region). Table 1.2.
shows different types of biasing and their operating regions.

Table 1.2. Different types of biasing and their operating regions

Emitter-Base Junction Collector-Base Operating Region

Junction

Forward Biased Reverse Biased Active Region

Forward Biased Forward Biased Saturation Region

Reverse Biased Reverse Biased Reverse Biased

1.5. BJT – TYPES OF CONFIGURATIONS

1.5.1. Common Base Configuration

In this configuration we use base as common terminal for both input and output
signals as shown in Figure 1.14. The configuration name itself indicates the common
terminal.
 Figure 1.14. Common Base Configuration

● Here the input is applied between the base and emitter terminals and the
corresponding output signal is taken between the base and collector terminals with the
base terminal grounded.
● Here, the input parameters are VEB and IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC.
● The input current flowing into the emitter terminal must be higher than the base
current and collector current to operate the transistor, therefore the output collector
current is less than the input emitter current.
The current gain is generally equal or less than unity for this type of configuration. The input
and output signals are in-phase in this configuration. The amplifier circuit configuration of
this type is called as non-inverting amplifier circuit. The construction of this configuration
circuit is difficult because this type has high voltage gain values.
● This transistor configuration has high output impedance and low input impedance.
● This type of configuration has high resistance gain i.e., ratio of output resistance to
input resistance is high.
● The voltage gain for this configuration of circuit is given below.
AV = Vout/Vin = (IC.RL) / (IE.Rin) (1.4)
● Current gain in common base configuration is given as
α = Output current/Input current (1.5)
α = IC/IE (1.6)
The common base circuit is mainly used in single stage amplifier circuits, such as
microphone pre amplifier or radio frequency amplifiers because of their high frequency
response. The common base transistor circuit is given in Figure 1.15.
 Figure 1.15. Circuit diagram for Common Base Configuration

1.5.1.1. Input Characteristics

● Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with
constant output voltage.
● First keep the output voltage VBE constant and vary the input voltage VBE for different
points then at each point record the input current IE value.
● Repeat the same process at different output voltage levels. Now with these values we
need to plot the graph between IE and VBE parameters. Figure 1.16 shows the input
characteristics of common base configuration.
● The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin value is given below.
Rin = VBE / IE (when VCB is constant) (1.7)
 Figure 1.16. Input characteristics for Common Base Configuration

1.5.1.2. Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between output current
and output voltage with constant input current.
● First keep the emitter current constant and vary the V CB value for different points, now
record the IC values at each point.
● Repeat the same process at different IE values.
● Finally, we need to draw the plot between VCB and IC at constant IE. 
● Figure 1.17 shows the output characteristics of common base configuration. The
equation to calculate the output resistance value is given below.
Rout = VCB / IC (when IE is constant) (1.8)
 Figure 1.17. Output Characteristics
1.5.2. Common Collector Configuration
In this configuration, we use collector terminal as common for both input and output
signals. This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because the
emitter voltage follows the base voltage.

Figure 1.18. Common Base Configuration

This configuration is mostly used as a buffer. These configurations are widely used in
impedance matching applications because of their high input impedance.
● In this configuration, the input signal is applied between the base-collector region and
the output is taken from the emitter-collector region.
 ● Here, the input parameters are VBC and IB and the output parameters are VEC and IE.
The common collector configuration has high input impedance and low output
impedance. The input and output signals are in phase. Here also the emitter current is
equal to the sum of collector current and the base current. Now let us calculate the
current gain for this configuration.
Current gain, Ai = output current/Input current (1.9)
Ai = IE/IB (1.10)
Ai = (IC + IB)/IB (1.11)
Ai = (IC/IB) + 1 (1.12)
Ai = β + 1 (1.13)

Figure 1.19. Common Collector Configuration circuit

The common collector transistor circuit is shown in Figure 1.19. This common collector
configuration is a non-inverting amplifier circuit. The voltage gain for this circuit is less than
unity but it has large current gain because the load resistor in this circuit receives both the
collector and base currents.

1.5.2.1. Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of a common collector configuration are quite different from the
common base and common emitter configurations because the input voltage VBC is largely
determined by VEC level. Here,

VEC = VEB + VBC (1.14)

VEB = VEC – VBC (1.15)

Figure 1.17. Input Characteristics for CC Configuration

The input characteristics of a common-collector configuration are obtained between input

current IB and the input voltage VCB at constant output voltage VEC.
● Keep the output voltage VEC constant at different levels and vary the input voltage
VBC for different points and record the IB values for each point.
● Now using these values, we need to draw a graph between the parameters of V BC and
IB at constant VEC.

