Department of Mathematics and Physics

Mathematics 1
Core Notes

Dr T Sheikh
1. Sets A set is a collection of objects. We use curly brackets { } to show sets. The
members of a set are called its elements, symbol . eg. The set P = {2,4,6}
Definition
has three elements. We write this as n(P) = 3 Also, 2  P but 3  P.

Subset If every element of P is also in Q we say P is a subset of Q. This is written

P  Q.

Intersection The intersection, symbol , of two sets has elements common to both sets
Union The Union , , of sets is the set we get when all the members of the sets are
put together.

Universal Set The universal set , U, contains all elements relevant to the discussion.
Empty Set The empty or null set ,denoted,  or { } has no members in it

Venn Diagrams A Venn diagram is useful to show the relation between two sets. We draw a
circle to represent each set.

Example Draw a Venn Diagram to show the relation between the sets: P = {2,4,6,8}
and Q = { 1,2,3,4,5}. What is n(P Q)? What is n(PQ)?

P and Q have common members, 2 and 4. We shows this in the overlapping

Solution region

Venn Diagram P 1 Q
6 3 P  Q ={2, 4} , (PQ) = {1,2,3,4,5, 6,8}
2
8 5 , n(P  Q) = 2 , n(PQ) = 7
4

Sets of numbers The table below shows important sets of numbers

Set name Description Members
N Natural numbers {1, 2, 3…..}
W Whole numbers {0,1, 2, 3…}
Z Integers; {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2…}
Q Rationals includes integers, {3/2 ,  7/9, 4/1 …}
Irrationals: Non terminating, 2 ,  5 ,  etc
Non- repeating
 Real numbers Rationals + irrationals

Number line The number line is useful to show sets: Example {x   | –1< x  4}

Practice
1. Given A = { 1, 2, 3, 4} B = { 1, 4, 6, 8} C = {2, 4, 5, 8, 10} and
U = {1,2,3,….11} find (a) A  B (b) B  C (c ) A (BC} (d) (AB) (e) n(AC)

1
2. Solve each inequality over . and draw the graph:
(a) 4 – 10x  8 (b) 3x2 + 10x – 8 < 0 (c ) x2 > 2x + 3 (d) x2 – 5x  0

3. A survey of companies was carried out to determine which companies had stock control and
payroll systems. 32 companies had both stock control and payroll systems, 65 had just one of these
systems and 40 firms had a payroll system but no stock control system. If 22 companies had
neither of these systems how many companies were surveyed? Ans 119

4. In a survey of 39 Internet users, it was noted that 10 use Google (G) , 18 use MXit (M) and 19
use Facebook (F), 3 use all three, , 4 use MXit and Facebook, 12 use MXit but not Google or
Facebook, and 4 use Google and Facebook but not MXit. Draw a Venn diagram and determine
how many a) use none of the 3 search engines b) use Google and MXit c) use MXit or Facebook
d) use exactly one search engine

2. Approximation
In practical calculations most real numbers must be rounded. Approximate numbers are derived from
measurements or calculations where rounding has been applied. The answers you get by multiplying, or
dividing measurements are also approximate. For example,

Length of hypotenuse
Area of circle radius
1 1 cm = R2= (1)2= 
= 12  2 2  5  is often rounded to 3,1416
c 2
5 is 2,23606…. m
Other examples of rounded numbers are: The number of atoms in one mole is  6,022 1023 ( means
approximately, given to 4 s.f), atomic diameters are  1 – 3 Å (1 Å = 1010 m), and the speed of light is 
3108 m. s1.

Rounding Numbers . Decimal places.

In general when rounding look at the digit after the one of interest and use the rule: Round down if the digit
is < 5; Round up if it is 5 or more.
Significant figures (s.f)
To determine which digits in a measurement are significant use these rules:
1. Every nonzero digit in a recorded measurement is significant. 12,7 m, 0,143 m and 201 m all have three
significant figures.
2. Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant. The measurements 1003 m, 40,23 m, and 2,503 m all
have four significant figures.
3. Zeroes in front of all nonzero digits are merely placeholders; they are not significant. 0,0000054 has two
significant figures.

1. If the digit is 0, 1, 2, 3 or 4 round down

2. If the digit is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 round up
For example: 23,453 rounds to 23,5 correct to 3 s.f
5,0746 rounds to 5,08 correct to 2 d.p
0,00271 rounds to 0,003 correct to 3 decimal places (d.p) 0,00517 rounds to 0,0052
correct to 2 s.f 2
Standard Scientific notation
The mass of the Earth is 5 979 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg. This can be expressed in scientific
notation as 5,979  1027 kg. In standard scientific form numbers are expressed as A  10 n where 1,0  A <
10,0 and the exponent on 10 represents the number of places the decimal should be moved. It is much easier
to tell at a glance what the order of magnitude is. The diameter of an ammonia molecule is 0,000 000 029 7
cm which is more easily written as 2,97  108. The significant figures, in a number in scientific notation,
are the number of digits in A. The number
4 ×105 has only one digit in A, so it has one significant figure. 9,304×105 has 4 significant figures.
Scientific notation is a convenient way of expressing very large or very small numbers. (rather than

counting zeros). The scientific notation for a length of 0,06051 m is 6,051102 m.

Order of Operations
In science and maths, the solution of many problems involve a series of calculations and we need to follow a
set of rules regarding which calculations to do first. For example, what is:
5×3 + 2  6  (23−5)2 = ?
The correct order of operations is: Parentheses, Exponentiation, Multiplication or Division, and finally
Addition or Subtraction. (mnemonic BODMAS). So the answer is 18.
Prefixes
The following metric prefixes are common. Remember them.
prefix exa peta tera giga mega kilo deka deci centi milli micro nano pico femto
1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 101 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015
Notes:
1. Your answer should not have more significant figures than the number of significant digits in the least
precise measurement. For example, If R = 3,47 m , the area of the circle = R2 = (3,47)2 = 37,827603 (full
calculator display) should be given as 3,78  103 m2 to 2 d.p as the original radius was given to 2 d.p.
2. In calculations involving several stages, do not round off intermediate results. Round only the final
answer.
3. Be careful when the base is a unit of measure. Illogical results such as 2,3 L2 or 5,4 cm4 implies you have
failed to properly cancel terms.
Practice.
1. Write the following in standard form rounded to 2 significant figures:
(a) (7,21  106)(4,27103) (b) (0,003046 )1/3
2. Write the following in expanded notation (without the prefixes) giving the final answer in standard form
to 2 s.f:
(a) 2,76 MW (b) 12,75 mg (c) 2,57 m
(d) 12,75 pF (e) 2,97 104 TW (f) 12,765 kPa
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3. Write in standard form using prefixes and rounding the final answer to 2 d.p :
(a) 20347982,100 m (b) 0,000006754 s (c) 320  104 kg (d) 0,01598  104 J
4. (a) Given that 1 s = 109 ns and 1 s = 106 s, write (i) 1 s in s (b) 1 ns in s.
(b) One light-year is the distance that light travels in exactly one year. If the speed of light
is 6.7  108 mph, convert 1 light-year to: (a) miles. (b) metres. ( 1 mile = 1,609 km)
5. Convert to the required units. Write the final answer in standard form rounded to 3 s.f.
(a) 0,0356 litres/min to cm3/s (b) 2105,7 cm2 to m2 (c) 12,43 g/cm3 to kg/m3
(d) 2,975 mm/s2 to m/s2 (e) 0,2091 kN./m2 to N/cm2 (f) 7,276  1026 atoms to moles
6. Use your calculator to work out the following: Give the final answer in standard form to 2 d.p
(a) the energy of a sub-atomic particle of mass m given by E = mc2 where c = 3,0 108 m/s and
m = 1,6  1012 kg
(b) force F = Bqv sin , given B = 1,26  106 T, Q = 1,66  109 C , v = 3,05  104 m/s and  = 60o

(c) the impedance z  R 2  ( 2 fL  1 )2 where f =50 Hz, R = 10,0 Ohms, L = 20 mH and C =100 F.
2 fC
8
(d) the density of a fluid   2,05  e 2 ,3 10 P
given P = 2,76  104 Pa

(e) How many atoms of Uranium are there in 4,3 g of Uranium-235?

Exponential functions
The product a  a  a  a … a ( n times) is written in short as an . Here a is called the base and n is the
exponent. a n is read "a raised to the power n ". ENTER : 7
Example : 5 = 5  5  5 = 125
3 PRESS: INV xy
ENTER : 5
75= 77777 = 16807 The keystrokes on your calculator to find 75 are: PRESS: =
Examples : x 4  x 12 = x 16 53  58 = 5 11 32x +y  35x 3y = 37x  2y
Product Rule : To multiply numbers with the same bases, we add the exponents.
If a3 is multiplied by a7 we get (a  a  a)  ( a  a  a  a  a  a  a) which is a3+7= a 10.

Quotient Rule : To divide numbers with the same bases, we subtract the exponents.
If a7 is divided by a4 we get (a  a a a a  a a)  ( a  a  a  a ) which is a74 = a 3.
Power Rule : If a number is raised to an exponent we multiply the exponents.
When x3 is raised to power 4 we get
(a a a) (a a  a) (a  a  a)  ( a  a  a) which is (a3)4 = a 12.

7a  7b
Examples: a) 512  54 = 58 b) x b  x c = x b  c c) = 7 a+bcd
7 7
c d

Examples:
a). 6.33n 1  27 n 1 33n (6.31  33n.33 ) 1 1
b). n 1 n 1
 3 n 1 2
 3(2  )  6
163 = (42)3 = 46 . Also 163 = (24)3 = 212 3 .9 3 .3 .3 27 9

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c). 93  35. Note the bases are not the same. So, rewrite 9 = 32 = 3  3.
So 93 = 9  9  9 = 32  32  32 = 36 . Hence 93  35 = 36 35= 3
Practice. Use the Exponent rules to simplify. Leave your answers in exponent form with positive
indices.
1. 274  92  243 2. am+3 a2m+5  am3

3. p2q  p3q1 p14q 27(a 2 )3  (2a)4

4. (3a3 )2

Negative exponents
3 3 3 3 1 1
Consider: 34 36. We can write this as:   2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
But we know from the quotient rule that 34 36 = 346 = 32
1 1
Hence 32 =  . 1 1
32 9 In general, a
n
 n . Also n
 an
a a
Change a negative index on a number to a positive index by inversion
1
102 104 =1024 = 106  106
1 1
Examples: 52 = 1/52 = (73)4 = 712 = 12
25 7
Example: Complete the table below.
33 3 3  3=27 a3 a a a
32 33=9 a2 a a
31 ? a1 ?
30 ? a0 ?
31 ? a1 ?
32 1/9 a2 1/a2
Solution 31 = 3 and a1 =a 30 = 1 a0=1 and 3 1 = 1/3 a1 = 1/a

1 1
In general a0  1 an  n
 an
an a
Practice Simplify without using a calculator. Leave your answer in index form

1. 32  35 2. 42  23 81

3. 52  53  53 4. 270  (93)2  812

5. (102)2  103 105 6. (2a)3  104  4a2  103  (20)2

5
Fractional exponents
A fractional exponent is a root. Thus, (3)1/2 stands for the square root of 2 i.e 2.

Similarly , 21/ 3 stands for the cube root of 2 i.e 3

2 . In general, a1/ n is the nth root of a, written as n
a . The
rules of exponents also apply to fractional indices.

