OPTICAL WIRELESS COMMUNICATION/TTI403

Bab 4: DIGITAL BASEBAND TECHNIQUES

Dr. Erna Sri Sugesti, Ir., M.Sc.

Outline

• Pendahuluan
• Digital baseband modulation techniques
➢Baseband modulation
➢PAM
➢OOK
➢Error performance
 Pendahuluan (1)

Pohon modulasi

FIGURE 4.1 Modulation tree.

Pendahuluan (2)
Pertimbangan pemilihan modulasi
• Power efficiency →  P = E pulse
Eb Rb B

• Bandwidth efficiency-------------→ b B= →  =
sys
P
• Transmission reliability: improved by modulation, coding, diversity and
advanced DSP techniques
• Other considerations:
❑simple to implement,
❑ability to reject the interference from artificial sources,
❑resistant to ISI resulting from multipath propagation
❑modulation and data format, should have absence of “0 to 1” transition, no
transmission of multiple consecutive high pulses, less sensitive to phase jitter due to
variations of signal power levels, pulse spreading, pulse distortion due to near-field
signal clipping.
Pendahuluan (3)
Pendahuluan (4)

FIGURE 4.2 Optical transmission system block diagram: (a) IM,

(b) external modulation, and (c) Rx.
Digital baseband modulation
techniques
Baseband signal concepts (1)
• Information source
• Channel Encoder
It generates the message signal to be transmitted. In
After the message signal is converted into binary 1’s and
analog communication, the information is analog i.e
0’s, it is passed through the communication channel where
speech signal. In case of digital communication the
noise is added. The channel encoder adds redundant
information is discrete (e.g) data from computers,
binary bits to the input sequence to provide reliable
teletype etc. Analog signal can be converted into digital
communication.
by sampling and quantization.
• Formatter: • Base band Processor:
It converts electrical signals at the output of the For proper detection in the receiver and to reduce noise
transducer into a sequence of digital signals. and interference, some pulse shaping techniques, line
coding and special filters are used in the receiver. These
• Source Encoder: are called base band processor, (e.g.) fixed telephony and
Source encoder first converts the symbols into digital
data storage systems.
form. (i.e. binary sequence of 1’s and 0’s). Every binary
‘1’ and ‘0’ is called a bit. The group of bits is called a
code word. The codeword can be of 4,8,16 or 32 bits • Band pass Modulator:
length. For (e.g.) 8 bits will have 28 = 256 distinct code Band pass Modulation scheme is used in digital
word. Source encoders are Pulse Code Modulators, Delta communication system for transmitting information over
Modulators. channel
• Channel Communication
Communication channel is the medium used for
transmission of signal from one place to another
place. • Deformatter:
This converts back the digital data to either
• Band pass Demodulator: discrete form or analog form.
At the receiver the digital demodulator converts
the input modulated signal to the sequence of • Output Transducer:
binary bits. This converts the estimate of digital signal to
analog non-electrical signal if needed. However,
• Channel Decoder: in data communication, input signal and
It reconstructs the original information sequence. reconstructed signal both are in digital form. So,
• Source Decoder: an output transducer is not needed in that case.
Source Decoder accepts the output sequence
from channel decoder and attempts to
reconstruct the original signal from source.
Baseband signal concepts (2)
❑ Baseband refers to the original frequency range of a transmission signal before it is
converted, or modulated, to a different frequency range.
❑ For example, an audio signal may have a baseband range from 20 to 20,000 Hertz.
When it is transmitted on a radio frequency (RF), it is modulated to a much higher,
inaudible, frequency range.
❑ Signal modulation is used for radio broadcasts, as well as several types of
telecommunications, including cell phone conversations and satellite transmissions.
❑ Therefore, most telecommunication protocols require original baseband
signals to be modulated to a higher frequency before they are transmitted.
 ❑ Then these digits are to be transmitted through the Baseband
channel, such as a pair of wires or a coaxial cable, after they
are transformed into the waveforms in a block labeled Pulse
modulate that are compatible with the channel.
❑ For baseband channel, the waveforms are pulses.
❑In Formatting, sources of information are After transmission through the channel, pulses
converted into the sequences of binary digits. The are demodulated, formatted to recover as the
sources of information consist of 1. sources of information.
1. Digital information, ❑ Textual messages comprise a sequence of alphanumeric
characters.
2. Textual information and
❑ When digitally transmitted, the characters are first
3. Analog information encoded into a sequence of bits, called a bit stream or
• Data already in digital format would bypass the baseband signal.
formatting function.
❑ Groups of k bits can then be combined to form new
• Data in text is transformed into binary digit.
digits, or symbols, from a finite symbol set or
• Analog information is formatted using 3 processes:
alphabet of M = 2k such symbols.
Sampling, Quantization, and Coding
❑ A system using a symbol set size of M is referred to as an
M-ary system. The value of k or M represents an important
initial choice in the design of any digital communication
system
Baseband modulation concept
• An information bearing-signal must conform to the limits of its channel
• Generally modulation is a two-step process
– baseband: shaping the spectrum of input bits to fit in a limited spectrum
– passband: modulating the baseband signal to the system carrier
• Most common baseband modulation is Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
–data amplitude modulates a sequence of time translates of basic pulse
–PAM is a linear form of modulation: easy to equalize, BW is pulse BW
– Typically baseband data will modulate in-phase [cos] and quadrature [sine] data streams
to the carrier passband
• Special cases of modulated PAM include
– phase shift keying (PSK)
– quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
 Baseband signaling (1)
PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
An analog waveforms are transformed into binary
digits via the use of PCM. There is nothing
“physical” about the digits resulting from this
process. Digits are just abstractions—a way to
describe the message information. The binary digits
with electrical pulses in order to transmit them
through a baseband channel. The binary digits with
electrical pulses in order to transmit them through a
baseband channel. Codeword time slots are shown in
figure below, where the codeword is a 4-bit
representation of each quantized sample (c)