1.5.2.2. Output Characteristics

The operation of the common collector circuit is same as that of common emitter circuit. The
output characteristics of a common collector circuit are obtained between the output voltage
VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB.
● In the operation of common collector circuit, if the base current is zero then the
emitter current also becomes zero. As a result, no current flows through the transistor.
 ● If the base current increases, then the transistor operates in active region and finally
reaches to saturation region.
● To plot the graph first we keep the I B at constant value and we will vary the V EC value
for various points, now we need to record the value of IE for each point.
● Repeat the same process for different IB values.
● Now using these values, we need to plot the graph between the parameters of I E and
VCE at constant values of IB. The below figure shows the output characteristics of
common collector.

Figure 1.20. Output Characteristics for CC Configuration

1.5.2.3. Common Emitter Configuration

In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output as shown
in Figure 1.21. This common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit.
● Here the input is applied between base-emitter region and the output is taken between
collector and emitter terminals. In this configuration the input parameters are V BE and
IB and the output parameters are VCE and IC.
● This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor-based
amplifiers.
● In this configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and
the large collector current.
i.e., IE = IC + IB (1.16)
 ● We know that the ratio between collector current and emitter current gives current
gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly the ratio between collector
current and base current gives the current gain beta in common emitter configuration.

Figure 1.21. Common Emitter (CE) configuration

This configuration is mostly used one among all the three configurations. It has medium input
and output impedance values. It also has the medium current and voltage gains. But the
output signal has a phase shift of 1800 i.e., both the input and output are inverse to each other.

Figure 1.22. Common Emitter (CE) configuration circuit

1.5.2.4. Relationship between these two current gains.

Current gain (α) = IC/IE (1.17)
Current gain (β) = IC/IB (1.18)
Collector current IC =α IE = βIB (1.19)
1.5.2.5. Input Characteristics
The input characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between input
current IB and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage VCE as shown in Figure 1.23.
● Keep the output voltage VCE constant and vary the input voltage VBE for different
points, now record the values of input current at each point.
● Now using these values, we need to draw a graph between the values of I B and VBE at
constant VCE. The equation to calculate the input resistance Rin is given below.
Rin = VBE/IB (when VCE is at constant)(1.20)

Figure 1.23. Input characteristics for Common Emitter (CE) configuration

1.5.2.6. Output Characteristics

The output characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between the output
current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input current IB as shown in Figure 1.24.
● Keep the base current IB constant and vary the value of output voltage V CE for
different points, now note down the value of collector IC for each point.
● Plot the graph between the parameters IC and VCE in order to get the output
characteristics of common emitter configuration.
● The equation to calculate the output resistance from this graph is given below.
Rout = VCE/IC (when IB is at constant) (1.21)
 Figure 1.24. Output characteristics for Common Emitter (CE) configuration

1.5.2.7. Configurations of Transistors Summary

The Table 1.3 gives the main characteristics of a transistor in the three configurations. The
BJT transistors have mainly three types of configurations. They are common-emitter,
common-base and common-collector configurations.
Table 1.3 Transistor configuration summary

Among all these three configurations, common-emitter configuration is mostly used type.
These three have different characteristics corresponding to both input and output signals.
Also these three configurations have few similarities.

1.6. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS (FET)

A field-effect transistor is a semiconductor device that uses the electric field effect of
the control input circuit to control the output circuit current. Because it only depends on the
majority carrier in the semiconductor to conduct electricity, it is also called the unipolar
transistor. There are two main types:
● · Junction FET (JFET) and
 ● · Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET).
According to the channel material type and insulated gate type, there are N channel and P
channel transistors. According to the conduction mode, there are depletion type and
enhancement type. JFETs are all depletion types, and MOSFETs have both depletion types
and enhancement types.
1.6.1. Junction Field Effect Transistor
The structure of the N-channel junction field effect transistor is shown in Figure 1.25.
It is a structure where a PN junction is fabricated on each side of the N-type semiconductor
silicon wafer, forming a structure in which two PN junctions sandwich an N-type channel.
The two P regions are the gates, one end of the N-type silicon is the drain, and the other end
is the source.

Figure 1.25. N-Channel JFET structure and symbol

1.6.2. Working Principle
Consider the N-channel as shown in Figure 1.26.
 Figure 1.26. N-Channel JFET structure and symbol

(i) When VGS=0, when a certain voltage is applied between the drain and the source,
a majority carrier will drift between the drain and the source, generating a drain
current.
(ii) When VGS<0, the PN junction is reverse-biased, forming a depletion layer. The
channel between the drain and the source will narrow, and the ID will decrease.
(iii) If VGS continues to decrease, the channel will continue to narrow, and the ID will
continue to decrease until it reaches 0.
(iv) When the ID is 0, the corresponding VGS is called the pinch-off voltage VGS
(off). The drain current in the pinch-off region with V GS = 0 is referred to the
drain-source saturation current, IDSS).
· Drain current in the pinch-of region is given by Shockley’s equation:
Where ID = Drain current at given VGS (1.22)
IDSS = Shorted – gate drain current (1.23)
VGS = gate-source Voltage (1.24)
VGS (off) = gate-source cut off voltage. (1.25)

If drain-source voltage, VDS is continuously increased, a stage comes when the gate-
channel junction breaks down. At this point current increases very rapidly. and the JFET
may be destroyed. This happens because the charge carriers making up the saturation
current at the gate channel junction accelerate to a high velocity and produce an avalanche
effect.