1
Examples: a) 642 / 3  (26 )2 / 3  22  b) 31/ 5  31/ 3  31/ 51/ 3  38/15
4
1 1 13 1 1
4 3 2  4
2 / 3 4 / 3
c) 4 8  2
1/ 3 3
2 2 3
2  23 3 3
 22  4
1 1 1 1 1
3
d) 3
81  9  243  (3 )  (3 )  (3 )  3
2 6 4 1/ 3 2 2 5 6 6

Fractional bases
In general, the exponent applies to the each term in the numerator and the denominator:
1

 1  2 11/ 2 1
Example:    2 1/ 2
 1  51  5
 25  (5 ) 5
Summary
1. a m  a n  a m n 2. a m  a n  a nm 3. (a m )n  a mn

4. (a  b)m  a m  bm 5. (ab)m  a m bm Note: ab  a  b

The main rules for radicals are:

n a na
1. ( n a ) n  a 2. an  a 3. n
ab  n a n
b 4. n  5. mn
a  mn a
b nb
Practice Simplify using rules of exponents. Write your answers with positive indices only.
1 1 4
81 y12 5. 3 x 5
 (4 x 2 ) 2
 (125) 3

1. 3
( xy )6
5
6. 16 32

8 y4 3y2

1
2. 3
1  ( 27 x 3  3 x  2 )  4

( xy ) 6 2
( x y) 3 7.  x 1
 9 x 1 

 81

1 27 x 3
 27b 2 c 5  3
8. 3  4
81x 6
3.  6 4 1 
64
 64a b c 

3
4. 64a12b15

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Exponential graphs
Example: On a common set of axes sketch the graphs of f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 2x. Use your graph to solve
2 x = 2 x
Solution: A suitable table of values and the graphs are shown here:
, y =2x
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3

2x 0,125 0,25 0,5 1 2 4 8

2 x 8 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8

The solution 2 x = 2 x is x = 0 where both functions have

a common point and y = 1.
Algebraic check:
1
2x  x
 2 x 2 x  1  22x  1  20  2x  0  x  0
2
Practice
1. The graphs of the exponential functions given by
1
y = 2 x , y  2 x and y  2 x are shown.
2

(a) Identify each graph (b) Write down the domain

and range of each graph (c) Find the solutions (if
1
(i) 2 x  2 x (ii) 2 x  2 x
2
any) of :

2. Draw the graphs of y = 21 x and y = 2x . Find the solution by using (a) an algebraic method and (b)
using your graph.

Exponential Equations

Example Simplify (a) Solve : x2 + 4x1 + 3 = 0 (c) 27x1=3x+1

Solution
1 4 1
(a)   3  0  1  4 x  3x 2  0  (3x  1)( x  1)  0  x  1 or  .
x2 x 3
(b) 27 x 1  33( x 1)  3x 1  3( x  1)  x  1  2 x  4  x  2
Example
Solve: e2x  3ex  4 = 0
Solution: Let ex = k. Then k2  3k – 4 = 0 or (k + 1)(k  4) = 0 . k = 1 or k = 4 .
The graph of ex is +ve for all values of x. The solution is x 1,4.

7
Example
Sketch the graph of y = 2x  4x (a) Find the x and y-intercepts (b) the turning point ( c) the equation
of the line of symmetry ( if any) (d) Find the roots if any of y = 2x  4x
Solution: Table of values for y = 2x  4x
x 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 3,5 1 3 0 4 0

See graph.
(a) x-intercepts: x = 0,4, 4,0 y-intercept: y = 1 y = 2x  4x
(b) T.P at (2,5; 4,2)
(c) No line of symmetry
It is difficult to solve y = 2x  4x = 0 algebraically.
You could use a trial and error method or find the
roots by bisection.

Practice
1. Solve the following equations:

(a) x2 7 2
(b) 5 x  16
(c) 2 x 3  9 (d) e 3 x 1  12

(e) x 2  x 1  12  0 (f) 9x – 4.3x + 3 = 0

2. Solve the following exponential equations

1 1
(a) 5 x  0,04 (b) ( x) 2  8 x 3
(c) (3 x ) 2  18.3 x  2430  0
3

(d ) ( x  4)  125 ( e) e x  2 x  1  1 ( f ) 22x  2 x  8  0
2
2 2

3
2 1
(g) 2x  9x  4  0
3 3
(h) (3x  1)  8 4
(i) 2e x  e  x  5
3. Sketch the graphs of the following exponential functions:

(a ) y  2 x and y  3 x ( b ) y  2 x 3 (c ) y  2e  x (d ) y  3  3 x
(e) On the same set of axes sketch the following graphs: (i) 2x and 2x. Write down the coordinates of the
intersection and use the graph to find the roots of (ii) 2x  2x = 3
 0 ,02 t
4. A substance decays according to the equation : m  75e , where m is the mass in grams present
after t hours. What mass is present after 12 hours? What is the initial mass, i.e. when t = 0? How long will it
take the mass to drop to 10% of its initial value? Draw a graph to show how m varies with time, t.

8
5.

The graph of the functions given by y  2sin x and y  2cos x are shown.
(a) Identify the two graphs (b) State the domain and range of each graph
(c) Are the graphs periodic? (d) For what values of x is 2sin x  2cos x

6. The number of trees in a forest is declining at the rate of 2000 every year. At present there are estimated
to be 26 000 trees. How many trees will there be after (a) 2 years (b) 5 years (c ) 8 years? (d) n years (e)
Is the decline linear or exponential? Draw a sketch to show how the number of trees varies with time. (f)
After how long will the forest disappear?
7. In a certain province the number of cases of a disease doubles every 5 years. Currently there are 2400
cases. How many cases will there be after (a) 10 years? (b) 15 years? (c) n years? (d) After how long will
the number of cases exceed 10 000?
8. At present the concentration of a pollutant in a lake is 24 parts per million. As a result of discharge every
week from industry the concentration increases by 2,4 % . What is the concentration after (a) 2 weeks
(b) 5 weeks c) 10 weeks (d ) n weeks. Is the increase linear or exponential? Draw a sketch to show how
the concentration varies with time. (d) The water from the lake cannot be used for drinking if the
concentration exceeds 50 parts per million. After how many weeks is this likely?
3. Functions
A function is a rule which assigns to each member of one set (called the domain) exactly
one value from another set (called the range). For example, the area A, of a circle is a
function of its radius, r, expressed by the formula: A = r2. Here the independent variable is
r and the dependent variable is A. Usually the letters f, g, h, and k are used to represent
functions. We express “y is a function of x” in symbols as y = f(x) which is read as “ y
equals f of x”. Given y = f (x), x is called the independent variable and represents an input
value from the domain. If the domain is not stated explicitly, then we take the domain to be
the largest set of x-values in which the formula gives real y-values. y is the dependent
variable and represents the corresponding output value f (x) in the range.

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Definition: A function from a set D to a set R is a rule that assigns a unique element
f (x) in R to each element x in D.

For a relation to be a function, it must pass the vertical line test which states that for every
value of x, there is exactly one y value.

Domain
To determine the domain check the following. 1. If the function has a denominator, then any
value that makes the denominator zero cannot be included in the domain. 2. If the formula
has an even root in it, then any value that makes the terms under the root sign negative cannot
be included in the domain.

Example Find the domain and range of the function given by f ( x )  2 x  5

Solution: This function has a  in it, so set 2x – 5  0 and solve for x. The domain for this
function is [2,5 ;  ). The range of the function is{y   | y  0}
Example 1
Find the domain and range of the function given by f ( x ) 
x 4
2

Solution: The function has a denominator, and you need to exclude the x-values that make
the denominator zero from the domain. So, x 2 – 4 = 0  (x − 2)(x + 2) = 0  x = ± 2.
Therefore the domain for this function is ( , 2)  (2, 2)  (2,  ). Check by drawing a
sketch.
Example 1
Find the domain and range for the function given by g ( x) 
4  x2

Solution: Not only does this function have a denominator, but it also has an even root sign in
it. So first determine what values of x make 4  x 2 equal zero. 4  x 2 = 0 
x2 = 4  x=±2 Exclude these values from the domain. Also 4  x2  0 when x 2
and x  2. Thus the domain is the interval ( 2 ; 2) . The range is y  0,5.

Example 4: Find the domain and range for the function f (x) = x 2 − 3x + 6.

Solution: This function does not have a denominator or contain an even root, then its domain
is all real numbers, and is denoted by . The range is y  3,75. Note: The domain of
polynomial functions is (– ; )

Even functions and odd functions - symmetry

Definitions: 1. A function y = f (x) is even if f (x) = f (x) for every number x in the domain of f.

2. A function y = f (x) is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for every number x in the domain of f.

An easy way to decide if a function is odd is to check its symmetry with respect to the origin.

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Example : Determine whether the function f(x) = x4 – 2x2 is odd, even, or neither.

Solution:
f (−x) = (−x) 4 − 2(−x) 2 = x 4 − 2x 2 = f (x)
Therefore, f (x) is an even function.
Note that the graph has line symmetry about the
y-axis confirming that f (x) is an even function.
f (x) = x 4  2x 2

Example Determine whether the function f(x) = 1/(x3 + x) is odd, even, or neither.

Solution:
1 1
f (  x)     f ( x)
(  x)  ( x)  ( x  x)
3 3

Therefore, this function is odd. The graph has point

symmetry with respect to the origin. The function is
odd. f(x) = 1/(x3 + x)

Note: A function like h(x) = x +1 is neither even or odd. Check: h(x) = x + 1  h(x). However there is no
symmetry with respect to the origin.
There are many types of functions.
Linear functions have the first degree equation of the form: y = f(x) = kx + c. (First degree implies highest
power on x is 1). This is the equation of a straight line with slope k and y-intercept , c.
The domain is the set of reals expressed as {x   } and the range is also the set of reals : {y   }
Quadratic functions are of the form
y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c. The highest power of the
variable x is 2. The roots of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by the

b  b 2  4ac
quadratic formula: x  .
2a
If b2 > 4ac the function has two distinct roots. y  x 2  2 x  4 (imaginary roots)
If b2 < 4ac the function has no real zeroes. y  x 2  2 x  1 (equal roots, x  1)
If b2 = 4ac the function has equal roots y  x 2  2 x  1 (2 roots, x  0,41 ; x  2,4)
Note : If a > 0 the graph of f(x) is a parabola which opens up (concave up). If a < 0 the graph opens down.
Example: Sketch the curve given by y = f(x) = 2x2 + 3x 1 .
What is the natural domain and the range of this function? What are the zeroes and
the equation of the line of symmetry?
Solution: A sketch of the graph of the function is as shown.
The domain of y = f(x) = 2x2 + 3x 1 is {x  } and the range is
11
{y   | y  2,125 }. The line of symmetry is x =  0,75. The zeroes occur at x = 0,28 and x =  1,78.
Coordinates of the vertex are (0,75; 2,125)
Rational functions: are quotients of polynomials.
Pay special attention to the zeroes of the denominator in the
x
rational function. The rational function f ( x)  is
4  x2
undefined when the denominator, 4  x2 = 0 i.e at x =  2.
Its graph is shown. The lines x =  2 are
the vertical asymptotes.

Radical functions are defined for values of x that

yield positive values under the square root .

Thus, f ( x)  x  2 is not defined for |x| < 2 and its

range is y  0.

Likewise, the function g ( x)  1  x 2 has the domain

{x  | 1  x  1} and the range { y  | 0  y  1} .

Practice
Sketch the graphs of the following functions. In each case state whether the function is odd, even or neither.
Also state the natural domain and range.

1. f ( x)  x 2  1 2. g(x) = x  3 3. h(x) = x3+ x2 4

6 2x  1
4. k(x) = 2x2 5. f ( x)  6. g ( x) 
x x2
4 x2 4x
7. h( x)  8. k ( x)  9. f ( x) 
9 x x 1 ( x  2)( x  1)
10. Find the roots (if any) of the quadratic equations given by:
(a) 2x2 + 5x  12 = 0 (b) 9x2  24 x + 16 = 0 (c ) 3x2 + 4x +5 = 0
(d) Sketch graphs and indicate the line of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertices.

11. Find the values of k for which x2  kx + 20 = 0 has (a) real roots (b) no roots (c ) one
repeated root.

12
4. Numbers
The Real Numbers System: includes the integers
or counting numbers, the rational numbers
(numbers that can be represented as a ratio of two
whole numbers, such as 1/3 or 3/7) and irrational
numbers (numbers that cannot be represented as a
ratio of two whole numbers, such as , 2.

Here are some of the properties that real numbers obey:

Closure : If you operated on any Commutativity : Associativity :
two real numbers A and B with A + B = B + A and A  B = B  A (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) and
+, ,  you get a real number. Note: A  B  B  A, and A/B  B/A
(A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
Inverse : Identity : Distributivity :
A + A = 0, A  (1/A) = 1 A + 0 = A, A1=A A  (B + C) = (A  B) + (A  C)

These properties are useful as they help you simplify more complex calculations.

Complex Numbers
The solution of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be obtained using the formula:

 b  b 2  4ac
x . Consider the equation x2  2x + 3 = 0. When we try to solve this quadratic equation
2a
we find that the solutions do not exist in the set of real numbers as we cannot evaluate

b 2  4ac  4  4.1.3   8 . We introduce a quantity j (or i) which has the property: j2 = 1 and we
define a complex number by : z  a  jb where a and b  . We call a the real part of z , so
Re(z) = a and b is called the imaginary part of z. We write Im (z) = b. Thus, 3 + j4 is an example of a
complex number. We can express solutions of quadratic equations such as the one above in the complex

2  4  8 2  4 2  2 1
number system. We can write the solution as x     1 j
2 2 2
Powers of j Instead of j
sometimes ,i is used
Since j = 1, j = j , j = 1,
2 3 4
j = j and j = 1
5 6
for the imaginary part
1 1. j j 1 1 of a complex number
Also   2   j . Similarly, 2  1 , j
j j. j j j j3
Equality: Two complex numbers z1 and z2 are equal if both the real and imaginary parts are separately
equal. For example, if z1 = a + jb, and z2 = c + jd, then z1 = z2 if a = c, and b = d

Adding and Subtracting complex numbers

Real and imaginary parts are added/subtracted separately: If z1 = a + jb, and z2 = c + jd then
z1 + z2 = (a + jb) + (c + jd) = (a + c) + j(b + d)

13
z1  z2 = a + jb  (c + jd) = (a  c) + j(b  d)

Multplying complex numbers: If z1 = a + jb, and z2 = c + jd, then the product

z . z2 = ac + jcd + jbc + j2bd = (ac  bd) + j(ad + bc)

Complex conjugate and modulus:

If z = a + jb, then the complex conjugate is defined as z or z* = a – jb (i.e , change the sign of the
imaginary part).