Figure :
Example of waveform representation of binary digits.
(a)PCM sequence.
(b) Pulse representation of PCM.
(c) Pulse wave- form (transition between two levels).
❑ Pulse Code Modulation(PCM) is
a technique where the message
signal is represented by a
sequence of coded pulses.

❑ In PCM, the binary code varies

according to the amplitude of
analog signal.

❑ It is digitally encoded pulse

modulation with pulses are of
fixed length and amplitude

Basic elements of a PCM system

PCM Encoder

PCM Decoder
 SOURCES OF CORRUPTION

❑ The analog signal recovered from the sampled, quantized, and transmitted pulses
will contain corruption from several sources.

❑ The sources of corruption are related to (1) sampling and quantizing effects, and (2)
channel effects. These effects are considered in the sections that follow.
Sampling and Quantizing Effects
1. Quantization Noise
❑ The distortion inherent in quantization is a round-off or truncation error.
❑ The process of encoding the PAM signal into a quantized PAM signal involves
discarding some of the original analog information
❑ This distortion, introduced by the need to approximate the analog waveform
with quantized samples, is referred to as quantization noise; the amount of such noise is
inversely proportional to the number of levels employed in the quantization process

2. Quantizer Saturation
❑ The quantizer (or analog-to-digital converter) allocates L levels to the task of approximating the
continuous range of inputs with a finite set of outputs.
❑ The range of inputs for which the difference between the input and output is small is called the
operating range of the converter.
❑ If the input exceeds this range, the difference between the input and the output becomes large, and we
say that the converter is operating in saturation.
Channel Effects
1.Channel Noise
❑ Thermal noise, interference from other users, and interference
from circuit switching transients can cause errors in detecting
the pulses carrying the digitized samples.
❑ Channel-induced errors can degrade the reconstructed signal
❑ This rapid degradation of output signal quality with
channel-induced errors is called a threshold effect.
❑ If the channel noise is small, there will be no problem detecting
the presence of the waveforms. Thus, small noise does not
corrupt the reconstruct signals.
❑ On the other hand, if the channel noise is large enough to affect
our ability to detect the waveforms, the resulting detection error
causes reconstruction errors.
 Channel Effects