1.6.3. Characteristic Curve of Junction Field-Effect Transistors

There are two characteristic curves of the junction field-effect transistor,
1. Output characteristic curve, (ID=f(VDS) at VGS=constant)
2. Transfer characteristic curve (ID=f(VGS) at VDS=constant).
1.6.3.1. Output characteristics
The characteristic curve of the N-channel junction field effect transistor is shown Figure 1.27.
It is observed that as the negative gate bias voltage VGS is increased;
(1) The maximum saturation drain current becomes smaller because the conducting channel
now becomes narrower.
(2) Pinch-off voltage is reached at a lower value of drain current ID than when VGS = 0.

Figure 1.27. Input characteristics of JFET

(3) When an external bias of, say – 1 V is applied between the gate and the source, the gate-
channel junctions are reverse-biased even when drain current, ID is zero. Hence the depletion
regions are already penetrating the channel to a certain extent when drain-source voltage, VDS
is zero.
(4) Due to this reason, a smaller voltage drop along the channel (i.e. smaller than that for V GS
= 0) will increase the depletion regions to the point where they pinch-off the current.
(5) Consequently, the pinch-off voltage VP is reached at a lower drain current, ID.
1.6.3.2. Transfer characteristic curve
This is obtained by plotting the values of drain current, ID corresponding to various values of
gate-source voltage, VGS for a constant drain-source voltage (VDS) as shown in Figure 1.28.
 Figure 1.28. Transfer characteristics
(i) Drain current decreases with the increase in negative gate-source bias
(ii) Drain current, ID = IDSS when VGS = 0
(iii) Drain current, ID = 0 when VGS = VD
.
A P-channel JFET operates in the same way and have the similar characteristics as an N-
channel JFET except that channel carriers are holes instead of electrons and the polarities of
VGS and VDS are reversed.
1.6.4. Metal-oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
The metal–oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) is a type of field-
effect transistor (FET), most commonly fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It
has an insulated gate, the voltage of which determines the conductivity of the device. Due to
the insulation between gate and source terminals, the input resistance of MOSFET may be
very high such (usually in the order of 1014 ohms. This ability to change conductivity with
the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.
A metal-insulator-semiconductor field-effect transistor or MISFET is a term almost
synonymous with MOSFET. Another synonym is IGFET for insulated-gate field-effect
transistor. Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors are divided into:
· Depletion type MOSFET (N channel, P channel)
· Enhancement type MOSFET (N-channel, P-channel)
1.6.4.1. Depletion type MOSFET
The depletion type MOSFET transistor is equivalent to a “normally closed” switch. The
depletion type of transistors requires gate – source voltage (VGS) to switch OFF the device.
1.6.4.1.1. Structure of N-channel Depletion Type FET
 The structure and symbol of the N-channel depletion-mode are shown in the
following figure (a). The SiO2 insulating layer under the gate is doped with a large number of
positive metal ions.

(i) when VGS=0, these positive ions have induced the inversion layer,
forming a channel. Therefore, as long as there is a drain-source voltage,
there is a drain current.
(ii) When VGS>0, the ID will increase.
(iii) When VGS <0, the drain current gradually decreases as VGS
decreases until ID=0. The VGS when ID=0 is called the pinch-off voltage,
represented by the symbol VGS (off) or VP.

The transfer characteristic curve of the N-channel depletion-mode is shown in figure (b)
below.

Figure 1.29 Structure and Transfer Characteristic Curve of the N-channel Depletion Mode
1.6.4.2. Enhancement type MOSFET
The Enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to “Normally Open” switch and these
types of transistors require a gate-source voltage to switch ON the device. 
1.6.4.2.1.N-channel Enhancement Type FET
The N-channel enhancement type field effect transistor has a structure similar to that
of depletion mode. But when VGS = 0V, adding a voltage between the drain and source will
not form a current.