Division If z1 = a + jb, and z2 = c + jd, then the quotient can be found by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
z1 a  jb (a  jb)(c  jd ) (ac  bd )  j (bc  ad )
  
z2 c  jd (c  jd )(c  jd ) c2  d 2
The modulus of a complex number z1 = a + j b is defined as |z| = a2 + b2 = z .z* .
The modulus is a positive definite number.
2 j
Example: Simplify: (a) (3 – 2j)(1 j)2 (b)
1 j2
Solution
(a) (3 – 2j)(1 j)2 = (3  2j) (1 + j2 2j) = (3  2j) ( 2j) = 6j + 4j2 = 4  6j
2 j (2  j )(1  2 j ) 2  5 j  2 j 2
(b) The conjugate of (1 + 2j) is (1  2j). So,   j
1  j 2 (1  2 j )(1  2 j ) 1 4 j2
Practice
1. Simplify each of the following:
(a) j5 (b) j9 (c) 1/j3 (d) 1/j (e) 1/j7
3
 1 j 
2
2. (a) (1 + j) (b) (2j5)(3+j2) (c)   
 2 2
3. Simplify and express with real denominators

1 j 2 j 3 j 1 j 1 j 2
(a) (b) + (c) (d)
2 j 3 j 2 j (2  j ) 2 1 j 2
4. Given z1 = 1  2j z2 = 2 + j z3 = 1  2j and z4 = 3j evaluate the following:
z2 1 z2
(a) z1z2 (b) (c) (d)
z1 z3 2 z3 z 4

y, imaginary
Argand Diagram: This is a geometrical representation of a axis

complex number. A complex number z1= (a + jb) can be (a ;b)

represented as a point (a, b) on the x-y plane. The x-axis

is called the “real axis” and the y axis is called the “imaginary axis.”
x, (Real axis)
14
Polar Form: The point (a, b) can be given in polar coordinates as (r, ), r being the distance from the
origin, and  the angle r makes with the +ve x-axis. The polar form is written using the following notation:
z = a + jb. Since a = r cos  and b = r sin  we can write z = r (cos  + j sin ) . Also the modulus of the

complex number = a 2  b2  r 2 cos 2   r 2 sin 2  = r. The principal value of  is always used and
lies between   and  .  is called the argument of the complex number, written as arg z and  = arc
tan (b/a). The principal value of  is always used so that 180o   180o. If  falls in the third or 4th
quadrant it is measured from the +ve x-axis and given as a ve angle. Note that other angles  + 2k (where
k = 1, 2, ... k  0) are also arguments for the same complex number.
Example : Write the complex numbers z1=  2  j3 and z2 = 4  j2 in polar form.

Solution: r1  (2)2  (3) 2  13 and the argument 1  arctan 3  56,31o . Hence

2
arg z1= 180  56,31 = 123,69 or 180 + 56,31= 236,31o . Similarly r2 = 4,47 and 2 = 360  26,57 =
333,43o. In polar form we may write the two complex numbers as: 3,6 /123,7 and 4,47 /26,57o

Example: Write the following in rectangular form: 2,4 /135o and 7,3 / 120o

Solution: (a) 2,4 /135o = 2,4 (cos 135 +j sin 135o) = 1,7 + j 1,7
(b) 7,3 / 120o = 7,3 ( cos 120 + j sin 120) = 3,65  j 6,32
Practice
1. Express in polar form: (a) 2+2j (b) 3  j3 (c) 23 j2 (d) 4 + j2 (e) 2  j4
2. Express in rectangular form (a) 3 / 120o (b) 10 / 20o (c) 2 /145
3. Solve the quadratic equations giving the solution in complex form, where necessary:
(a) x 2  4 x  8 =0 (b) 2 x 2  4 x  3 = 0 (c) x 2  6 jx  25 = 0
Operations in Polar form
(x;;y)
Given a complex number z = x + jy and arg z = , we can r
θ
express z in polar form as z = r ( cos  + j sin ) . Then
z2 = r2 ( cos  + j sin )2 = r2 ( cos 2 + j sin 2) and z3 = r3 ( cos 3 + j sin 3).
In general , zn = rn ( cos n + j sin n). This is known as De Moivre's theorem.
Also z = r(cos  + j sin ) can be written in exponential or Euler's form as z = rei . Thus any complex
number z = x + j y can be expressed in polar form as r( cos  + j sin ) , in short polar form as z = r / or in
Euler's form as z = rei
Example :Write the rectangular complex number, z = 3  j4 in polar and Euler's form
4
Solution: r  x 2  y 2  5   arctan  53,13o .
3

Hence 3  j 4  5(cos 53,13  sin 53,13)  5 /  53,13o  5e j ( 53,13 )

o

15
It is much easier to perform operations on complex numbers in polar form using the following rules
which you can be easily establish from the laws of exponents:
Given two complex numbers z1  r1 / 1 and z2  r2 /  2 then:
z1 z2  r1r2 / 1   2 z1 r1 ( z1 )n  r1n / n1
 / 1   2
z2 r2 ( z )n  r n / n
2 2 2

z1 r1
Example Show that given z1  r1 / 1 and z2  r2 /  2 show that  / 1   2
z2 r2
z1 r1 j (1 2 )
Solution Express in Euler form: z1  r1 / 1  r1e j1 z2  r2 /  2  r2e j2 . Then  e
z2 r2

(2  j 2) 4 (1  j )2
Example Simplify: (a) (b)  (1  2 j )
( 3  j 3) 2 ( 2  j 2)
Solution Expressing each complex numbers in polar form and simplifying gives:

( 8 /135) 4 64
(a) 2
 / 540  480  5,33 / 60o
( 12 / 240) 12

(1  j )2 ( 2 /  30o ) 2 2 /  60
(b)  (1  2 j ) =  2 /150o   2 /150 
( 3  j )
o
2 / 210 2 / 210

= 2 /(60  150  210)  2 /  120  1  j 3 .

Example
Find (a) the square root of (a) 34j (b) the cube roots of 27j

Solution (a) In polar form 34j is 5/53,13o and  5 /  53,13  2,5 /  26,565
In polar form 27j is 27 / 90  360o . The cube roots are 3 / 30o 90o or in rectangular form

Practice
1. Convert each number to polar form and evaluate:
2
(a) (23j)4 (b) (3+j4) (c) (d) (2j)5
6  j8
2. Find the cube roots of : (a) 125 j (b) 2 + 11 j

4. Logarithms
The function y = ax, a > 0 for all real numbers x, is called the exponential function.
The exponential function with base a has an inverse function, called the logarithmic function
with base a. If a is any constant > 1 then the following equations are equivalent:

y  ax  log a y  x .

Defn: Log a x is the power to which the base a must be raised in order to give x.

16
Mathematically, the log function is the inverse of the
exponential function. Complete the table of values
for y = 10x and y = log10 x and draw the graphs.
x 10x Log10 x
−1,0 0,1 
−0,5 0
0,0 The domain of y = log x is the set of
0,5 all positive real numbers, {x   | x>0} .
1,0 0 The range is all real numbers : {y  }
1,5
The graph of y = 10x is positive for all values of x. Its domain is {x  }. The range is the y-values
under this domain. The range = { y   | y >0} .For what values of x is log x not defined?
The graph of y = log10 x is a reflection of y = 10 x in the line y = x. Logs in base 10 are called common
logarithms. We often omit the base 10 in log10 x and simply write “ log x”.
In science and engineering a more convenient and widely used base is base
e. Logs in base e are called natural logs or neparian logs and are written as
n x (pronounced ‘lin’). Thus,
y = n x means x = e y.
n
 1
Definition e  lim 1    approx 2,71828
n
 n

What is e? Its real name is Euler's number. It has a value of

2,71828182...... It is important because it pops up a lot in calculus, in statistics and in growth problems. Any
process, where the rate of change is proportional to the amount of whatever is changing in the process will
involve e. Examples are : the rates of many chemical reactions , the decay of radioactive nuclei, and the
temperature dependence of the vapour pressure of liquids.
Example : Given the function f(x) defined by f (x) = log2 (2x + 3).
(a) Find the domain and range of f . (b) Find the vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
(c) Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of f if there are any.
Solution : The graph of y = log 2 (2x+3) drawn in
EXCEL is shown. (a) The domain is the input x-values.
x
-2
y
#NUM!
The graph is undefined for 2x + 3  0
-1.8 #NUM!
-1.6 #NUM! i.e when x  −1,5. The domain is
-1.4 -7.714047
-1.2
-1
-2.448391
-2.13E-15
{ x  | x > −1,5 }
-0.8 1.612714
-0.6 2.817265 The range is (− : )
-0.4 3.779081
-0.2 4.579773
0 5.265656 (b) A vertical asymptote occurs
0.2 5.865564
0.4 6.398669 at x = − 1,5
0.6 6.87837
0.8 7.314398 (c ) The x and y intercepts are
1 7.714047
1.2 8.082922
1.4 8.425425 respectively (−1;0) and (0 ; 5,3)
1.6 8.745077
1.8 9.044738
17
Rules of logs are direct translations of the rules of exponents and to work with logs you need to remember
these.
 x
(1)Product : log xy  log x  log y (2) Quotient log    log x  log y (3) Power : log x n  n log x
 y
log c b
(4) change of base : log a b  Also log b 1  0 and log a a  1 e ln x  x
log c a

ln e x  x 10log x  x log 1 b   log a b pH   log10 [ H  ]

a

1
Example Find each logarithm (a) log 4 (b) log 27 3 81
64
Solution
1 1
(a) Let y = log 4 . Then using the definition of logs:  4 y and 4−3 = 4 y. Hence y = − 3
64 64
4
(b) Let y = log 27 3 81 . Again using the definition of logs: 27 y  3 81 and 33 y  3 3 .
Hence 3y = 4/3 and y = 4/9

Example: Simplify: log 4 0,125 + 16 2log 163  5 log 5 7

Solution: Use the definition of log. Let y be the logarithm to be found. Let y = log 4 0,125
Then 4y = 0,125 = 81= (2)3  2y = 3 or y = 1,5
Let y = 16 2log 163 Taking logs to base 16, we have Log16 y = 2 log 16 3. So y = 9 , Log 1616 = 9

Hence 16 2log 163  16log16 9  9 . Let y = 5 log 5 7 Log5 y = Log5 5 log 5 7 = Log57. Log55 or y = 7
Hence log 4 0,125 + 16 2log 163  5 log 5 7 = 1,5 + 9  7 = 0,5
Practice
1. Find the value of:
(a) log5 25 (b) log25 5 (c) log4 2
−3
(d) log7 (1/7) (e) log3 3 (f) log8 0,125
2. Simplify and find the value of each of these (Use a calculator where necessary):

(a) log 2 8 + log 2    log 10 0,01

1 (b) log 3  1  + log 5 0,008 log 8 2
 27 
2

(c) log 4    log 9  

1 1 (d) log 6 54  log69 (g) log 8 e
 16   3
(e) e2 ln 4 (f) 16 2 log 165 (g) log 2 0,125

(h) e3 ln (i) 5 log 5 7

3. Use the definition of logs to find x in each of these:
(a) log4 x = 3 (b) log x 32 = 5 (c) log ½ 0,25 = x
1
(d)  n x = 3/2  n 4 (e) log 4 x = (f) x = a log a 10
64

18
 1 1
(g) log x  2 (h)  n x = 3  n 2 +  n 5 (i) log9x = 3 log 9
64 4
4. Given the function f(x) defined by f (x) = log2 (x + 3).
(a) Find the domain of f and the range of f. b) Find the vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
(c) Find the x and y intercepts of the graph of f if there are any. d) Sketch the graph of f.
4 y

5. The graphs shown are graphs of

3

y = 4 log x, y = log4 x and y = log 0,4 x. 2

Identify each graph and sketch graphs of x

–1 1 2 3 4 5 6

y = 2 log x –1

–2

6. Sketch the graphs: –3

(a) y = 2 n x (b) y = log1/2 x –4

Expanding Log expressions

The product rule : log xy = log x + log y , the quotient rule : log (x/y) = log x − log y and the power rule of
logs log xn = n log x are useful in expanding (and condensing) expressions with logs.
1/ 2
 GM 1M 2 
Example Expand log   .
 R 
2

1/ 2
 GM 1M 2 
Solution: Using the quotient rule we have log   = ½ [log (GM 1M 2 )  log R ]. Applying the
2

 R 
2

product rule to the first term and the power rule to the second term we have:
 GM 1M 2 
½ log   = ½ [log G + log M1 + log M2 − 2 log R]
 R 
2

Sometimes it is useful to condense an expression containing sums of logs.

