PHYSICS

ERROR IN
MEASUREMENTS
&
INSTRUMENTS
 ERRORS
Whenever an experiment is performed, two kinds of errors can appear in the measured quantity.
(1) indeterminate and (2) determinate (or systematic) errors.
1. Indeterminate errors appear randomly because of operator, fluctuations in external conditions and variability of
measuring instruments. The effect of indeterminate error can be some what reduced by taking the average of
measured values. Indeterminate errors have no fixed sign or size.
2. Determinate errors occur due to error in the procedure, or miscalibration of the intrument etc. Such errors have
same size and sign for all the measurements. Such errors can be determined.
A measurement with relatively small indeterminate error is said to have high precision. A measurement with
small indeterminate error and small determinate error is said to have high accuracy.
The experimental error [uncertainty] can be expressed in several standard ways.
Error limits Q ± Q is the measured quantity and Q is the magnitude of its limit of error. This expresses the
experimenter’s judgment that the ‘true’ value of Q lies between Q – Q and Q + Q. This entire interval
within which the measurement lies is called the range of error. Indeterminate errors are expressed in this form.
Absolute Error
Error may be expressed as absolute measures, giving the size of the error in a quantity in the same units as the
quantity itself.
Relative (or Fractional) Error
Error may be expressed as relative measures, giving the ratio of the quantity’s error to the quantity itself. In
general absolute error in a measurement
relative error = size of the measurement
We should know the error in the measurement because these errors propagate through the calculations to
produce errors in results.
A. Determinate errors : They have a known sign.
1. Suppose that a result R is calculated from the sum of two measured quantities A and B. We’ll use a and b to
represent the error in A and B respectively. r is the error in the result R. Then
(R + r) = (A + B) + (a + b)
The error in R is therefore : r = a + b.
Similarly, when two quantities are subtracted, the determinate errors also get subtracted.
2. Suppose that a result R is calculated by multiplying two measured quantities A and B. Then R = AB.
(R + r) = (A + a) (B + b) = AB + aB + Ab + ab
r aB  bA a b
    . Thus when two quantities are multiplied, their relative determinate error add.
R AB A B
3. Quotient rule : When two quantities are divided, the relative determinate error of the quotient is the relative
A
determinate error of the numerator minus the relative determinate error of the denominator. Thus if R = then
B
r a b
= 
R A B
4. Power rule : When a quantity Q is raised to a power, P, the relative determinate error in the result is P times the
relative determinate error in Q.
r q
If R = QP, = P
R Q
This also holds for negative powers,
5. The quotient rule is not applicable if the numerator and denominator are dependent on each other.
XY
e.g if R = . We cannot apply quotient rule to find the error in R. Instead we write the equation as follows
XY
1 1 1
  . Differentiating both the sides, we get
R X Y
dR dX dY r x y r R x R y
 2
 2  2 . Thus 2
 2  2 or    
R X Y R X Y R X X Y Y
B. Indeterminate error : They have unknown sign. Thus they are represented in the form A ± a.
Here we are only concerned with limits of error. We must assume a “worst-case” combination. In the case of
substraction, A – B, the worst-case deviation of the answer occurs when the errors are either + a and
– b or – a and + b. In either case, the maximum error will be (a + b)
1. Addition and subtraction rule : The absolute indeterminate errors add.
Thus if R = A + B, r=a+b
and if R = A – B, r=a+b
2. Product and quotient rule : The relative indeterminate errors add.
r a b
Thus if R = AB, = 
R A B
A r a b
and if R = , then also = 
B R A B
3. Power rule : When a quantity Q is raised to a power P, the relative error in the result is P times the relative
error in Q. This also holds for negative powers.
r q
If R = QP, = P
R Q
Examples
1. A student finds the constant acceleration of a slowly moving object with a stopwatch. The equation used
is S = (1/2)AT2. The time is measured with a stopwatch, the distance, S with a meter stick. What is the
acceleration and its estimated error?
S = 2 ± 0.005 meter.
T = 4.2 ± 0.2 second.
Sol : We use capital letters for quantities, lower case for errors. Solve the equation for the result, a.
a t s
A = 2S/T2. Its indeterminate-error equation is 2 
A T S
Thus A = 0.23 ± 0.02 m/s2.
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Significant figures are digits that are statistically significant. There are two kinds of values in science :
1. Measured Values 2. Computed Values
The way that we identify the proper number of significant figures in science are different for these two types.
MEASURED VALUES
Identifying a measured value with the correct number of significant digits requires that the instrument’s calibration
be taken into consideration. The last significant digit in a measured value will be the first estimated position.For
example, a metric ruler is calibrated with numbered calibrations equal to 1 cm. In addition, there will be ten
unnumbered calibration marks between each numbered position. (each equal to 0.1 cm). Then one could with
a little practice estimate between each of those marking. (each equal to 0.05 cm). That first estimated position