(i) When a voltage is applied to the gate, if VGS>VGS (th), a channel is

formed, connecting the drain and the source. If the drain-source voltage is
applied at this time, an ID can be formed.
(ii) When VGS=0V, ID=0, and the drain current of the enhancement type
will appear only after VGS>VGS (th), where VGS (th)-opening voltage or valve
voltage
 Figure 1.30 N-channel Enhancement Type FET
1.6.4.2.2.P-channel Enhancement Mode and Depletion Mode MOSFET
The working principle of the P-channel MOSFET is exactly the same as that of the N-channel
MOSFET, except that the conductive carriers and the polarity of the supply voltage are
different. This is similar to the NPN and PNP types of bipolar transistors.
1.6.4.3. Volt-ampere Characteristic Curve of FET
There are many types of characteristic curves of field-effect transistors. There are four
transfer characteristic curves and output characteristic curves according to different
conductive channels and whether they are enhanced or depleted, and their voltage and current
directions are also different. If the positive direction is uniformly specified, the characteristic
curves will be drawn in different quadrants. In order to facilitate drawing, the positive
direction of the P-channel transistor is reversed.
The relevant curves are drawn in the figure below.

Figure 1.31 Volt-ampere Characteristic Curve of Field-Effect Transistors

1.6.5.Field Effect Transistor Parameters

There are many parameters of field-effect transistors, including DC parameters, AC
parameters, and limit parameters, but in general, we only need to pay attention to the
following parameters.
(1) Pinch off Voltage (VP)
This refers to the voltage VGS applied to the gate when the drain current I D (ie, channel
current) is zero or less than a small current value (for example, 1μA. 10μA) under the
specified drain voltage VDS. It is an important parameter of junction or depletion type MOS
field-effect transistors.
(2) Turn-on Voltage (VT)
This is the gate voltage VGS when the conductive channel (between the drain and the source)
is just turned on when the drain voltage V DS is at a certain value. It is an important parameter
of the enhancement field-effect transistor. When the gate voltage V GS is less than the absolute
value of the turn-on voltage, the field-effect transistor cannot be turned on.
(3) Low-frequency Transconductance (gm)
When the drain voltage VDS is at a specified value, the ratio of the drain current change to the
gate voltage change △VGS that causes this change is called transconductance, that is:
The common unit of gm is mS (millisiemens). gm is a parameter that measures the strength
of the gate voltage of the field-effect transistor on the control of the drain current, as well as
the amplification effect.

1.7. Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device as shown in

Figure 1.32. UJT is formed by a single junction of P type and N type semiconductor material.
It is used for switching applications and it cannot be used to amplify signals.
The symbol of UJT looks similar to the symbol of JFET except the bent arrow. The
three terminals of UJT are emitter, Base1 and Base2.

Figure 1.32 UJT symbol

1.7.1. Construction of Unijunction Transistor

The channel is formed of N type which is lightly doped and P type material is infused
on it and the doping concentration of P type is very high. Thus, it forms single PN junction
and this is the reason for the name Unijunction.

Figure 1.33 UJT structure

The terminals Base2 (B2), Base1 (B1) are taken from the N channel through the
Ohmic contacts and Emitter taken from the heavily doped P type material. The Emitter
terminal is closer to the Base2 terminal than the Base1 terminal.
The complementary type UJT is made up of P type lightly doped channel and heavily
doped N type material infused on it. The terminals Base2 (B2), Base1 (B1) are taken from P
channel and Emitter terminal from N type material.

1.7.2. Working of Unijunction Transistor

When no voltage is applied at the emitter, the resistance in the channel is high and the
device is turned OFF, till the applied voltage is higher than the triggering voltage. When the
PN Junction is forward biased, positive voltage is applied at the emitter terminal and Base 2
is made positive with the Base1.
 Figure 1.34 UJT circuit diagram
The majority carrier which is the holes in the P type enters the N channel and since Base2 is
positive it gets repelled and attracted towards Base1 terminal. So, the resistance decreases.
The Emitter current increases and reaches the peak and starts decreasing. After it reaches the
valley point again it starts increasing. When the PN Junction is reverse biased, the emitter
current doesn’t flow and it is cut-off.

1.7.3. Characteristics of Unijunction Transistor

At first, in the cut off region, when the emitter voltage increases from zero, due to the
minority charge carriers, a small current flow from terminal B2 to emitter. This is called as
leakage current. Above the definite value of V E, the emitter current (IE) starts to flow and
increases until the peak (VP and IP) is reached at point P.

Figure 1.35 UJT Characteristics

(1) Cut off Region:

In this region the applied input voltage is not sufficient to turn the device ON and the applied
voltage didn’t reach the triggering voltage.

(2) Negative Resistance Region

After the applied voltage reach the triggering voltage the device is turned ON and the emitter
voltage reaches the peak voltage and it drops to valley point, even though the emitter current
increases.

(3) Saturation Region

In this region when the applied voltage increases, the emitter voltage and the emitter current
increase gradually.