1.Channel Noise
❑ Thermal noise, interference from other users, and interference from circuit switching
transients can cause errors in detecting the pulses carrying the digitized samples.
❑ Channel-induced errors can degrade the reconstructed signal
❑ This rapid degradation of output signal quality with channel-induced errors
is called a threshold effect.
❑ If the channel noise is small, there will be no problem detecting the presence of the
waveforms. Thus, small noise does not corrupt the reconstruct signals.
❑ On the other hand, if the channel noise is large enough to affect our ability to detect the
waveforms, the resulting detection error causes reconstruction errors.
 Intersymbol Interference

❑The channel is always bandlimited. A bandlimited channel disperses

or spreads a pulse waveform passing through it .
❑When the channel bandwidth is much greater than the pulse
bandwidth, the spreading of the pulse will be slight.
❑When the channel bandwidth is close to the signal bandwidth, the spreading
will exceed a symbol duration and cause signal pulses to overlap. This
overlapping is called intersymbol interference (ISI).
 Signal Characteristics

A signal can be represented as a function of time, i.e. it varies with time. However, it can be also
expressed as a function of frequency, i.e. a signal can be considered as a composition of different
frequency components. Thus, a signal has both time-domain and frequency domain
representation.

Time-domain concepts
A signal is continuous over a period, if

i.e., there is no break in the signal. Asignal is discrete if it takes on only a finite number of
values.
A signal is periodic if and only if
s (t+T) = s (t) for - α < t < α ,
where T is a constant, known as period. The period is measured in seconds.
In other words, a signal is a periodic signal if it completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame. A periodic signal is characterized by the following
three parameters.

Amplitude: It is the value of the signal at different instants of time. It is

measured in volts.

Frequency: It is inverse of the time period, i.e. f = 1/T. The unit of

frequency is Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.

Phase: It gives a measure of the relative position in time of two signals

within a single period. It is represented by φ in degrees or radian.
 A sine wave, the most fundamental periodic signal, can be completely characterized by its
amplitude, frequency and phase. Examples of sine waves with different amplitude, frequency
and phase are shown in Fig below.

Figure : Examples of signals with different amplitude, frequency and phase

An aperiodic signal or nonperiodic signal changes constantly without
exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time as shown in Fig. a & b.

a)Analog aperiodic signal

b) Digital aperiodic signal
 Frequency domain concepts

❑ The time domain representation displays a signal using time-domain plot, which shows changes
in signal amplitude with time.

❑ The time-domain plot can be visualized with the help of an oscilloscope.

❑ The relationship between amplitude and frequency is provided by frequency domain

representation, which can be displayed with the help of spectrum analyser.
Time domain and frequency domain representations of three sine waves of three different frequencies
are shown in fig below.

Figure : Time domain and frequency domain representations of sine waves

 Frequency Spectrum
Frequency spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that a signal contains.
Example: Consider a square wave shown in Fig. 2.1.8(a). It can be represented by a series of
sine waves S(t) = 4A/πsin2πft + 4A/3πsin(2π(3f)t) + 4A/5πsin2π (5f)t + . . . having frequency
components f, 3f, 5f, … and amplitudes 4A/π, 4A/3π, 4A/5π and so on. The frequency
spectrum of this signal can be approximation comprising only the first and third harmonics as
shown in Fig. (b)

Figure (a) A square wave, (b) Frequency spectrum of a square wave

 Digital Signal
❑ In addition to being represented by an analog signal, data can be also be represented by a
digital signal.
❑ Most digital signals are aperiodic and thus, period or frequency is not appropriate.
❑ Two new terms, bit interval (instead of period) and bit rate (instead
of frequency) are used to describe digital signals.
❑ The bit interval is the time required to send one single bit. The bit rate is the number of bit
interval per second.

Figure: Bit Rate and Bit Interval

 Line code
A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission line. This process of coding is
chosen so as to avoid overlapping and distortion of signal such as inter-symbol interference.