Example
Write the expression as a single logarithm: y =  n I + ½  n P − 1,5  n 
Solution: Using the power rule: y = ln I + ln P − ln 1,5.

I P
Applying the product and quotient rules give: y  n 1,5 
 
Practice
1. Expand fully:

x3 y  3 x
1
3 x2  9
(a) log (b) ln (c) ln
4
x  3 ( z  2) 5 7
2 x  3 ( 2 x  1)
1
5 x( x  3) 2

2. Write as the log of a single term:

(a) 2 log4 (3x+1)  1/2 log4 x + log4 (x1) (b) 3 log5x  1,5 log5 (x+2)

3. Write each log as the sum or difference of logs:

1/ 2
 x 
(a) log Qe  kT
 (b) n{ P (1  r ) } R
(c) ln 
 x 1 

19
Solving log equations
Example
Solve (a) log3 x = log3 4 + log3 (x2−1) (b) 2 ln 2 + ln (x +1) = ln 5x
Solution: In general the following steps can be used in solving log equations;
1. Gather all log terms on one side : log3 x − log3 4 − log3 (x2 −1) = 0
 x 
2. Condense using log properties and write as a single log: log 3    0
 4( x  1) 
2

 x  0
3. Convert from log form to exponent form:    3 =1
 4( x  1) 
2

4. Solve the exponent equation: In this case use the quadratic formula.

4x2 − 4 = x  4x2 − x −4 = 0  x = 0,64 or −0,39

5. Check that the x values are valid and lie in the domain of the function. Remember the log of negative
numbers do not exist. Hence, x = 0,64. You cannot find log of −0,39 so x =  0,39 is
not a solution.
 5x 
(b) 2 ln 2 + ln (x +1) = ln 5x  ln 5x − ln (x +1) = 2 ln 2  n    n 4
 x 1
5x
Hence 4 The solution is x = 4.
x 1
Example
Solve the equations: (a) og (36 x 2  4)  2 og x  2  0 (b) n( x  2)  n(2 x  3)  1
Solution:
36 x 2  4 36 x 2  4
(a) og (36 x 2  4)  2 og x  2  0  og  2   102 . (The base is 10)
x2 x2
1 1
Solving for x gives x 2  and x   . Only x = ¼ is a valid solution.
16 4 , e = 2,718..

(b) n( x  2)  n( x  1)  1  n( x  2)( x  3)  1  ( x  2)( x  3)  e1  x 2  5 x  3,182  0

Use the quadratic formula to obtain the solutions x = 0,78 and x = 4,22.
Example : Solve the exponential equation. ex + 2ex = 5
Solution
1. Multiply all terms by ex: (ex + 2e-x)ex = 5ex
2. Use exponents properties to simplify. e2x + 2 = 5ex
3. let k = ex k2 = e2x . Rewrite the equation in terms of k : k2+2 = 5k or k2  5k +2=0

 b  b 2  4ac 5  25  8 5  4,123
4. Solve for k: k    k = 4,562 or 0,439
2a 2 2
5. But k = ex= 4,562 or 0,439 . Take ln of both sides to find x : x = ln 4,562 or ln 0,439 and
x = 1,518 or 0,824 Check : x = 1,518 : LHS = e1,518+2e1,518 = 4,563+0,438=5,001
Second solution: LHS: 4,559 + 0,43867 = 4,998 The solutions of the equations are : 1,518 and 0,824

20
Example: Calculate the pH given the hydrogen ion
concentration C, of a solution is [H+] = 4,3  105 M Using your calculator:
Keys: 4,3 EXP 5  log gives 4,367
Solution : Use the pH formula : pH = log 10 C.
pH = log [ 4,3  105]= −[log 4,3 + log 105] . Use your calculator to find : log of 4,3 = 0,633 and log
105 =  5 and add: 0,633  5 = 4,367 . Hence pH = 4,367.
Example: Determine the Hydrogen Ion Molar concentration given the pH = 2,2
Solution: If pH = log [H+] then [H+] = Antilog (pH ) = antilog (2,2)
= Antilog (,2)  Antilog (2) = 6,31  103 Molar

Practice
1. Solve the following log equations:

(a) log x + log (x  3) = 1 (b) log 3 (x2  7) = 2 (c) 1,2 + ln x = 0

(d) log 5 (2x + 1)  log 5 ( x + 2) = 2 (e) ln 2x + ln (3x – 1) = 4

(f) ln(2x1) = 3 (g) ln ln(x) = 1 (h) log x  4 logx10 = 0

2. Solve for x using logs if necessary

(a) 2x = e x + 1 (b) 4 e 2x  3 = e + 5 (c) 10 x +3 = 5 e 7x

(d) 2 2 x+2  17.2 x + 4 = 0 (e) 3 e2x + 5 ex  2 = 0 (f) e2x  2.ex  3 = 0

3. Solve each equation.

(a) (log 3 x)2  6 log 3 x  7 = 0 (b) log 4 x + 10 ( log 4 x ) 1  7 = 0

4. Sketch the following graphs:

(a) y = log (x+5) (b) y =  ln x (c) y = log (x 2) + 1
(d) y = log ½ x (e) y = log 4(x)
5. Solve the simultaneous equations for x and y :
log10(x + y) = 1 and log2(x + 2) + log4 y = 4
6. The pH of a solution is a number indicating how acidic or alkaline a solution is. The pH in terms of the
hydrogen ion concentration is given by the equation pH =  log 10 [H+], where [H+] is the hydrogen ion
concentration in moles / L.
(a) What is the pH of a solution with hydrogen ion concentration (i) 0,123 (ii) 1,152
(iii) 0,02130 (iv) 107 moles/L (v) 6,3  103
(b) What is the concentration of a solution with a pH of (i) 2,8 and (ii) of 12,5?

21
Algebra
0 a 0
1. Rules for 0: a 0=0·a=0 If a 0, then 0 ; and  undefined
a 0 0

2. Multiplying/Factoring
Distributive Rule : m(a+b) = ma + mb
Quadratic trinomial : Difference of two squares:
2
(x − a) ( x − b) = x − ( a + b)x + ab (x − b) ( x + b ) = x2 − b2
Perfect square trinomial : The sum or difference of two cubes :
2 2 2
(x − a) = x − 2ax + b (a ± b)(a² ab + b²) = a³ ± b³
Absolute value: If |x| = b, then x = b or x = −b. When we change the signs on both sides of
an inequality, we must change the sense of
If |x| < b, then −b < x < b.
the inequality: a > b then − a < −b
If |x| > b, then x > b or x < −b.
If − ax < b then x > −b/a
Addition of fractions: 3. Different denominators with common
factors
a b ab ad  be
1. Same denominator :   a

e

c c c bc cd bcd
a c ad  bc
2. Different denominators:  
b d bd

The Binomial Theorem

A binomial is a polynomial with two terms eg ( x − 2y) , (3x + y) etc. The Binomial Expansion Theorem,
gives us a short method of raising a binomial to a power. Consider the following:
(x+y)0 = 1
(x+y)1 = x + y
(x+y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x+y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x+y)4 = x4 + 4x3y + 6x2y2 + 4xy3 + y4
(x+y)5 = x5 + 5x4y + 10x3y2 +10x2y3 + 5xy4 + y5
Can you see patterns in the expansion of binomials? You should have noticed the following:
 There are n +1 terms in the expansion of (x+y)n
 The degree of each term is n
 The powers on x begin with n and decrease to 0
 The powers on y begin with 0 and increase to n
The coefficients form a symmetrical pattern called Pascal’s triangle. Each row in the triangle begins and
ends with 1. Each element in the triangle is the sum of the two elements in the row immediately above it.
Here are the coefficients for the first nine rows:

22
 1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1

We add the pairs of entries in the row above to get the entries in the row below.

Example : Expand (x + y)6

Solution: The coefficients lie in the row starting 1, 6…. The powers on x start with 6 and decrease to 0.
The powers on y begin with 0 and increase to 6. Therefore, the expansion is:
( x + y)6 = x6y0 + 6x5y1 + 15 x4y2 + 20 x3y3 + 15x2y4 + 6xy5+x0y6
= x6 + 6x5y1 + 15 x4y2 + 20 x3y3 + 15x2y4 + 6xy5 + y6

Combinations
A combination is an arrangement of objects, without repetition (order is not important). Another definition
of combination is the number of such arrangements that are possible. Here is the definition.
n!
Cx 
(n  x)! x!
n

The n stands for the total number of objects to choose from and x is the number of objects in the
arrangement. The exclamation mark in n! stands for factorial and is a short way of writing
n  (n −1)  (n − 2)  ( n − 3)  …..  1. eg 3! = 3  2  1 6!= 6 5  4  3  2  1
The quickest way, to find nCr is to use the combination key nCx on your calculator. Enter the value
for n first, then the nCr notation, then the value for x.
Each element in Pascal's Triangle is a combination of n things. The value for x begins with zero and
ends in n. Consider the fifth row where n = 4 in Pascal’s triangle. 4C0 = 1, 4C1 = 4, 4C2 = 6, 4C3 = 4, 4C4

= 1 . Notice that the 3rd term is the term with the x = 2. That is, we begin counting with 0, 1, 2, 3, and end
with 4 To get the 6th row ,n = 5, so find 5C0, 5C1, etc.

Binomial Expansion Theorem

n
The Binomial Expansion Theorem can be written in compact notation as : ( x  y ) n   n C k x n  k y k
k 0
Remember that since the lower limit of the summation begins with 0, the 7th term of the sequence is actually
the term when k = 6. The x starts off to the nth power and goes down by one each time, the y starts off to the
0th power (not there) and increases by one each time. As we have seen the coefficients are combinations.

23
Example: Expand ( 3x – 2y )5
Start off by figuring out the coefficients. Remember that these are combinations of 5 things, k at a time,
where k is either the power on the x or the power on the y (combinations are symmetric).
5C0 =1 ; 5C1 = 5 ; 5C2 = 10 ; 5C3 = 10 ; 5C4 =5 ; 5C5 =1
The first term in the binomial is 3x and the second term is –2y. So the expansion is:
1(3x)5(–2y)0 + 5(3x)4(–2y)1 + 10(3x)3(–2y)2 + 10(3x)2(–2y)3 + 5(3x)1(–2y)4 + 1(3x)0(–2y)5
Raise the individual factors to their proper powers and simplify each term to get the final answer.
243x5 – 810x4y + 1080x3y2 – 720x2y3 + 240xy4 – 32y5
Practice Expand the following:
1. ( x + y)5 2. (x − y)6 3. (2x + y2) 4 4. ( 1 + x)6

5. (q – 2y)5 6. ( p − 3)7 7. ( x2 − y3)5 8. ( 2n + 3m)4

9. What is the coefficient of (a) x2 in the expansion of (2 – 5x)4 (b) y4 in ( 1 + 2y)6

5 6 8
 1  1   2
10. Expand (a)  x   (b)  x   (c )  x   . Simplify each term.
 x  2x   x

Formulae
In science, formulae have an important role : The results of many experiments are summarised neatly in a
formula that gives the relation between the variables involved. It is often necessary to manipulate the
formulae and change the subject of the formula using the inverse operations.

Example

An electron has kinetic energy, Ek =2,3  1015 J. If its mass is 9,11  1031 kg what is its velocity?