1.7.4. Advantages

● Low cost and low power absorbing device

● UJT is good at blocking the reverse current
● Stable triggering voltage
● It provides very good switching response

1.7.5. Disadvantages:

● It cannot be used for high frequency.

● Because of its negative impedance property, it cannot be used in all circuits.
● It does not provide amplification.

1.7.6. Application of Unijunction Transistor:

· Used in timing circuits

· Used as switching device
· Used as oscillators
· Used for phase control
· Used in sawtooth generators
1.8. RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts the alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). The process of conversion of alternating current into direct current is known as
rectification. The rectifier consists of semiconductor diodes to perform the rectification.
Depending upon the type of conversion of AC into DC, i.e. half cycle of AC into DC
or full cycle of AC into DC, the rectifiers are classified into two categories viz.
· Half Wave Rectifier
· Full Wave Rectifier
1.8.1. Half Wave Rectifier
A half wave rectifier is the rectifier circuit which converts only half cycle of the alternating
current into direct current. The circuit of a typical half-wave rectifier consists of a
semiconductor diode, the circuit of half-wave rectifier and the output waveform are shown in
Figure 1.36.

Figure 1.36 Halfwave Rectifier Circuit

The alternating current is stepped-up or stepped-down to the desired voltage using a
transformer and then the transformed AC is fed to the diode. The rectification process of the
half wave rectifier can be understood as follows −
● During positive half cycle of AC, the diode being forward biased acts as a
short circuit and allows the electric current to pass through it.
● During the negative half cycle of AC, the diode gets reverse biased and acts as
an open circuit and hence do not conduct.
In this way, the electric supply (voltage) at the load terminals will appear only for the
positive half cycle of AC. And, during the negative half cycle, there is no voltage across the
load terminals.
Thus, the alternating current is converted into direct current, which flows only in one
direction, but only half cycle of AC.
 Figure 1.37 Halfwave Rectifier input and output waveforms
1.8.1.1. Ripples

The rectified DC output could be either DC current or DC voltage. When the fluctuating AC
component is present in DC current it is known as the current ripple while the fluctuating AC
component in DC voltage is known as the voltage ripple

1.8.1.2. Filtering the rectified voltage

The output across the diodes in the above steps is neither complete nor is it completely DC.
The output is not steady DC and is not practical to use with circuits. A filter circuit also
known as a smoothing capacitor is added to the rectifier circuit to improve the output.
Smoothing capacitors are connected in parallel with the load across the output of the
full wave bridge rectifier. This filter circuit increases the average DC output level as the
capacitor acts like a storage device. The smoothing capacitor converts the rippled output of
the rectifier into a smoother DC output.

1.8.1.3. Halfwave Rectifier with Filter

The circuit diagram, input and output waveforms of halfwave rectifier are shown in Figure
1.38.
 Figure 1.38 Halfwave Rectifier with filter circuit
Figure 1.39 shows Halfwave Rectifier with filter input and output waveforms

Figure 1.39 Halfwave Rectifier with filter input and output waveforms

1.8.2. Full Wave Rectifier

A full wave rectifier is the one which converts the complete cycle of alternating current
into direct current. The full-wave rectifier circuit consists of a center-tapped type step-down
transformer and two semiconductor diodes. The anode terminals of the diodes are connected
to the secondary winding terminals of the transformer and the cathode terminals of the
diodes are connected to a common point. The load resistor is connected between the
common terminal and the center-tapping point of the transformer.
● During the positive half cycle of AC, the diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is
reverse biased.
 ● Hence, for the positive half cycle, the diode D1 conducts and current flows through
the diode D1 and the load resistor RL.
● Now, during the negative half cycle of AC, the diode D1 is reverse biased and diode
D2 is forward biased, thus only diode D2 conducts for the negative half cycle of AC
and the current will flow through the diode D2 and the load resistor RL.
The circuit of the full wave rectifier and the output voltage waveform are shown in Figure
1.40.

Figure 1.40 Full wave Rectifier circuit

In this way, a full wave rectifier converts the complete cycle of AC into DC. Based on circuit
configuration, the full-wave rectifier is further classified into two types viz. center-tapped
FWR and bridge type FWR. Figure 1.41 shows Input and Output waveforms for Full wave
Rectifier
 Figure 1.41 Input and Output waveforms for Full wave Rectifier
1.8.2.1 Full wave Rectifier with filter
Even though the full wave rectifier rectifies both positive and negative half cycles, the DC
signal obtained at the output still contains some ripples. To reduce these ripples at the output,
we use a filter. The filter is an electronic device that converts the pulsating Direct Current
into pure Direct Current. Here, the capacitor, C is connected in parallel with the load resistor
(RL) as shown in Figure 1.42. Input and output waveforms for Full wave Rectifier with filter
circuit is shown in Figure 1.43.