would be the last significant digit reported in the measured value. Let’s say that we were measuring the length of a
tube, and it extended past the fourteenth numbered calibration half way between the third and fourth unnumbered
mark. The metric ruler was a meter stick with 100 numbered calibrations. The reported measured length would be
14.35 cm. Here the total number of significant digits will be 4.
 COMPUTED VALUE
The other type of value is a computed value. The proper number of significant figures that a computed value
should have is decided by a set of conventional rules. However before we get to those rules for computed
values we have to consider how to determine how many significant digits are indicated in the numbers being
used in the math computation.
A. Rules for determining the number of significant digits in number with indicated decimals.
1. All non-zero digits (1-9) are to be counted as significant.
2. Zeros that have any non-zero digits anywhere to the LEFT of them are considered significant zeros.
3. All other zeros not covered in rule (ii) above are NOT be considered significant digits.
For example : 0.0040000
The 4 is obviously to be counted significant (Rule-1), but what about the zeros? The first three zeros would not
be considered significant since they have no non-zero digits anywhere to their left (Rule-3). The last four zeros
would all be considered significant since each of them has the non-zero digit 4 to their left (Rule-2). Therefore
the number has a total of five significant digits.
Here is another example : 120.00420
The digit 1, 2, 4 and 2 are all considered significant (Rule-1). All zeros are considered significant since they
have non-zero digits somewhere to their left (Rule-2). So there are a total of eight significant digits.
B. Determining the number of significant digits if number is not having an indicated decimal.
The decimal indicated in a number tells us to what position of estimation the number has been indicated. But
what about 1,000,000?
Notice that there is no decimal indicated in the number. In other words, there is an ambiguity concerning the
estimated position. This ambiguity can only be clarified by placing the number in exponential notation.
For example : If I write the number above in this manner.
1.00 × 106
I have indicated that the number has been recorded with three significant digits. On the other hand, if I write the
same number as : 1.0000 × 106
I have identified the number to have 5 significant digits. Once the number has been expressed in exponential
notation form then the digits that appear before the power of ten will all be considered significant. So for
example : 2.0040 × 104 will have five significant digits. This means that unit conversion will not change the
number of significant digits. Thus 0.000010 km = 1.0 cm = 0.010 m = 1.0 × 10 –2 m = 1.0 × 10–5 km
Rule for expressing proper number of significant digits in an answer from multiplication or division
For multiplication AND division there is the following rule for expressing a computed product or quotient with
the proper number of significant digits.
The product or quotient will be reported as having as many significant digits as the number involved in
the operation with the least number of significant digits.
For example : 0.000170 × 100.40 = 0.017068
The product could be expressed with no more that three significant digits since 0.000170 has only three
significant digits, and 100.40 has five. So according to the rule the product answer could only be expressed
with three significant digits. Thus the answer should be 0.0171 (after rounding off)
Another example : 2.000 × 104 / 6.0 × 10–3 = 0.33 × 107
The answer could be expressed with no more that two significant digits since the least digited number involved
in the operation has two significant digits.
Sometimes this would required expressing the answer in exponential notation.
For example : 3.0 × 800.0 = 2.4 × 103
The number 3.0 has two significant digits and then number 800.0 has four. The rule states that the answer can
have no more than two digits expressed. However the answer as we can all see would be 2400. How do we
express the answer 2400 while obeying the rules? The only way is to express the answer in exponential
notation so 2400 could be expressed as : 2.4 × 103
Rule for expressing the correct number of significant digits in an addition or substraction :
The rule for expressing a sum or difference is considerably different than the one for multiplication of division. The
sum or difference can be no more precise than the least precise number involved in the mathematical operation.Precision
has to do with the number of positions to the RIGHT of the decimal. The more position to the right of the decimal,
the more precise the number. So a sum or difference can have no more indicated positions to the right of the
decimal as the number involved in the operation with the LEAST indicated positions to the right of its decimal.
For example : 160.45 + 6.732 = 167.18 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to two positions to the right of the decimal, since 160.45 is the least
precise.
Another example : 45.621 + 4.3 – 6.41 = 43.5 (after rounding off)
The answer could be expressed only to one position to the right of the decimal, since the number 4.3 is the least
precise number (i.e. having only one position to the right of its decimal). Notice we aren’t really determining the