Solution
1
The kinetic energy formula is EK  mv 2 . Make v the subject of the equation:
2
2 2 1 2 2 Ek
Multiply both sides of the equation by to give: EK   mv 2    v2
m m 2 m m
2 EK
Next take the square root of both sides to give v  .
m

2 EK 2  2,3 1015
Finally substitute the values of m and Ek. v  31
 7,11107 m / s
m 9,1110

24
Example
P
Make P and R the subject of the formula: V  5 R n
T

Solution
P P
Begin by squaring both sides to remove the root sign: V 2  25R n . Make n the subject of the
T T
2 2
V V
P V2 P
equation: n  . Use the definition of logs to give:  e 25 R . Hence P  T e 25 R
T 25R T
P V2
To make R the subject of the formula: start with V  25R n . Then R 
2

T  P
25 n  
T 
2
P V
Since n  n P  n T we have R 
T 25  n P  n T 

Example
Make p the subject of the formula: R  p 2  2 p  10

Solution
Rewrite the terms with p as a perfect square: R  ( p  1)2  11 Since (p+1)2= p2+2p+1. Hence
( p  1)2  R  1 1 and p  R  11  1
3M
Example: Make M the subject of the formula: L 
4M 2  7
Solution. Square both sides and cross-multiply: L2 (4M 2  7)  9M 2 . Remove the brackets. Move terms
7L
with M to one side : 4M 2 L2  9M 2  7 L2  M 2 (4 L2  9)  7 L2 . M 
9  4 L2

Practice
Change the subject of the given formula to the one indicated in brackets.

1 1 1 N2 3. W  4, 2 1  e R
1.   (q ) 2. P  (N) ( R)
p q r 1  5N 2
x2
4. y  x  2 x (x) 5. y  2 x  8 x  5 6. q  1  p e
2 2 2
(x) ( x)

l  lo Vf   c  Vo 
7. T  2 (g) 8 . W  9,7 n   (Vi) 9. f o    f s (Vs)
g  Vi   c  Vs 

t n
  r 
10. A =  r + r h  b
2 2 2
(b) 11. Q = Qo e RC (R) 12. A = P 1   (r)
 100 

V I  a( 1  r n )
13. log (4  x) ½ = 3 (x) 14. Q = n  o  (I ) 15. S = (n)
R  I  1 r

25
 e2x  3 nRT
16. L = (x) 17. P = (V) 18. n( x  3 )  n( x  3 )  x (x)
e 2x
5 V b

K
19. Consider P  Be T
where B and K are constants. Which of these will yield a straight line graph?
Plotting:

(a) n P against T (b) P against n T (c) n P against 1/T (d) n P against n T

20. How would you draw straight line graphs for the following formulae? What is the slope and the y-
intercept?

2
(a) y  2 x 2  1 (b) y  x  1 (c) y  7e  kx (d ) y  5 x ( e) y  +3
x
Partial fraction decomposition
Two or more proper fractions can be combined to give a single fraction:
1 3 (2 x  1)  3( x  1) 5x  2
eg + can be combined to give:  . The reverse process of
x  1 2x  1 ( x  1)(2 x  1) ( x  1)(2 x  1)
splitting a fraction into proper fractions is called partial fraction decomposition. To split
5x  2
check that the fraction is proper, make sure the denominator is fully factorised and write each
( x  1)(2 x  1)
linear factor under constants A, B, C...
5x  2 A B
Thus   . Take the LCM on the RHS to give
( x  1)(2 x  1) x  1 2 x  1
A(2 x  1)  B( x  1) (2 A  B) x  B  A
 .
( x  1)(2 x  1) ( x  1)(2 x  1)
Equating the coefficients of the numerators gives:
2A + B = 5 and BA = 2. Solving simultaneously gives: A = 1 and B = 3 and the
5x  2 1 3
partial fractions are:   .
( x  1)(2 x  1) x  1 2 x  1
You will need partial fractions decomposition quite a lot. Here are a few rules to guide you:
1. If the denominator has linear factors then the decomposition will be A/(xa) , B/(xb)
2 A B C
and C/(xc) eg:   
( x  1)( x  2)( x  3) ( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3)
2. Non factorable quadratic factors, such as, (ax2 + bx+ c), in the denominator give partial
fractions of the form (Ax+B)/(ax2+bx+c):
5x  2 Ax  B Cx  D
 2  (Both factors are quadratic)
( x  1)(2 x  1)
2 2
x  1 2x2  1

26
 2 A Bx  C Dx  E
  2  2
( x  1)( x  2)( x  3x  4) ( x  1) ( x  2) ( x  3x  4)
2 2

(First factor ( x1) is linear, the other two (x2+2) and (x2 + 3x + 4) are quadratic.
3. If the denominator has repeated linear or quadratic factors then the decomposition will be
2x  1 A B C D Ex  F Gx  H
  2   2  2 . Linear
x ( x  1) ( x  2 x  1)
2 2 2 2
x x ( x  1) ( x  1) 2
( x  2 x  1) ( x  2 x  1) 2
factors x and (x 1) are repeated. Quadratic factor (x2+2x+1) also repeated.
4. If the fraction is improper then long divide before partial fraction decomposition.
x3  2x x3  2x 3x 3x
Eg Long division of gives: x  2  x
( x 2  1) ( x  1)
2
x 1 ( x  1)( x  1)
Split to give:
A B 3 3 x2
 x   x  . Likewise and 2 is improper.
x 1 x 1 2( x  1) 2( x  1) ( x  1)
2x  1
Example : Split into partial fractions:
x( x  1)( x 2  1)
2x  1 A B Cx  D
Solution:    2  (First two factors are linear, third quadratic)
x( x  1)( x  1) x ( x  1) ( x  1)
2

A( x  1)( x 2  1)  Bx( x 2  1)  (Cx  D) x( x  1)

x( x  1)( x 2  1)
x 3 ( A  B  C )  x 2 ( A  C  D)  x( A  B  D)  A

x( x  1)( x 2  1)

Equating the coefficients gives: A + B + C = 0 ; A+C+D=0; A + B + D = 2 ; A = 1

Solving simultaneously we have: A = 1; B = 3/2 C =  ½ and D = 1½
2x  1 1 3  x3
Hence the partial fractions are:   
x( x  1)( x  1)
2
x 2( x  1) 2( x 2  1)

x4
Example Split into partial fractions:
x2  x

x4 A B A( x  1)  Bx
Solution: Factorise the denominator and split :   
x( x  1) x ( x  1) x( x  1)

A and B are the undetermined coefficients: x + 4 ≡ (A+B)x + A then A + B =1 and A = 4 , B = –3

x4 4 3
Therefore:  
x( x  1) x ( x  1)

x2 1
Example: Split by partial fraction decomposition:
x3  2x 2  x

Solution: x 3 + 2x 2 + x = x(x 2 + 2x + 1) = x(x + 1) 2

27
 x2 1 x2 1 A B C
    
x  2x  x
3 2
x( x  1) 2
x ( x  1) ( x  1) 2

x 2  1  A( x  1) 2  Bx( x  1)  C ( x)  x 2  1  A( x  1) 2  Bx( x  1)  Cx

Equating coefficients: 1 = A +B ; 2A+B+ C = 0 and A = 1 ; B = 0 and C = –2

x2 1 1 2
Hence  
x  2x  x
3 2
x ( x  1) 2

x3  1
Example: Split using partial fractions decomposition: 3
x x

Solution: This is an improper fraction. So long divide:

x3  1 x 1
Therefore,  1 3
x x
3
x x

x 1 x 1 A B C
   
x  x x( x  1`)( x  1) x ( x  1) ( x  1)
3

x 1 1 1
Solving: A = –1, B =1 and C = 0 Hence,  1 
x x
3
x ( x  1)

Practice: Split into partial fractions:

2 x 1 2x
1. 2. 3.
x( x  1) x( x  1) ( x  4)
2

x 1 x 1 2x  3
4. 5. 6.
x( x 2  1) x( x 2  1) ( x  1)( x 2  2 x  1)

x2 2x  1 x3  x 2  1
7. 8. 9.
( x  1)( x 2  1)
2
x ( x  1) 2
2
x( x 2  1)

Trigonometry
By rotating a unit radius counter-clockwise we can generate any angle  in the plane. The radius can
terminate in any one of the four quadrants. Three basic trig ratios, sin , cos  and tan  and their
reciprocals are defined in terms of the sides x, y and r of the right angled triangle as follows:
Basic trigonometric Identities
r
y x y y
sin   cos   and tan   θ
r r x
x
1 1 1
Reciprocals: csc  sec  and cot   .
sin  cos tan 

28 θ
Identities expressing trig functions in terms of their complements

cos  = sin (/2  ) sin  = cos (/2  )

cot  = tan (/2  ) tan  = cot (/2  )
csc  = sec (/2  ) sec  = csc(/2  )
Period of trig functions
Sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant have period 2 while tangent and cotangent have period .

sin ( + 2) = sin  cos ( + 2) = cos  tan ( + ) = tan 

Identities for negative angles

Sine, tangent, cotangent, and cosecant are odd functions while cosine and secant are even functions.
sin – = – sin  cos – = cos  tan – = – tan 
The ratio identities can be established from the basic trig identities:
sin cos
tan  ; cot 
cos sin
Pythogorean identities: are easy to verify using a right angled triangle: :
sin 2 + cos2 = 1; sec2 = tan2 + 1 and csc2 = cot 2 + 1
Cos and sine of sum and difference of two arguments:
sin (A  B) = sin A cos B  sin B cos A ;
tan A  tan B
cos (A B ) = cos A cos B  sin A sin B ; tan A  B 
1  tan A tan B
Functions of double arguments:
2 tan A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A; cos 2A = cos²A  sin²A ; tan 2 A 
1  tan 2 A
Functions of half arguments and products, sum and difference identities :

A 1  cos A A 1  cos A A 1  cos A

Half Arguments: cos  sin  and tan 
2 2 2 2 2 1  cos A
Products:
sinA cos B = ½[sin(A + B) + sin(A  B)] cos A sin B = ½ [sin(A + B)  sin (A  B)]
cos A cos B = ½ [cos(A + B) + cos (A  B)] sin A sin B = ½ [ cos (AB)  cos ( A + B)]
Sums:
sin A + sin B = 2 sin ½ (A + B) cos 1/2 (A  B); cos A  cos B =  2 sin ½ (A + B)sin ½ (A  B)
A B AB A B AB
sin A  sin B = 2 cos sin cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2 2 2
Triple angle formulas

You can easily reconstruct these from the addition and double angle formulas.
3 tan   tan 3 
sin 3 = 3 sin  – 4 sin3  tan 3  cos 3 = 4 cos3  –3 cos 
1  3 tan 
2

29
 Graphs of trig functions
, y = sin x , y = cos x , y = tan x

Domain =  Range = [1;1] Domain =  Range = [1;1]

Period = 2 Period = 2
R: (–  ,  ) Period : 
y = cosec x y = sec x y = cot x

D= {x  | x   n} (a) Domain = {x   | x   90, D : {x   | x   n}

 270o, ….}
R = ( ; 1]  [ 1; ) (b) Range = {y   | y  1 or y R : (-π , π )
 1} or R : (–π , –1]  [1, π )
Period: 2π ( c) Period = 180o Period : π
Asymptotes: x =  180 n n=0,1 (d) Asymptotes at x =  90,  Asymptotes: x=  90 n n = 1,2,.
270o,  450o……

Example :
Draw graphs of y = cos x and y = sec x . State the domain, range, period and the equations of the
asymptotes (if any).

Solution: The table of values and the graph are shown.

90 60 30 0 30, 60, 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 360
cos x 0 0,5 0,87 1 0,87 0,5 0 0,5 0,87 1 0,87 0,5 0 1
sec x  2,0 1,15 1 1,15 2,0  2,0 1,15 1 1,15 2,0  1

y = sec x

y = cos x

30
For y = cos x : (a) Domain = {x   } Range = {y   | 1  y  1}

Period = 360o No Asymptotes

(b) For y = sec x: Domain = {x   | x   90,  270o, ….}

(b) Range = {y   | y  1 or y  1} or R : (– , –1] U [1,  ) ( c) Period = 180o
(d) Asymptotes at x =  90,  270o,  450o……

 2 
The general wave equation y  A sin t   A sin  t
T 
The baseline (midpoint of vertical
oscillation) is the x-axis y = 5 sin 6,28 t

A = amplitude (the height of each peak

above the baseline) = 5

T = period (the length of each cycle, or

distance from one peak to the next) = 1

= angular frequency =
2 /T = 2 /1 = 2 radians

Analytical Geometry
Straight line: Slope intercept equation: y = mx + c, where m is
, y= mx +
the slope and c is the y-intercept.
c
y1  y 2 y  y1
Point slope equation: m    tan
x1  x 2 x  x1
Two lines are parallel if m1 = m2 .
Lines are perpendicular if m1m2 = 1
Circle: The circle with centre C(a ; b) and radius r has
C(a,b
the equation ( x  a) 2  ( y  b) 2  r 2 . )
The circle with centre ( 0 ; 0 ) has the equation x2 + y2 = r2
Parabola:
A parabola is a plane curve with the general equation, y = f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a  0. We sometimes call
this equation the old standard form. By completing the square and writing the equation in the new standard
form we have : f(x) = a( x − h )2 + k where h = −b/(2a) and k = (4ac − b2) / (4a). We can now easily
sketch the prarabola. The x-coordinate of the vertex is −b/(2a). The y-coordinate is what you get when you

31
plug −b/(2a) back into the original function for x. The vertex is at (h ; k) with arms pointing up if a > 0.
b
The line of symmetry is x   .
2a
Polynomials

Polynomials are continuous and smooth (no sharp turns) everywhere. There are no jumps or holes in the
graph of a polynomial function. Polynomials have equations such as: 2x  3 (linear), 3x2 + 2x +5
(quadratic), 2x3+ 3x2 + 2x  1 (cubic), x4 + 3x 1 (quartic). The general equation of a polynomial is: co xn
+ c1 x n1 + c3 x n2 +… c n1 x + cn where n is a +ve integer and co , c1 are constants. The degree of the
polynomial is the highest power of x i.e n

 If the leading coefficient, co, of the polynomial is positive, then the right hand side of the graph will rise
towards + infinity.