Figure 1.42 Full wave Rectifier with filter circuit

Figure 1.43 Input and output waveforms for Full wave Rectifier with filter
1.8.3. Bridge Rectifier

Bridge rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge circuit
configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current.
1.8.3.1. Construction
The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the Figure 1.44. The bridge rectifier circuit
is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in
a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the alternating current (AC) into Direct
Current (DC). The main advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive
centre-tapped transformer. Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

Figure 1.44 Bridge Rectifier circuit

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained
across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are
arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D 1 and
D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes
D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.
1.8.3.2. Working
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive during
the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D 1 and
D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
 During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A
becomes negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D 1 and
D3 to be reverse biased.
The current flow across load resistor RL is the same during the positive and negative
half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In
this circuit, it is completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete
negative DC voltage. Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and
negative half cycles of the input AC signal. The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are
shown in Figure 1.45.

Figure 1.45 Input and output waveforms for Bridge Rectifier

1.8.4. Bridge Rectifier with filter

The circuit diagram for Bridge Rectifier with filter and its waveform are shown below
 Figure 1.46 Input and output waveforms for Bridge Rectifier
1.8.5.5.1 Advantages of Bridge Rectifier
 The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-wave
rectifier. However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and the centre-tapped
full-wave rectifier is the same.
 The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output DC signal of a
half-wave rectifier.
 In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used, and the other half is
blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave rectifier. However, in a
bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed during both positive and negative half
cycles of the input AC signal. Hence, the output DC signal is almost equal to the input
AC signal.

1.8.5.2. Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier

 The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave rectifier

and centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes while half-wave
rectifiers and centre-tapped full wave rectifiers use only two diodes.
 When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped full-wave
rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in a bridge rectifier, two
 diodes connected in series conduct during each half cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is
higher in a bridge rectifier.
1.8.6 Rectifier Parameters
1.8.6.1. Ripple Factor

The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the ripple factor.
The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC signal while the output
with high ripples is considered a high pulsating DC signal.
The ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to pure DC voltage.
The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by

√( )
2
V rms
γ= −1 (1.26)
V DC

1.8.6.2. Peak Inverse Voltage

The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is known as a
peak inverse voltage.
1.8.6.3. Efficiency
The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts Alternating Current
(AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the DC output
power to the AC input power.

DC OutputPower
η= (1.27)
AC OutputPower

1.8.6. Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier
The major differences between half-wave rectifier and full-wave rectifier are given in the
following Table 1.4

Parameter Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) Full Wave Rectifier (FWR)

Definition An electronic circuit which An electronic circuit that converts

converts half cycle of the complete cycle of alternating
alternating current into direct current into direct current is known
current is known as half-wave as full-wave rectifier.
rectifier.
Types No further classification. The full-wave rectifier is of two
types: center-tapped FWR and
bridge FWR.

Number of diodes Half wave rectifier requires The number of diodes required in a
required only one diode. full-wave rectifier are as −
Center-tapped FWR requires two
diodes. Bridge FWR requires 4
diodes.

Rectified cycles In half wave rectifier, only Full wave rectifier rectifies the both
of AC half cycle of AC (either positive and negative cycles of AC.
positive or negative) being
rectified.

Electric current The electric current through A continuous electric current flow
through load the load is not continuous. through the load.

Peak inverse The peak inverse voltage for For the full wave rectifier, the peak
voltage (PIV) the half wave rectifier is equal inverse voltage is equal to the
to the maximum value of the double of the maximum value of
input voltage, i.e., Vm. input voltage, i.e., 2Vm.

Output frequency For half wave rectifier, the The output frequency for the full-
frequency of ripple output is wave rectifier is double of the
equal to the input supply supply frequency, i.e., "2f".
frequency, i.e., "f".

Maximum For half wave rectifier, the The maximum efficiency of

efficiency of maximum efficiency of rectification for a full-wave rectifier
rectification (for rectification is 40.6%. is equal to 81.2%.
sinusoidal AC)

Ripple factor (for The ripple factor for half-wave The ripple factor for full-wave
sinusoidal AC) rectifier is 1.21. rectifier is 0.482.
 Form factor (for The form factor of half-wave The form factor of a full-wave
sinusoidal AC) rectifier is 1.57. rectifier is 1.11

Peak factor (for For half-wave rectifier, the The peak factor of a full-wave
sinusoidal AC) peak factor is equal to 2. rectifier is 1.414.

Transformer The transformer utilization The transformer utilization factor of

utilization factor factor of a half-wave rectifier a full-wave rectifier is 0.692 (centre-
is 0.2865. tapped rectifier) and 0.8106 (bridge
rectifier).