total number of significant digits in the answer with this rule.
Rules for rounding off digits :
There are a set of conventional rules for rounding off.
1. Determine according to the rule what the last reported digit should be.
2. Consider the digit to the right of the last reported digit.
3. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is less than 5 round it and all digits to its right off.
4. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is greater than 5 round it and all digits to its right off and
increased the last reported digit by one.
5. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is a 5 followed by either no other digits or all zeros, round it and
all digits to its right off and if the last reported digit is odd round up to the next even digit. If the last reported digit
is even then leave it as is.
For example if we wish to round off the following number to 3 significant digits : 18.3682
The last reported digits would be the 3. The digit to its right is a 6 which is greater than 5. According to the
Rule-4 above, the digit 3 is increased by one and the answer is : 18.4
Another example : Round off 4.565 to three significant digits.
The last reported digit would be the 6. The digit to the right is a 5 followed by nothing. Therefore according to
Rule-5 above since the 6 is even it remains so and the answer would be 4.56.
EXPERIMENTS
(i) Measurement of length
The simplest method measuring the length of a straight line is by means of a meter scale. But there exists some
limitation in the accuracy of the result:
(i) the dividing lines have a finite thickness.
(ii) naked eye cannot correctly estimate less than 0.5 mm
For greater accuracy devices like
(a) Vernier callipers (b) micrometer scales (screw gauge) are used.
VERNIER CALLIPERS:
It consists of a main scale graduated in cm/mm over which an auxiliary scale (or Vernier scale) can slide along
the length. The division of the Vernier scale being either slightly longer and shorter than the divisions of the main
scale.
Least count of Vernier Callipers
The least count or Vernier constant (v. c) is the minimum value of correct estimation of length without eye
estimation. If N division of vernier coincides with (N-1) division of main scale, then
 N 1 1ms
Vernier constant = 1 ms – 1 vs = 1   ms = , which is equal to the value of the smallest division on
 N  N
the main scale divided by total number of divisions on the vernier scale.
 Zero error:
If the zero marking of main scale and vernier callipers do not coincide, necessary correction has to be made for
this error which is known as zero error of the instrument.
If the zero of the vernier scale is to the right of the zero of the main scale the zero error is said to be positive and
the correction will be negative and vice versa.
SCREW GAUGE (OR MICROMETER SCREW)
In general vemier callipers can measure accurately upto 0.01 em and for greater
accuracy micrometer screw devices e.g. screw gauge, spherometer are used.
These consist of accurately cut screw which can be moved in a closely fitting
fixed nut by tuming it axially. The instrument is provided with two scales:
(i) The main scale or pitch scale M graduated along the axis of the screw.
(ii) The cap-scale or head scale H round the edge of the screw head.
Constants of the Screw Gauge
(a) Pitch : The translational motion of the screw is directly proportional to the total rotation of the head. The pitch
of the instrument is the distance between two consecutive threads of the screw which is equal to the distance
moved by the screw due to one complete rotation of the cap. Thus for 10 rotation of cap =5 mm, then
pitch = 0.5 mm
(b) Least count : In this case also, the minimum (or least) measurement (or count) of length is equal to one
division on the head scale which is equal to pitch divided by the total cap divisions. Thus in the aforesaid
Illustration:, if the total cap division is 100, then least count = 0.5mm/100 = 0.005 mm
Zero Error : In a perfect instrument the zero of the heat scale coincides with the line of graduation along the
screw axis with no zero-error, otherwise the instrument is said to have zero-error which is equal to the cap
reading with the gap closed. This error is positive when zero line or reference line of the cap lies above the line
of graduation and versa. The corresponding corrections will be just opposite.
(ii) Measurement of g using a simple pendulum
A small spherical bob is attached to a cotton thread and the combination is suspended from a
point A. The length of the thread (L) is read off on a meter scale. A correction is added to L to
include the finite size of the bob and the hook. The corrected value of L is used for further
calculation. The bob is displaced slightly to one side and is allowed to oscillate, and the total
time taken for 50 complete oscillations is noted on a stop-watch. The time period (T) of a
single oscillation is now calculated by division.
Observations are now taken by using different lengths for the cotton thread (L) and
pairs of values of L and T are taken. A plot of L v/s T2, on a graph, is linear. g is given
L
by g = 4 2
T2
The major errors in this experiment are
(a) Systematic : Error due to finite amplitude of the pendulum (as the motion is not exactly SHM). This may be
corrected for by using the correct numerical estimate for the time period. However the practice is to ensure that
the amplitude is small.