• Properties of Line Coding

Following are the properties of line coding −

➢ As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth used is much reduced.
➢ For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
➢ The probability of error is much reduced.
➢ Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
➢ Power density is much favorable.
➢ The timing content is adequate.
➢ Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.
Types of Line Coding
There are 3 types of Line Coding:
• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bipolar

Unipolar Signaling
Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK. The
presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
(PAM)
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
➢ Amplitude of the pulse carrier varies
proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the message
signal.
➢ The width and positions of the pulses
are constant in this modulation.
➢ PAM could be:
(i) Single polarity PAM: A suitable
fixed DC bias is added to the signal to
ensure that all the pulses are positive.
(ii) Double polarity PAM: In this the
pulses are both positive and
negative.
➢ Depending on type of sampling PAM can be:
(i) Ideal Sampling PAM, (ii) Natural
sampling PAM and (iii) Flat top PAM.

➢ The advantage of this modulation is the

generation and detection is easy in this
modulation and
also allows multiplexing.

➢ The disadvantage is large band width of

transmitted signal.

BPF characteristics
➢ For a PAM signal produced with natural
sampling, the sampled signal follows the
waveform of the input signal during the time
that each sample is taken.
➢ A PAM signal is generated by using a pulse train,
called the sampling signal (or clock signal) to
operate an electronic switch or "chopper". This
produces samples of the analog message signal.
➢ The switch is closed for the duration of each
pulse, allowing the message signal at that
sampling time to become part of the output.
➢ The switch is open for the remainder of each
sampling period making the output zero. This
is known as Natural PAM.
In simplest form PAM can be visualized as o/p of
an AND gate whose two inputs are message
signal x(t) and pulses at sampling rate

.
➢ For flat-top sampling, a sample-and-hold circuit is used in conjunction with the chopper to hold
the amplitude of each pulse at a constant level during the sampling time,
➢ Flat-top sampling, produces pulses whose amplitude remains fixed during the sampling time.
The amplitude value of the pulse depends on the amplitude of the input signal at the time of
sampling.
➢ Aperture Effect seen in this type of PAM. Equalizers used at receiver end

Transmission Bandwidth in PAM

𝝉 ≪ Ts
𝟏
fs≥ 𝟐𝒇𝒎 ; 𝑻𝒔 ≤
𝟐𝒇𝒎
𝟏
𝝉≪ Ts≤
𝟐𝒇𝒎
𝟏
If on and off time of PAM pulse is same then f max =
𝟐𝝉
𝟏
BW≥ 𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙; 𝑩𝑾 ≥
𝟐𝝉
𝑩𝑾 ≥ 𝟏 ≫ fm
𝟐𝝉
Transmission of PAM signals

➢ For PAM signals to be transmitted through space using antennas, they must be amplitude/
frequency/ phase modulated by a high frequency carrier and only then they can be transmitted.
Thus the overall system is PAM-AM. PAM-FM or PAM-PM and at receiving end, AM/ FM/PM
detection is first employed to get the PAM signal and then message signal is recovered.

Drawbacks of PAM
➢ Bandwidth required for transmission of PAM signal is very large in comparison to maximum
frequency present in modulating signal.
➢ Since amplitude of PAM pulses varies in accordance with modulating signal so interference of
noise is maximum in PAM
➢ Variation of the peak power required by transmitter
 Demodulation of PAM
➢ PAM signal sampled at Nyquist rate can be reconstructed at the receiver end , by passing it
through an efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cut off frequency of fs/2. This is
known as Reconstruction or Interpolation Filter.
➢ The low pass filter eliminates the high-frequency ripples and generates the demodulated
signal. This signal is then applied to the inverting amplifier to amplify its signal level to have
the demodulated output with almost equal amplitude with the modulating signal

➢ For a flat topped PAM, a holding circuit followed by a LPF gives demodulated signal

Received PAM Holding

signal circuit
ON-OFF KEYING (OOK)
 On-off keying (OOK)
◼ Simplest/oldest form of modulation
◼ Morse code (1837) – developed for telegraphy
PAM & OOK
Error Performance
Asumsi-asumsi:
(i) a LOS transmission link—no multipath-induced ISI;
(ii) the dominant noise is the background-induced shot noise, which is
assumed to be additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN);
(iii) no interference due to artificial light sources, which removes the
need for high-pass filtering at the Rx and therefore no BLW; and
(iv) no bandwidth limitations due to either the Tx or the Rx.