Average output The average output DC of a The average output DC of a full-

current half-wave rectifier is, wave rectifier is,
lav=lm/π Iav = 2lm/π

Voltage The half-wave rectifier has The voltage regulation of a full-

regulation good voltage regulation. wave rectifier is better than that of
half-wave rectifier.

Saturation of In case of half-wave rectifier A full-wave rectifier does not have

transformer core circuit, the DC saturation of DC saturation of the transformer
the transformer core is a core.
common problem.

Cost Half wave rectifier is less Full wave rectifier is costlier than
costly as it requires only one half-wave rectifier as it requires
diode. more number of diodes.

1.9. ZENER DIODE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

A Zener diode is used in the Zener diode regulator to generate a constant voltage
output. When reverse biased, Zener diodes have a Zener voltage V Z, which makes it suitable
for use as a voltage reference or regulator. Even if the current fluctuates, the Zener voltage V Z
remains generally constant. The V-I characteristics of Zener diode is shown Figure 1.47.
 Figure 1.47 V-I characteristic of Zener diode
The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series with
the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in this reverse
biased condition as shown in Figure 1.48.

Figure 1.48 Circuit diagram for Zener diode voltage regulator

(i) Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the
combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is taken across the zener diode.
 (ii) The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive
terminal of the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its
breakdown condition. Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing
in the circuit.
(iii) With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ),
and all the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its
maximum power.
(iv) A small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the
load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation
requirement of the diode.
(v) So care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that
the zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-
impedance condition.
(vi) The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective and
the zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region
at all times. The upper limit of current is dependent upon the power rating of the device. The
supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ. The stabilised output voltage is always selected to
be the same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

1.10. TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION CAPACITANCES

1.10.1. Transition capacitance (CT)
The conducting plates or electrodes of the capacitor are good conductors of
electricity. Therefore, they easily allow electric current through them. On the other hand,
dielectric material or medium is poor conductor of electricity. Therefore, it does not allow
electric current through it. However, it efficiently allows electric field.
 Figure 1.49 Transition capacitance
The capacitors store electric charge in the form of electric field. The capacitors store
electric charge by using two electrically conducting plates
When voltage is applied to the capacitor, charge carriers start flowing through the
conducting wire. When these charge carriers reach the electrodes of the capacitor, they
experience a strong opposition from the dielectric or insulating material. As a result, a large
number of charge carriers are trapped at the electrodes of the capacitor. These charge
carriers cannot move between the plates. However, they exert electric field between the
plates. The charge carriers which are trapped near the dielectric material will stores electric
charge. The ability of the material to store electric charge is called capacitance.
In a basic capacitor, the capacitance is directly proportional to the size of electrodes
or plates and inversely proportional to the distance between two plates. Just like the
capacitors, a reverse biased p-n junction diode also stores electric charge at the depletion
region. The depletion region is made of immobile positive and negative ions.
In a reverse biased p-n junction diode, the p-type and n-type regions have low
resistance. Hence, p-type and n-type regions act like the electrodes or conducting plates of
the capacitor. The depletion region of the p-n junction diode has high resistance. Hence, the
depletion region acts like the dielectric or insulating material. Thus, p-n junction diode can
be considered as a parallel plate capacitor.
In depletion region, the electric charges (positive and negative ions) do not move
from one place to another place. However, they exert electric field or electric force.
Therefore, charge is stored at the depletion region in the form of electric field. The ability
of a material to store electric charge is called capacitance. Thus, there exists a capacitance
at the depletion region.
 The capacitance at the depletion region changes with the change in applied reverse
bias voltage. The capacitance at the depletion region changes with the change in applied
voltage. When reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n junction diode is increased, a large
number of holes (majority carriers) from p-side and electrons (majority carriers) from n-
side are moved away from the p-n junction. As a result, the width of depletion region
increases whereas the size of p-type and n-type regions (plates) decreases.
The capacitance means the ability to store electric charge. The p-n junction diode
with narrow depletion width and large p-type and n-type regions will store large amount of
electric charge whereas the p-n junction diode with wide depletion width and small p- type
and n-type regions will store only a small amount of electric charge. Therefore, the
capacitance of the reverse bias p-n junction diode decreases when voltage increases.
In a forward biased diode, the transition capacitance exists. However, the transition
capacitance is very small compared to the diffusion capacitance. Hence, transition
capacitance is neglected in forward biased diode.
The amount of capacitance changed with increase in voltage is called transition
capacitance. The transition capacitance is also known as depletion region capacitance,
junction capacitance or barrier capacitance. Transition capacitance is denoted as CT.
The change of capacitance at the depletion region can be defined as the change in
electric charge per change in voltage.
CT = dQ / dV (1.28)
Where, CT = Transition capacitance, dQ = Change in electric charge, (1.29)
dV = Change in voltage (1.30)
The transition capacitance can be mathematically written as,
CT = ε A / W (1.31)
Where, ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor
A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions
W = Width of depletion region