(b) Statistical : Errors arising from measurement of length and time.

g L  T 
  2 
g L  T 
The contributions to L, T are both statistical and systematic. These are reduced by the process of averaging.
The systematic error in L can be reduced by plotting several values of L vs T2 and fitting to a straight line. The
slope of this fit gives the correct value of L/T2
(iii) Determination of Young’s Modulus by Searle’s Method
The experimental set up consists of two identical wires P and Q of uniform cross
section suspended from a fixed rigid support. The free ends of these parallel
wires are connected to a frame F as shown in the figure. The length of the wire
Q remains fixed while the load L attached to the wire P through the frame F is
varied in equal steps so as to produce extension along .the length. The extension
thus produced is measured with the help of spirit level SL and micrometer screw
M attached to the F frame on the side of the experimental wire.On placing the
slotted weights on the hanger H upto a permissible value (half of the breaking
force) the wire gets extended by small amount and the spirit level gets disturbed
from horizontal setting. This increase in length is measured by turning the micrometer
screw M upwards so as to restore the balance of the spirit level. If n be the
number of turns of the micrometer screw and f be the difference in the cap
reading, the increase in length M is obtained by
l = n × pitch + f × least count

The load on the hanger is reduced in the same steps and spirit level is restored to horizontal position. The mean
of these two observations gives the true increase in length of the wire corresponding to the given value of load.
From the data obtained, a graph showing extension (l) against the load (W) is plotted which is obtained as a
straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line gives
l l
tan   
W Mg
Mg l
Now, stress = 2 and strain =
r L
MgL L
Y = Stress/ strain = 2 = 2
r l r tan θ
With known values of initial length L, radius r of the experimental wire and tan, Young’s modulus Y can be
calculated.
(iv) Specific Heat of a liquid using a calorimeter:
The principle is to take a known quantity of liquid in an insulated calorimeter and heat it by passing a known
current (i) through a heating coil immersed within the liquid for a known length of time (t). The mass of the
calorimeter (m1) and, the combined mass of the calorimeter and the liquid (m2) are measured. The potential
drop across the heating coil is V and the maximum temperature of the liquid is measured to 2.
The specific heat of the liquid (Sl) is found by using the relation
(m2 – m1)Sl(2 – 0) + m1Sc(2 – 0) = i. V. t
or, (m2 – m1)Sl + m1Sc = i. V. t /(2 – 0) ..... (1)
Here, 0 is the room temperature, while Sc is the specific heat of the material of the calorimeter and the stirrer.
If Sc is known, then Sl can be determined.
On the other hand, if Sc is unknown: one can either repeat the experiment with water or a different mass of the
liquid and use the two equations to eliminate m1Sc.
The sources of error in this experiment are errors due to improper connection of the heating coil, radiation,
apart from statistical errors in measurement.
The direction of the current is reversed midway during the experiment to remove the effect of any differential
contacts, radiation correction is introduced to take care of the second major source of systematic error.
Radiation correction: The temperature of the system is recorded for half the length of time t,
i.e. t/2, where t is the time during which the current was switched on} after the current is switched off. The fall
in temperature , during this interval is now added to the final temperature 2 to give the corrected final temperature:
’2= 2 + 
This temperature is used in the calculation of the specific heat, Sl.
 Error analysis :