 If the degree, n, of the polynomial is even, the left hand side will do the same as the right hand side.

Zeros of a Polynomial Function

 An nth degree polynomial in one variable has at most n real zeros. There are exactly n real or complex
zeros.
 An n th degree polynomial in one variable has at most (n 1) turns or relative maximums or relative
minimums.

Real Zeros

If f is a polynomial function in one variable, then the following statements are equivalent

1., x = a is a zero or root of the function f. 2. , x = a is a solution of the equation f(x) = 0.

3. (x a) is a factor of the function f. 4. (a ; 0 ) is an x-intercept of the graph of f.

Some of the roots may be repeated. These are called repeated roots. The multiplicity of a root is the
number of times a root is an answer. The easiest way to determine the multiplicity of a root is to look at the
exponent on the corresponding factor.

Consider the equation f(x) = (x  4)3 (x  5) (x  2)2. The roots to the function will be x = 4 with
multiplicity 2, x = 5, and x = 2 with multiplicity 2. It is not necessary to write a multiplicity of 1.

The multiplicity of a root, is useful to determine the behaviour of the graph

at that zero. If the multiplicity is odd, (x = 5, x = 4) the graph will cross the
x-axis at that zero. If the multiplicity is even,(x = 2) the graph will touch
the x-axis at that zero. That is, it will stay on the same side of the axis.

32
Hyperbolas
The rectangular hyperbola has the equation xy = k. If k > 0 the hyperbola sits in the first and third quadrant.
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
nd th
If k < 0 the hyperbola is in the 2 and 4 quadrant. A hyperbola with the equation:  1
a2 b2
opens horizontally, with centre at (h ; k).
( y  h) 2 ( x  k ) 2
A hyperbola with the equation:   1 opens vertically, with centre at (k ; h).
a2 b2
Ellipse
( x  h) 2 ( y  k ) 2
An ellipse has the general equation:   1 and centre ( h ; k)
a2 b2
Example
Sketch the graph of the curve represented by the equation: 4 y  9 x  36 x  8 y  4  0
2 2

Solution
Comparing with the standard equations, notice that both x and y are squared, but with unequal coefficients.
The signs of the x2 and y2 terms are opposite. The equation does not represent a circle. Curve is possibly a
hyperbola. Rewrite the equation in standard form

9 x 2  36 x  4 y 2  8 y  4  9( x 2  4 x )  4( y 2  2 y )  4
( x  2)2 ( y  1)2
 9( x  2)2  4( y  1)2  36   1
4 9
This is a horizontal hyperbola with its centre at (2 ; 1) . The vertices are (0;1) and (4 ; 1). The sketch is
shown.
Practice
1. Find the equations of the lines joining (a) (−4;−3) and (0;−1) (b) (p; 2) ( 2p ; 5) and (3; 8). (c )
Write down the equation of the line through (2;3) which is (i) parallel to x + 2y =3 and
(ii) perpendicular to x + 2y = 3.
2. Draw sketch graphs to show each of the following curves
16
(a) y  x  8 x  12 (b) y  2  x 1 (c) y  x (d) x  2 y  8 y  11
2 2

x
x2 y2 x2 y2 x y
(e) 2 x  3 y  12 (f)  1 (g)  1 (h)  2
9 16 25 81 3 5
(i) x  y  10 x  6 y  18  0 (j) y  x 2 3 (k) xy  8
2 2

3. Find the coordinates of the intersection of the lines or curves represented by the given equations.

(a) 7 y  x  16 ; x  y  4 x  2 y  20 (b) 3 x  4 y  6 x 2  y 2  25
2 2
;

4
(c ) 2 x  y  8 ; xy  6 (d) 2 x  3 y  5 ; 2y  x 
3
4. Identify the curves given by these equations and sketch their graphs. Indicate clearly the coordinates of
the turning points, centres, vertices, zeroes, foci etc.

(a) y  2 x  4 (b) x  y  4 x  2 y  4  0 (c) y  6 y  8 x  33  0

2 2 2 2

33
(d) 9 x  4 y  54 x  16 y  16  0 (e) y  x  x  9 x  9 (f) y  log 2 (  x )
2 2 3 2

(g) 3 y  x  12 y  2 x  1
2 2
(h) ( x  2) 2  y 2  4
5. Show that the equation 16x2 + 16y2 + 8x + 32y + 1 = 0 represents a circle of radius 1,
centre ( ¼ ;1)

Mensuration
In science and engineering, we often use the radian (as well as the degree) to measure angles. The symbol
for radians is “Rad” or R. By convention, a counterclockwise rotation from the +ve
x-axis is taken to be positive and a rotation of 360o = 2 radians.
arc length, s
By definition: Angle , in radians = . Arc, s = r  Rad
radius , r
segment

Area of a sector = ½  R r2.

arc
Area of a segment = ½ r ( 2 rad
 sin  ).
o

For a rotating body, the angular velocity , is the angle  in radians per second.

Practice
1. Convert to radians: (a) 720o (b) 3½ rev. (c) 75o (d) 120 (e) 2150

2. Convert to degrees: (a) 0,56 rad. (b) 5/6  radians c) ¼  rad (d) 2,74 rad.

3. AOD and COF are diameters of the circle, centre O. The radius of the circle is 8 cm and  AOC = 120.
Calculate (a) the area of sector ABCO
(b) length of arc CD (c) area of segment FED
4. A sector of a circle, radius 6 cm, has a perimeter of 20 cm. Calculate (a) the arc length and
(b) the area of the sector.
5. The angle subtended by the sun at the earth is 0,0093 radians. The distance between the earth and the sun
is about 93 million kilometres. What is the approximate diameter of the sun?
6. Angular velocity is the angle in radians or revolutions turned per second by a rotating object. What is the
angular velocity of a bicycle wheel that makes (a) 20 rev./min (b) 5 rev. per second?

7. A car wheel of diameter 60 cm covers 1,8 km in 2 minutes. What is the angular velocity?

8. A space satellite is in circular orbit 7,2  106 km above the centre of the earth. It makes one revolution
every 60 min. What is its (a) angular velocity? (b) its velocity?
9. The angular speed of the larger wheel is 20 rev/min.
What is the angular speed of the smaller wheel?

34
Matrices
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, (also called members or elements). The order indicates the size
i.e. the no. of rows and columns. A 3  2 matrix has 3 rows and 2 columns. A 1  5 matrix has a single row
with 5 elements eg. [ 1 2 –1 0 1]
The Sum of two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] of order m  n is the m  n matrix [aij+bij]. To find the sum,
simply add or subtract the elements in corresponding positions.
 1 0 2 6  4  3  3 9 
2  1   1 0
  8   5
 2    3
  11

 3 4   5  7  8 4   10  7 

 1 0  0,2 0
The product of a real number k and a matrix A is kA = [kaij] . eg. 0,2   =  
 1 2  0,2 0,4
The product of two matrices is possible only if the number of columns in the first is equal to the number of
rows in the second matrix. Such matrices are said to be comformable for multiplication. Thus matrices of
order 23 and 32 are comformable, but matrices of order 32 and 32 are not. In general AB  BA.
Example:
 1 2 
   2 1 0 
Given . A =  0 1  B=  2 1 1 and C = 
 3 2   1 0 1 
 
determine where possible: (a) AB (b) BA (c) AC (d) CA

Solution
(a) AB is non comformable for multiplication (3  2) with (1  3) not possible

 1 2 
 
(b) BA: (1  3 ) and (3  2) will give a (1  2) product matrix.:  2 1 1  0 1  = 5  5
 3 2 
 
1 2   0  1  2  1 2 
   2 1 0     2 1 0     2  5 
(c)  0 1   = 1 0 1  (d)    0 1  =  
 3 2  
1 0 1  
   1 0 1   3 2    2 0 
  4 3 2   

The identity matrix I is such that AI = IA = A.

A square matrix A may have an inverse, written A1, with the property that AA1 = A1A = I.

 2 0  1  2 1 0
  1
 
Consider the matrices A =   3 0 2  and its inverse A =   4  2  1
  2 1 0   3 0 
   2

We can check that when we multiply A and B in either order we get the identity matrix

35
  2 0  1  2 1 0   1 0 0
    
Thus   3 0 2    4  2  1   0 1 0 
  2 1 0   3 0   0 0 1 
  2

If A has an inverse we say that A is invertible, otherwise we say that A is singular. When A is invertible we
can solve the equation AX = B by multiplying both sides by A1, which gives us X = A1B. The transpose,
AT, of a matrix A is the matrix obtained from A by writing its rows as columns. If A is an m n matrix and B
= AT, then B is the n m matrix with bij = aji.
Inverse of a 22 Matrix
a b
A matrix   is invertible if ad  bc is nonzero and is singular if ad  bc = 0. The number
c d
ad  bc is called the determinant of the matrix and is denoted by the symbol | |. When the matrix is
1  d  b
invertible, its inverse is given by the formula  
ad  bc   c a 
The minor of any element in a 33 matrix is the second order determinant that remains after we delete the

 0  1  2
 
row and the column containing the element. Thus the minor of 0 in the matrix  1 2 1  is
 4 3 2 

2 1 0 2
 4  3  1 . The minor of 2 is  0  8  8
3 2 4 2

The cofactor is the minor times (1)i + j where , i = row number and j = column number . Alternatively, it is

  
 
the signed minor where the signs are taken from the following signs matrix:      . For example, the
  
 
1 1
cofactor of 1 is   6 . To find the determinant of a 3  3 matrix multiply the elements of any
4 2

row or column by the respective signed minors. Thus the determinant using the first row of :

1 2 4
1 6 3 6 3 1
3 1 6  1  (2)   4  12. or alternatively
3 2 2 2 2 3
2 3 2

 8  18  12  6
1 2 4 1 2
3 1 6 3 1 det  10  (2)  12
2 3 2 2 3
 2  24  36  10

Note: If any two rows or columns are interchanged then the sign of the determinant changes.
The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging its rows and columns.
36
To find the inverse of a 3  3 matrix :
1. Evaluate the determinant of A .
2. Form the matrix, C of cofactors of A
3. Write down the adjoint of A (the transpose of cofactors), C = CT
4. Divide each element of CT by det A.

A system of 3 linear equations in 3 unknowns can be solved by Cramer’s Rule:

a1 x  b1 y  c1 z  d1
If a 2 x  b2 y  c 2 z  d 2
a3 x  b3 y  c3 z  d 3

Then the solution is given by:

d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
d2 b2 c2 a2 d2 c2 b2 b2 d 2
d b3 c3 a d3 c3 c b3 d 3
then x  3 y 3 z 3
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Example : Solve the following system of linear equations using (a) Cramer’s Rule and (b) the inverse
matrix method.

2x  3y  z  7
x  y  z  2
3x  3 y  z  2

Solution
Using Cramer’s Rule

7 3 1 2 7 1 2 3 7
2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
2 3  1  20 3  2 1 20 3 3  2  40
then x   1 y    1 z  2
2 3 1  20 2 3 1  20 2 3 1  20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3 1

(b) Using the inverse matrix method: We arrange the equations in matrix form as follows:

2  3 1   x   7 
1 1 1   y    2 

3 3  1  z   2
coefficients variables constants

37
We then pre-multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse matrix. This leaves us the variables on
the left hand side.

To find the inverse matrix:

 4 4 0 
1. Form the matrix of cofactors:  0  5 15 .
 4  1 5 
  4 0  4
2. The adjoint or transpose of cofactors is is:  4  5  1 3. Find the determinant
 0 15 5 

  4 0  4  0,2 0 0,2 
1 
4. The inverse matrix is:   4  5  1 =  0,2 0,25
 0,05 
20
 0 15 5   0  0,75  0,25

5. To solve the system of equations pre-multiplying by the inverse gives us the solution.

 0,2 0 0,2  2  3 1   x   0,2 0 0,2   7   1 

 0,2 0,25 0,05  1 1 1   y    0,2 0,25 0,05   2    1
   
 
 0 0,75  0,25 3 3  1  z   0 0,75  0,25  2  2 

Therefore, x = 1, y = 1 and z = 2

Practice: Use the given matrices to answer questions 1 to 4.