1.10.2. Diffusion capacitance (CD)

Diffusion capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Diffusion

capacitance is also sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is denoted as C D. In a
forward biased diode, diffusion capacitance is much larger than the transition capacitance.
Hence, diffusion capacitance is considered in forward biased diode.
 The diffusion capacitance occurs due to stored charge of minority electrons and
minority holes near the depletion region. When forward bias voltage is applied to the p-n
junction diode, electrons (majority carriers) in the n-region will move into the p-region and
recombines with the holes. In the similar way, holes in the p-region will move into the n-
region and recombines with electrons. As a result, the width of depletion region decreases.

Figure 1.50. Diffusion capacitance

The electrons (majority carriers) which cross the depletion region and enter the p-
region will become minority carriers of the p-region similarly; the holes (majority carriers)
which cross the depletion region and enter into the n-region will become minority carriers
of the n-region.
A large number of charge carriers, which try to move into another region will be
accumulated near the depletion region before they recombine with the majority carriers. As
a result, a large amount of charge is stored at both sides of the depletion region. Diffusion
capacitance occurs in a forward biased p-n junction diode. Diffusion capacitance is also
sometimes referred as storage capacitance. It is denoted as CD.
The accumulation of holes in the n-region and electrons in the p-region is separated
by a very thin depletion region or depletion layer. This depletion region acts like dielectric
or insulator of the capacitor and charge stored at both sides of the depletion layer acts like
conducting plates of the capacitor.
Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied
voltage. If large electric current flows through the diode, a large amount of charge is
accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, large diffusion capacitance occurs. In the
similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only a small amount of
charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small diffusion capacitance
occurs.
 When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion capacitance increases.
The diffusion capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads (nF) to micro farads
(μF). The formula for diffusion capacitance is
CD = dQ / dV (1.32)
Where, CD = Diffusion capacitance, dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored
outside the depletion region, dV = Change in voltage applied across diode

PROBLEMS

1.1 An ideal diode and a 5 Ω resistor are connected in series with a 15 V power supply
as shown in figure below. Calculate the current that flows through the diode.

Solution
The diode is forward biased and it is an ideal one. Hence, it acts like a closed switch with no
barrier voltage. Therefore, current that flows through the diode can be calculated using
Ohm’s law.
V = IR
I =V/R = 15/5 = 3 A
1.2. Consider an ideal junction diode. Find the value of current flowing through AB

Solution
The barrier potential of the diode is neglected as it is an ideal diode.
The value of current flowing through AB can be obtained by using Ohm’s law
I  = V/R = 3 - (-7) / 1× 103 /103 = 10 =10-2 A = 10mA
1.3. Find the current through the Zener diode when the load resistance is 1 KΩ. Use
diode approximation.
Solution
Voltage across AB is VZ = 9V
Voltage drop across R = 15 - 9 = 6V
Therefore current through the resistor R,
I  = 6 / 1×103 =6 mA
Voltage across the load resistor = VAB = 9V
Current through load resistor
IL = VAB/RL = 9 / 2×103 = 4.5 mA
The current through the Zener diode,
IZ = I −IL  =6 mA− 4.5mA =1.5 mA
1.4. In a transistor connected in the common base configuration, α=0.95,  IE  =1 mA .
Calculate the values of IC  and IB.
Solution
α= IC/IE
IC =α IE  =0.95×1=0.95 mA
IE = IB + IC
∴ IB = IC −IE =1−0.95=0.05 mA
1.5. The output characteristics of a transistor connected in common emitter mode is
shown in the figure. Determine the value of IC when VCE = 15 V. Also determine
the value of IC when VCE is changed to 10 V.
 When VCE = 15 V, IC = 1.5 μA
When VCE is changed to 10 V,  IC = 1.4 μA
The collector current is independent of the collector- emitter voltage in the active region.
1.6. In the circuit shown in the figure, the input voltage Vi is 20 V, VBE  = 0 V and VCE =
0 V. What are the values of IB , IC  , β?
1.10. A 5.0V stabilised power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power
supply input source. The maximum power rating PZ of the zener diode is 2W. Using the
zener regulator circuit above calculate a) The maximum current flowing through the
zener diode, b) The minimum value of the series resistor, RS, c) The load current IL if a
load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode. d) The zener current IZ at full
load.

a) The maximum current flowing through the zener diode.

b) The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.

d) The zener current IZ at full load.