After correcting for systematic errors, equation (i) is used to estimate the remaining errors.
(v) Focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens using the u-v method.
In this method one uses an optical bench and the convex lens (or the concave mirror) is placed on the holder.
The position of the lens is noted by reading the scale at the bottom of the holder. A bright object (a filament
lamp or some similar object) is placed at a fixed distance (u) in front of the lens (mirror).
The position of the image (v) is determined by moving a white screen behind the lens until a sharp image is
obtained (for real images).
For the concave mirror, the position of the image is determined by placing a sharp object (a pin) on the optical
bench such that the parallax between the object pin and the image is nil.
1 1
A plot of |u| versus |v| gives a rectangular hyperbola. A plot of vs
|v| |u|
gives a straight line.
1
The intercepts are equal to ,where f is the focal length.
|f |
Error : The systematic error in this experiment is mostly due to improper position of the object on the holder.
This error maybe eliminated by reversing the holder (rotating the holder by 180° about the vertical) and then
taking the readings again. Averages are then taken.
The equation for errors gives:
f u v | u |  | v |
= + +
f u v |u||v|
The errors u, v correspond to the error in the measurement of u and v.
Index Error or Bench Error and its correction: In an experiment using an optical bench we are
required to measure the object and image distances from the pole or vertex on the mirror. The distance between
the tip of the needles and the pole of the mirror is the actual distance. But we practically measure distances
between the indices with the help of the scale engraved on the bench. These distances are called the observed
distances. The actual distances may not be equal to the observed distances and due to this reason an error
creeps in the measurement of the distances. This error is called the index or the bench error.
Index Error = Observed distance – actual distance and
Index Correction = Actual – observed distance
Note: Index correction whether positive or negative, is always added algebraically to the observed distance
to get the corrected distance.
(vi) Speed of sound using resonance column
A tuning fork of known frequency (f) is held at the mouth of a long tube, which is
dipped into water as shown in the figure.The length (l1) of the air column in the tube is
adjusted until it resonates with the tuning fork. The air temperature and humidity are
noted.The length of the tube is adjusted again until a second resonance length (l2) is
found (provided the tube is long)
Then, l2 – l1 =/ 2, provided l1, l2 are resonance lengths for adjacent resonances.
  = 2(l2 – l1), is the wavelength of sound.
Since the frequency f, is known; the velocity of sound in air at the temperature () and humidity (h) is given by
C = f  = 2(l2 – l1)f
It is also possible to use a single measurement of the resonant length directly, but, then it has to be corrected for
the “end effect”:
(fundamental) = 4(l1 + 0.3d), where d = diameter
Errors : The major systematic errors introduced are due to end effects in (end correction) and also due to
excessive humidity.
 Random errors are given by
C (l2  l1 ) l2  l1
 
C l2  l1 l2  l1

(vii) Verification of Ohm’s law using voltmeter and ammeter

A voltmeter (V) and an ammeter (A) are connected in a circuit along with a
resistance R as shown in the figure, along with a battery B and a rheostat, Rh
Simultaneous readings of the current i and the potential drop V are taken by
changing the resistance in the rheostat (Rh). A graph of V vs i is plotted and it
is found to be linear (within errors).
The magnitude of R is determined by either
V
(a) taking the ratio and then
i
(b) fitting to a straight line: V = iR, and determining the slope R.