1 0 2 1 1 0
 2  5  1 4      2 3 1  4
A    B    C   3 1 0 D  0 2 1 E   
 1 3   0 2 0 5 1  3 1 0 2 1 0 5 
   
1.. Find if possible,
(a) A + 2B (b) AE (c) DCT (d) 2A2 –3B (e) (A+B) (AB) (f) ½ C  0,2 D

2. Find the determinants of (a) A (b) C (c) D (d) CD

3. Show that det(AB) = det (BA) but that det (A + B )  det A + det B

4. Find the (a) transpose (b) the adjoint and (c) the inverse of C.

5. Evaluate the determinants:

1 0 2 1 0 0 0,1 0,2  1,2

1 3 3 2
(a) (b) (c) 2 7 3 (d) 0 cos   sin  (e) 0,2 0,7 0,3
2 4 2 2
1 4 0 0 sin  cos  0,1 0,4 0,3

38
  5 8 
6. Given P =   find (a) P2 (b) P3 and (c) P4. Can you find P n and hence its inverse.
  2  3

7. Solve using Cramer’s Rule:

(a) x  4y = 2 (b) x + y + z = 6 (c) x + 2y  z = 13 (d) 2x + 3y + z = 4

3x + y = 4 2x  y + 2z = 6 2x  y  2z =11 x + 5y  2z = 1
3x + 2y  z = 4 3x + y + z = 4 3x  4y + 4z = 1

2 1
 5 1  3 2 1 3 2
8. Given A =  3 4 B=   C=   D=  
 1 6   1 2   1 3 0   1 3

find, if possible, (a) D  B (b) 3B  2D (c) AB (d) D2 B2 (e) A(CB1)

(f) BC + A (g) ACT (h) CA + BD (,i) B3

9. Use the inverse matrix method to solve for x, y and z :

(a) x 5 y + 2z = 13 (b) 2x + y + z = 4 (c) 2x 3y +z = 7
x + 4y  3z = 3 x  y  2z = 0 x+y+z=2
 x + 2y  z =  3 5x  2y  4z = 3 3x + 3y  z =  2

10. Find the missing matrix A in each case:

3 2  7 5 3 4 3  2   3 0 
(a)   2A =   5 2 (b)   A   1 =
3    1 7 
  1 3     1 3 

 1 3 0 
 
11. Find the inverse of the matrix:  2 0 1  .
 4 1 3
 

Hence solve the simultaneous linear equations:

(a) x  3 y  2, 2 x  z  5 4 x  y  3z  7

(b) x 3y = 1 2x + z =3 , 4x + y + 3z = 5

(b) x  3 y  a, 2 x  z  b 4 x  y  3z  c

39
Limits of functions
y

( x 3  3 x 2  x  3) ( x 2  1)( x  3)
12

Consider f(x) =  . This 10

x 3 x 3 8

function is not defined at x = 3, but we can evaluate f(x) for x- 6 values

close to 3. So, f(2,99) = 9,99 , f(2,999)= 9,994 4

f(3,1) =10,61 and f(3,01) = 10,01. As x gets closer to 3, f(x)

x

gets closer to 10. So, in the limit, as x  3 , f(x) 10.

-4 -2 2 4

-2

( x 3  3 x 2  x  3)
Formally this is written as follows: lim  10 [ x  3]
x 3 x 3

Similarly, f ( x )  x  1 is undefined at x = 1, but as x tends to 1, from the left or right , we find that f(x)
2

x 1
tends to 2. Thus, lim f ( x )  2
x 1

4
Notes: 1. If a function has a jump or a discontinuity at x = a no limit exists. eg y  has no limit at x
3 x
=3, where the graph (y-values) jump from  to +. However, a function does not have to defined at x = a ,

( x 3  3 x 2  x  3)
as in , for the limit to exist.
x 3
2. No limit exists if on approaching x = a from the left and right we find lim f ( x )  lim f ( x )
x  a x  a

x3 1
Example Find the limit: lim
x 1 x 1
Solution : Both numerator and denominator tend to 0 as x  1. Note that x  1. Approaching 1 from the left
and right we see (x3  1)/(x1)  3. Cancelling the common factor
x3 1 ( x  1)( x 2  x  1)
(x −1) gives: lim  lim  lim ( x 2  x  1)  3
x 1 x 1 x 1 ( x  1) x 1

Example:
x  1 x  1
Given the function: f ( x)   2
x x 1

find (a) lim f ( x) (b) lim f ( x)

x1 x 0

Solution:

Approach 1 from the left: lim f ( x)  1 . Approach 1 from the right: lim f ( x)  2
x 1  x 1 

The right-hand and left-hand limits exist, but are not equal. Therefore, the limit as x approaches 1 does not
exist. For a limit to exist both the right-hand and left-hand limits must exist and be equal.
40
Finding limits
Several algebraic techniques are useful to find limits. These include, direct substitution, factoring,
rationalising the numerator, l'Hopital Rule

3 3
1. Direct substitution: eg. lim (3x  5)  6  5 = 1, Similarly, lim(
x 2
 5)  (  5)  2 1/2 .
x 2 x 2
3
However lim (  5 ) does not exist or is undefined. Confirm this by sketching a graph.
x 0 x

x2  3x x( x  3)
2. Cancelling common factors: eg. lim( )  lim  lim( x  3)  3
x 0 x x 0 x x 0

This can be extended to factoring trinomials or quadratics:

x2  9 ( x  3)( x  3)
Eg difference of squares: lim  lim  lim( x  3)  0
x 3 x  3 x 3 x3 x 3

x 2  7 x  10 ( x  2)( x  5)
Eg. Factorise Quadratic: lim  lim  lim( x  5)  3
x  2 x2 x 2 x2 x 2

x 3 ( x  3 )( x  3) ( x 2  3) 1 1
3. Rationalising: lim 2  lim 2  lim 2  lim 
x 3 x  3 x  3 ( x  3)( x  3) x  3 ( x  3)( x  3 ) x 3 x  3 2 3

4. You may need limits as x   or  . Note that  is not just a number. So we cant just plug it in the
expression. What we mean by x   is that x is getting larger and larger. Thus lim ( x 2  1)  . For
x 

1
quotients use the fact that lim  0 ( n >0). For limits of quotients of polynomials, it helps if you
x  x n

express everything in terms of 1/x. Divide each term in the numerator and denominator by the highest power

5x2  1
term in x. For example, to find the limit of the quotient lim 3 the highest power of x in the
x  x  3 x 2

denominator is 3 so divide the numerator and denominator by x3 to give:

5x 2 / x 3  1 / x 3 5 / x  1/ x 3 0
lim  lim . 0
x  x / x  3 x / x
3 3 2 3 x  1 3/ x 1
5. l'Hopital's rule is used to find limits of quotients like f(x)/g(x): If on direct substitution you get an

0  f ( x) f ' ( x)
indeterminate form, like or you can use l'Hopital's rule, which states: lim  lim .
0  x  a g ( x) x  a g ' ( x)

provided g(x)  0. Differentiate the numerator and the denominator separately and apply the limits. eg.

x 1  x 1 1 1/ x
lim  . So apply l'Hopital's Rule: lim  lim  lim 0.
x  x 2  2 x  x x  2 x
2 x 2 x  2 x 2  2 / x

x2 2x
eg lim  lim  lim 2 x 2  
x  n x x  1 / x x 

41
Notes: 1. The l’Hopital rule may be used repeatedly if the quotient is still indeterminate: For example: eg
x  sin x 0 1  cos x 0 sin x 0
lim 2
 . Apply l’Hopital; lim  . Apply l’Hopital again: lim   0. However
x 0 x 0 x  0 2x 0 x  0 2 2
each time check that the new quotient is indeterminate.
2. Indeterminate forms like 00, 0 and 1 often arise in expressions like f(x)g(x). You can deal with them
using natural logs. Limits of exponential functions like ax as x    depend on a: Thus, lim a x   when
x 

a >1, lim a x  1 , when a = 1 and lim a x  0 when a <1.

x  x 

sin x
3. There are exceptions to the use of l’Hopital rule. For example, lim  1. You will meet these later
x 0 x
Example
Find the limit if it exists for each of the following.
x2 1 2x 1 4
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim
x 1 x 1 x 1 x2 x 3 x3

Solution
x2 1 ( x  1)( x  1)
1. . lim  lim  lim( x  1)  2 . Note that this function is not defined for x = 1 , x  1
x 1 x  1 x 1 ( x  1) x 1

2x 1
2. Direct substitution gives: lim =3. Note that the function is not
x 1 x2
defined at x = 0 but the limit tends to + as we approach
2x 1
x = 0 from the left and right. So, lim   . See graph
x 0 x2
4 4 4
3. lim does not exist since lim   and lim  
x 3 x3 x 3 x  3 x 3 x  3

Practice: Find the following limits if they exist:

x2  4 x 2 x2  7 x  3 x 2 x2  4 x
1. lim 2. lim 3. lim 4. lim
x 2 x3  x 2 x 3 x3 x 2 x2 x  x 3  x 2

4 x22 3x2  6 x  2 x2 2

5 lim 6. lim 7. lim 8. lim
x 7 7  x x 2 x2 2 x  2 x2  5 x 0 x

x3  1 x  16
4
3x3  4 x  cos 2 x 
9. lim 10. lim 11. lim 3 12. xlim 
 / 2 ( x   / 2) 2

x 1 x  1 x 2 x2 x  2 x  x 2  3  
3x  4 5  25  x 1  x2
13. lim 14. lim 15. lim
x 2 x2 x 0 x x 1 1  x

1 1

16. Find the limit if it exists: lim (1  x) 2x

Hint Let y  (1  x) 2x
. Take Logs
x0

42
Differentiation
f ( x )  f ( xo )
Definition: The derivative of a function f(x) at x = xo is the value of the limit: lim . In
x  xo x  xo
words, the derivative is simply the change in f(x) with respect to the change in x when the change in x
dy dy y
approaches 0. It is denoted by the symbol f’(x) or or as Dxf(x). Thus  lim . The process of
dx x  xo dx x0 x
finding the derivative is called differentiation. The derivative gives us the instantaneous rate of change of a
function.
In Standard 10 you met the following definition of the derivative.

f ( x  h)  f ( x )
The derivative, f '(x) of f(x) at x = lim
h 0 h
The general derivative gives us the rate at which the value of the function is changing at any point x and
equals the slope of the tangent line at the point. When f '(x) is positive, the tangent line is sloping up.
When f '(x) is negative the tangent line is sloping down. When f '(x) is 0 the tangent is horizontal.
Example
Find the derivative of y with respect to x for the function given by: , y = f(x) = 2x2 +3x − 1
Solution.
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
We need to evaluate lim .
h 0 h
f(x + h) = 2 (x + h)2 + 3( x + h) −1 = 2x2 + 2h2 + 4xh +3x + 3h −1
f(x + h) − f(x) = (2x2 + 2h2 + 4xh +3x + 3h −1) −(2x2 +3x − 1) = 2h2 + 4xh + 3h
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) 2h 2  4 xh  3h
lim  lim  lim (2h  4 x  3)  4 x  3
h 0 h h 0 h h 0

dy
Hence,  4x  3
dx
Example
Find the value of the derivative of f(x) = x2 −1 at x = 2 from first principles. What is the equation of the
tangent line at x = 2?
Solution
We find the general derivative f’(x) at x:
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) ( x 2  2 xh  1)  1  ( x 2  1)
f ' ( x)  lim  lim  lim (2 x  h)  2 x
h 0 h h 0 h h 0

The value of the derivative at x = 2 is 4. This is the slope of the tangent line to f(x) at x = 2. Also at x = 2 , y
y 3
= 3. Thus the equation of the tangent line through (2;3) is  4 or y = 4x − 5
x2
It is tedious to find derivatives from first principles using this definition and we often use rules and
tables for differentiation. Here are a few rules you need to learn.