Errors :
Systematic errors in this experiment arise from the current flowing through V (finite resistance of the voltmeter),
the Joule heating effect in the circuit and the resistance of the connecting wires/ connections of the resistance.
The effect of Joule heating may be minimsed by switching on the circuit for a short while only, while the effect
of finite resistance of the voltmeter can be overcome by using a high resistance instrument or a potentiometer.
The lengths of connecting wires should be minimised as much as possible.
Error analysis : R V i
V  
The error in computing the ratio R = is given by R V i
i
where V and i are of the order of the least counts of the instruments used.
(viii) Specific resistance of the material of a wire using a meter bridge :
A known length (l) of a wire is connected in one of the gaps (P) of a
metre bridge, while a Resistance Box is inserted into the other gap
(Q). The circuit is completed by using a battery (B), a Rheostat (Rh),
a Key (K) and a galvanometer (G).The balance length (l ) is found by
closing key k and momentarily connecting the galvanometer until it
gives zero deflection (null point). Then,
P l
 .......(1)
Q 100  l
using the expression for the meter bridge at balance. Here, represents the resistance of the wire while Q
represents the resistance in the resistance box. The key K is open when the circuit is not in use.
L r 2
The resistance of the wire, P =  2  = P .......(2)
r L
where r is the radius of wire and L is the length of the wire, r is measured using a screw gauge while L is
measured with a scale.
Errors : The major systematic errors in this experiment are due to the heating effect, end corrections introduced
due to shift of the zero of the scale at A and B, and stray resistances in P and Q, and errors due to non-uniformity
of the meter bridge wire.
Error analysis : End corrections can be estimated by including known resistances P1 and Q1 in the two ends
and finding the null point:
P1 l1  
 ..... (2), where  and  are the end corrections.
Q 100  l  
1 1
 When the resistance Q1 is placed in the left gap and P1 in the right gap,
Q1 l2  
 ..... (3)
P1 100  l2  
which give two linear equation for finding  and .

In order that  and  be measured accurately, P1 and Q1 should be as different from each other as possible.
For the actual balance point,
P l l'
  1' ,
Q 100  l   l2

Errors due to non-uniformity of the meter bridge wire can be minimised by interchanging the resistances in the
gaps P and Q.
' '
P l1 l2
  '  '
P l1 l2
where, l’1 and l’2 are of the order of the least count of the scale.

The error is, therefore, minimum if l’1 = l’2 i.e. when the balance point is in the middle of the bridge. The error
in  is
P 2r L P
  
P r L P

(ix) Measurement of unknown resistance using a P.O. Box

A P.O. Box can also be used to measure an unknown
resistance. It is a Wheatstone Bridge with three arms P, Q
and R; while the fourth arm(s) is the unknown resistance. P
and Q are known as the ratio arms while R is known at the
rheostat arm.
At balance, the unknown resistance
P
S =   R .....(1)
Q

The ratio arms are first adjusted so that they carry 100 
each. The resistance in the rheostat arm is now adjusted so
that the galvanometer deflection is in one direction, if R = R0
(Ohm) and in the opposite direction when R = R0 +1 (ohm).
This implies that the unknown resistance, S lies between R0and R0 + 1 (ohm). Now, the resistance in P and Q
are made 100  and 1000  respectively, and the process is repeated.
Equation (1) is used to compute S.
The ratio P/Q is progressively made 1 : 10, and then 1 : 100. The resistance S can be accurately measured.
Errors : The major sources of error are the connecting wires, unclear resistance plugs, change in resistance
due to Joule heating, and the insensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge.
These may be removed by using thick connecting wires, clean plugs, keeping the circuit on for very brief
periods (to avoid Joule heating) and calculating the sensitivity.
In order that the sensitivity is maximum, the resistance in the arm P is close to the value of the resistance S.
 EXERCISE
Q.1 In a Vernier Calipers (VC), N divisions of the main scale coincide with N + m divisions of the vernier scale.
What is the value of m for which the instrument has minimum least count?
(A) 1 (B) N (C) Infinity (D) N/2

Q.2 Consider the vernier calipers as shown, the instrument has no zero error. What is the
length of the rod shown, if 1 msd = 1mm? Use 7 msd = 8 vsd.
(A) 4.6 mm (B) 4.5 mm (C) 4.3 mm (D) none

Q.3 In a vernier calipers the main scale and the vernier scale are made up different materials. When the room
temperature increases by T°C, it is found the reading of the instrument remains the same. Earlier it was
observed that the front edge of the wooden rod placed for measurement crossed the Nth main scale division
and N + 2 msd coincided with the 2nd vsd. Initially, 10 vsd coincided with 9 msd. If coefficient of linear
expansion of the main scale is 1 and that of the vernier scale is 2 then what is the value of 1/ 2? (Ignore the
expansion of the rod on heating)
(A) 1.8 / (N) (B) 1.8 /(N+2) (C) 1.8 / (N–2) (D) None

Q.4 Consider a screw gauge without any zero error. What will be the final reading
corresponding to the final state as shown? It is given that the circular head
translates P msd in N rotations. One msd is equal to 1mm.
(A) (P/N) (2 + 45/100) mm (B) (N/P) (2+45/N)mm
 45 P 
(C) P (2/N + 45/100)mm (D)  2    mm
 100 N 

Q.5 A screw gauge has some zero error but its value is unknown. We have two
identical rods. When the first rod is inserted in the screw, the state of the instrument
is shown by diagram (I). When both the rods are inserted together in series then
the state is shown by the diagram (II). What is the zero error of the instrument?
1 msd = 100 csd = 1mm
(A) –0.16 mm (B) +0.16 mm
(C) +0.14 mm (D) –0.14 mm

Q.6 The VC shown in the diagram has zero error in it (as you can see). It is given that 9 msd = 10 vsd.
(i) What is the magnitude of the zero error?
(ii) The observed reading of the length of a rod measured by this VC comes out
to be 5.4 mm. If the vernier had been error free then ___msd would have
coincided with ___ vsd.

Q.7 Consider a home made vernier scale as shown in the figure.

In this diagram, we are interested in measuring the length of the line PQ. If the angle of both the inclines is equal
to  then what is the least count of the instrument.
Q.8 The diagram shows the initial and the final state of SG, which has zero error in
it. What can be the length of the object? 1 msd = 100 csd

Q.9 In a meter bridge set up, which of the following should be the properties of the one meter long wire?
(A) High resistivity and low temperature coefficient
(B) Low resistivity and low temperature coefficient
(C) Low resistivity and high temperature coefficient
(D) High resistivity and high temperature coefficient

Q.10 Make the appropriate connections in the meter bridge set up shown. Resistance
box is connected between _____. Unknown resistance is connected
between______. Battery is connected between.
Options:
(A) AB (B) CD (C) EF (D) None

Q.11 Let the end error on the LHS and RHS be equal to one cm. For the balance
point at O, find out the % tage error in the value of X? (If the end error is 1 cm
from both sides then it means the corrected reading will become 10cm + 1cm
from LHS and 90cm + 1cm from the RHS)
(A) 4.2% (B) 8.1% (C) 9.2% (D) None

Q.12 Consider the MB shown in the diagram, let the resistance X have temperature
coefficient 1 and the resistance from the RB have the temperature coefficient
2. Let the reading of the meter scale be 10cm from the LHS. If the temperature
of the two resistance increase by small temperature T then what is the shift in
the position of the null point? Neglect all the other changes in the bridge due to
temperature rise.
1 1
(A) 9(1 – 2)T (B) 9(1 + 2)T (1 + 2)T
(C) (D) (1 – 2)T
9 9
Q.13 The diagram shows an incomplete sketch of a PO box. Battery is connected
between________. The unknown resistance is connected between ________.
The galvanometer is connected between_________. The key K2 is connected
between __________.
Options:
(A) CD (B) DA (C) CE (D) DF
(E) DE (F) BF (G) CF

Q.14 For a post office Box, the graph of galvanometer deflection versus R (resistance
pulled out of RB) for the ratio 100 : 1 is given as shown. A careless student pulls
out two non consecutive values R as shown in the figure. Find the value of unknown
resistance.
(A) 3.2 ohm (B) 3.24 ohm
(C) 3.206 ohm (D) None
Q.15 When we operate a wheat stone bridge then in starting the key of the battery is closed first and the key of the
G is closed later. When the circuit is to be closed then switches are released in the opposite order. Why?
(A) Look at the diagram of the PO box, the switch is battery is always on the right hand hence it is easier to
press it first.
(B) This is done to avoid the damage of the galvanometer due to induced emf.
(C) If the G switch is pressed before the battery switch then large sparking takes place at the battery switch.
(D) While disconnecting if we open the battery switch before the G switch then we can observe induced
current in the circuit till the G switch is not opened.

Q.16 Identify which of the following diagrams represent the internal construction of the coils wound in a resistance
box or PQ box?

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.17 Which of the following reading is most accurate

(A) 4.00 cm (B) 0.004 mm (C) 40.00 cm (D) 4.00 m

Q.18 The least count of a stop watch is 1/5 sec. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to be 25 sec.
The minimum percentage error in the measurement of time will be
(A) 0.1% (B) 0.8% (C) 1.8% (D) 8%

Q.19 A vernier callipers having 1 main scale division = 0.1 cm is designed to have a least count of 0.02 cm. If n be
the number of divisions on vernier scale and m be the length of vernier scale, then
(A) n=10, m=0.5 cm (B) n=9, m=0.4 cm (C) n=10, m=0.8 cm (D) n=10 , m=0.2 cm

Q.20 Solve with due regard to significant digits

2.91 0.3842
(i) 6.5  6.32 (ii)
0.080

Q.21 A body travels uniformly a distance of (13.8 ± 0.2)m in time (4.0 ± 0.3) sec. Calculate its velocity.

Q.22 The main scale of a vernier calipers reads in millimeter and its vernier is divided into 10 divisions which coincide
with 9 divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the instrument touch each other the seventh division of
the vernier scale coincide with a scale division and the zero of the vernier lies to the right of the zero of main
scale. Furthermore, when a cylinder is tightly placed along its length between the two jaws, the zero of the
vernier scale lies slightly to the left of 3.2 cm and the fourth vernier division coincides with a scale division.
Calculate the measured length of the cylinder.

Q.23 A short circuit occurs in a telephone cable having a resistance of 0.45 m–1. The circuit is tested with a
Wheatstone bridge. The two resistors in the ratio arms of the Wheatstone bridge network have values of 100
and 1110 respectively. A balance condition is found when the variable resistor has a value of 400. Calculate
the distance down the cable, where the short has occurred.

Q.24 5.74 gm of a substance occupies a volume of 1.2 cm3. Calculate its density with due regard for significant
figures.
Q.25 The time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by
l
T = 2
g
The length of the pendulum is measured as l = 10 ± 0.1cm and the time period as T = 0.5 ± 0.02 s. Determine
percentage error in the value of g.

Q.26 A physical quantity P is related to four observables A, B, C and D as follows.

2 A 3 B2
P = 4
C D
The percentage error of the measurement in A, B, C and D are 1%, 3% and 2%, 4% respectively. Determine
the percentage error & absolute error in the quantity P. Value of P is calculated 3.763. Round off the result in
scientific way.

Q.27 A glass prism of angle A = 600 gives minimum angle of deviation  = 300 with the max. error of 10 when a beam
of parallel light passed through the prism during an experiment.
(i) Find the permissible error in the measurement of refractive index  of the material of the prism.
(ii) Find the range of experimental value of refractive index ‘’.

Q.28 In the given vernier calliper scale, the length of 1 main scale division is 1mm
whereas the length of the vernier scale is 7.65 mm. Find the reading
on the scale correct to significant digits as shown in the diagram.
 ANSWER
Q.1 A Q.2 B Q.3 B Q.4 D Q.5 D Q.6 (i) x = 0.6 msd, (ii) 6, 1st

1  cos  
Q.7 L.C = l  
 cos  

Q.8 4 msd + 0.1 msd + 0.12 msd = 4.22 msd ; 4 msd + 0.1 msd + 1.12 msd = 5.22 msd & so on

Q.9 A Q.10 CD, AB, C Q.11 B Q.12 A Q.13 CE, CD, DF, BF

Q.14 B Q.15 B,C,D Q.16 D Q.17 C Q.18 B

Q.19 C Q.20 (i) 0.4 ; (ii) 14 Q.21 v = (3.5 ± 0.31) m/s

Q.22 3.07 cm Q.23 40 m Q.24 4.8 g/cm3 Q.25 5%

     
Q.26 14%, 0.53, 3.76 Q.27 5/18% , 2 1     2 1  
 360   360 
Q.28 5.045 cm