43
 d d
1. Power rule for Polynomials : ( x n )  n x n1 .
( kx n )  kn x n1 . This rule holds for
dx dx
any constant real number n. So n can be positive, negative or rational. eg
d  13
dx
x
1 4
 x 3
3  
Example
1 5 2 3
Differentiate f(x) = x + 4x3  3x   . Differentiate each term separately and add. Move variables
2 2
x x
2 3 1 1
in the denominator to the numerator, i.e 2 is written as 2 x 2 and as 3x 2 . So, f(x) = x5 + 4x3
x x 2
2 3 1 5  1
 3x   = x + 4x3  3x  2 x  2  3 x 2 . Differentiating each term separately gives: f (x) =
x2 x 2
5 4 1 3
x + 12x 2  3  (4x 3 )  x 2 . Simplify the answer by moving terms with negative indices down.
2 2
5 4 1
So, f (x) = x4 + 12 x2  3 + 
2 3 3
x 2x 2

2. The general power rule: ( Power chain Rule)

y   f ( x )n  n f ( x )n1 . f ' ( x )

dy
If then
dx
3
Example: Differentiate : y = (3x2  2x + 1) 2

Solution The inside function is 3x2  2x + 1. The outside function is the power function.
d
dx
 f ( x )n  n f ( x )n1 . f ' ( x ) So,
d
dx
 3
3 x 2  2 x  1) 2  
3
2
 1
3 x 2  2 x  1 2 . 6 x  2

3. The chain rule: This is useful for composite functions, or functions of functions eg f(g(x)). The
derivative is simply the product of the derivatives of the inside and outside functions. If y = f [g(x)]
then y = f [g(x)] . g (x). Start by differentiating the outermost function and move to the inner functions
until all are done.
Consider the following composition of functions: y(x) = f (g (h (x))).
The derivative y(x) = f ' (g (h (x))) g' (h (x))  h' (x).
Take the derivative of the outer function, times the derivative of the inner function times the derivative of
the next inner layer. Keep doing this until you get to the innermost function.

Example

Find f (x) given f(x) = 3 x 4  3x 2  2

Solution: , f(x) is a composite of two functions, the outer function f is the cube root and the inner function

g is the polynomial: Thus

d 4
dx

x  3x 2  4  1
3 1 2
 ( x 4  3x 2  4) 3 (4 x 3  6 x)
3

44
 Example : Find f ' for f (x) = sin (cos (2x2 − 5)).

Solution
Outer function f is sin, inner g is cos and innermost h is (2x2 −5)
d
(sin(cos( 2 x 2  5))  cos(cos(2 x 2  5))   sin( 2 x 2  5)  (4 x)
dx

Example: Find f ' for f (x) = (csc x + cot x) −1.

Solution The outer function f is the power function , and the inner function g is csc x + cot x.
dy
 1(csc x  cot x) 2  ( csc x cot x  csc 2 x)
dx
Example. Differentiate: y = cos (x2 +3)5
Soln: Let g(x) = (x2 + 3)5 then f(x) = cos g(x) . So f (x) = sin g(x).g’(x), and g (x) = 5(x2+3)4. 2x. .

Hence , y = sin (x2+3)5 . 5 (x2+3)4 . 2x or rearranging gives 10x (x2+3)4 sin (x2+3)5

Note: sin2x means (sin x)2. The derivative of cos 5(x2+3) is 5 cos4(x2+3). sin(x2+3). 2x. This is not the
same as in the example here.
4
Example Differentiate (3x 2  2 x  1) 5

Solution.
The inside function is g(x) = 3x22x +1. Its derivative g'(x) = 6x 2. The outer function is the power :
4 4  15
( z ) 5 . where z = 3x22x +1. Its derivative is ( z ) . So starting with the outer function we have
5
dy 4  15 dy 4 1
 z .(6 x  2) or  (3x 2  2 x  1) 5 .(6 x  2)
dx 5 dx 5
Example. Differentiate: y = cos (x2 +3)5
Solution:
Here we have three functions. The outer most is the cosine function. Then we have a power function and
finally inside the bracket is the polynomial. x2 + 3.
Let g(x) = (x2 + 3)5 then f(x) = cos g(x) . So f (x) = sin g(x).g’(x), and g (x) = 5(x2+3)4. 2x.
Hence , y = sin (x2+3)5 . 5 (x2+3)4 . 2x or rearranging gives 10x (x2+3)4 sin (x2+3)5
Note: sin2x means (sin x)2. The derivative of cos 5(x2+3) is 5 cos4(x2+3). sin(x2+3). 2x.
This is not the same as in the example here.

Example

dy dy 1 1 2
Find given y =log 5(2x1) Solution  . .2 
dx dx ln 5 2 x  1 (2 x  1) ln 5

Example

dy dy 2 1
Find given y = 8 n2x
Solution  8 n 2 x ( n 8)    8 n 2 x ( n 8)
dx dx  2x  x

45
Example
dy
Find given y =log 5(x)log 3(2x)
dx
Solution First simplify by changing to a common base e:

ln x ln 2 x 1 ln 2 ln x (ln x) 2
y .  .ln x.(ln 2  ln x)  
ln 5 ln 3 ln 5ln 3 ln 5ln 3 ln 3

dy ln 2 2(ln x)
 
dx x ln 5ln 3 x ln 3

3. The product Rule for derivatives: (uv) = uv  + u v RHS is u v primed + u primed v

Example: Differentiate y = x2 5 x  3

Solution : Check : RHS is a product, since x2 is multiplied by 5 x  3 . Also 5 x  3 is a function of a

function i.e a composite function. Hence
1 1
y  = 2x x 3 + x2 . (5 x  3) 2 . 5
2
y = u  v + u v
f ( x)
4. The Quotient rule for derivatives: Applies to rational functions of the form :
g ( x)
 u  u' v  uv '
You can remember it as:   '  , where u and v are functions of x.
v v2
x3
Example: Differentiate: 2 x
e
 u  ' u' v  uv ' 3 x 2 e 2 x  2. x 3 (e 2 x ) 3 x 2  2 x 3
Solution: Use the quotient rule:    = =
v v2 e4x e2x
Implicit differentiation The function y = x2 + 3x is an explicit function as y is given
directly in terms of the other variable(s) in this case x. However, x2  2xy  3y = 4 or x
sin y + y2 = 4xy are implicit functions. It is difficult to separate the y and write it in terms
of x. In this case, to find dy/dx use implicit differentiation. Remember that y is a function
of x. Every time you take the derivative of y, you are performing a chain rule. Therefore,
tack on a dy/dx. After taking the derivatives, solve for dy/dx in terms of x and y.

Example : Find dy/dx given : y3 + 3xy + x3 = 5 cos y

Solution
Differentiate each term with respect to x using the product or quotient rules where
dy
necessary: The derivative of y3 with respect to x is 3y2 . Use the product rule for
dx
d d dy
(3 xy ) . Also (5 cos y )  5 sin y : So, differentiating both sides gives:
dx dx dx

46
 dy dy dy
3y2  3 y  3x  3 x 2  5 sin y
dx dx dx
Next move all terms containing dy/dx to one side and separate it to give:
dy
dx
 
3 y 2  3 x  5 sin y  3 x 2  3 y and so
dy

 3x 2  3 y

dx 3 y 2  3 x  5 sin y 
Example Example : Find
dy dy
Find given x 3  3x 2 y  3xy 2  y 3  9 given sin( xy)  x 2 y  7
dx dx
Solution Solution

dy
Example : Find given y 3  xy  x 2  7 x
dx
dy dy
Differentiating implicitly term by term we have: 3 y 2  y  x  2x  7
dx dx
dy dy 7  2 x  y
(3 y 2  x)  7  2x  y  
dx dx 3y 2  x

dy
Example Find given y3 + 3xy + x3 = 5 cos y .
dx

Solution
Differentiate each term with respect to x using the product or quotient rules where necessary: The derivative
dy d d dy
of y3 with respect to x is 3y2 . Use the product rule for (3 xy ) . Also (5 cos y )  5 sin y :
dx dx dx dx
dy dy dy
So, differentiating each term on both sides gives: 3y2  3 y  3x  3 x 2  5 sin y
dx dx dx
Next move all terms containing dy/dx to one side and separate it to give:

dy
dx
 
3 y  3 x  5 sin y  3 x  3 y and so
2 2 dy

 3x 2  3 y

dx 3 y 2  3 x  5 sin y 
dy
Example: Find given y ln x  x ln y = c
dx

1 dy 1 dy
Solution: Differentiate implicitly: y.  ln x .  (ln y  x . )  0 .
x dx y dx
dy y( y  x ln y )
Simplify to give the answer: 
dx x( x  y ln x )
47
Logarithmic differentiation
Useful when several products, quotients and powers including radicals occur in the numerator and
x 2 3 3x  2
denominator of a rational. eg to differentiate y = :
( 2 x  3) 4
x2 3
3x  2
1. Take the natural logs of both sides: ln y = ln
( 2 x  3) 4
2. Use the properties of logs to expand the right hand side of the equation :
1
ln y = ln x2 + ln 3
3 x  2  ln (2x3)4 = 2 ln x + ln(3 x  2)  4 ln (2x 3)
3
1 dy 2 1.3 4.2
3. Differentiate each term on both sides:   
y dx x 3(3 x  2) 2 x  3
4. Move y over and substitute from original expression: Simplify the answer.

dy 2 1.3 4.2   x 2 3 3x  2  2 1 8 
 y         
dx  x 3(3 x  2) 2 x  3   ( 2 x  3) 4   x (3 x  2) 2 x  3 

dy ( x 2  3)( x  2)
Example . Find given y 
dx ( x 2  3)( x 2  5)

Solution

1
  ( x 2  3)( x  2)  2
Step 1: Take the natural logs of both sides : n y  n 2 
  ( x  3)( x  5) 
2

Step 2: Use the properties of logarithms to simplify the right hand side of the equation.

1   ( x 2  3)( x  2)  1
n y  n 2 
  n( x 2  3)  n( x  2)  n( x 2  3)  n( x 2  5)
2   ( x  3)( x  5)  2
2


Step 3: Differentiate each term on both sides of the equation. Simplify if possible.

1 dy 1  2 x 1 2x 2x 
  2   2  2
y dx 2  x  3 x  2 x  3 x  5 

dy 1  2 x 1 2x 2x 
Step 4: Solve for dy/dx:   2   2  2 y
dx 2  x  3 x  2 x  3 x  5 

Step 5: Substitute for y:

1
dy 1  2 x 1 2x 2 x   ( x 2  3)( x  2)  2
  2   2  2  
dx 2  x  3 x  2 x  3 x  5   ( x 2  3)( x 2  5) 

48
Differentiation

Power rule Power chain rule Product Rule:

d n d
x  n x n1 [ f ( x )]n  nf ( x )n1 f '( x ) ( uv )'  vu ' uv '
dx dx

 u  vu ' uv
Quotient Rule  v   v2
 

dy
Find given y is equal to:
dx
7 2
1. (2x2 + 7)(3x 5) 2. (  3)(2x  x2) 3. (1 + 2x)5(3x 1)
x x2

( 2 x  5) x
4. (3 x  5) 5 5. 6.
x  3x  5
2
x 2
2

1 3x x2  3
7. 8. 9.
x 2  3x 4x 2  5 2x  5

x 2  2x x2 1 (2  x )
10. 11. 12
x3 1 x3 1 1  3x

Trig. Functions: Differentiate each of these with respect to the given variables.
13. sin 3x 14. cosec 5t 15. sec 2 + cosec 3

16. cot (2u + ) 17. sin (cot x) 18. 2 tan (1  3x)

19. sec 5  3 20. x2 + sin ( ¼   ½ x) 21. x3 sec ½ x

22. sec 3(x2+7) 23. tan 53x – cot32x 24. x2 cosec 3x

25. 3  cos 2 2t 26. 5 x  sin 2 x 27. cos x3 + (sin 2x)3

cot 2 x
28. sin 2x cos 2x 29. 30. x sin x
1  tan 2 x

cos 2 x tan(3 x  x 2 ) sin 2 x

31. 32. 33.
x3 1 sec(3 x  1) cos 2 ( x  3)

Exponential and log functions

34. e5x  2 35. e3  7 x 36. (x25)e2x

37. x2e2x 38. ecos 2x + 2 sec x 39. 2e ln 3 x + x3log3 x

49
 e5x
40. 2 x 3
41. 2e 2sin3 42. 10x + 3 x  10cos 2x
e

43. ln(x2+5) 44. ln( x 2  1 ) 45. ln(tan2 )

ex x2 1
46. ln 47. ln( ) 48. ln (x  3 x  2)
ex 2 2x  3
1
1  t 2   2 x 2  3x  2
49. log   50. ln   51. n nx
1  t 2   2 x 5 
   
2
n x
52. x 2 n x 53. 54. x n (sin x )
x
n x 2 n x 2
55. 56. n n( 2 x ) 57.
x ex
1 x2
58 x n( 2 x )  7e 2 x 59. 60. og(1  x 2 )
n x

Implicit differentiation
x
61. 2x3  3y + 4x ln y = 6 62. 2x sin y + x2cos y – x3 = 8 63. sin  3x 2 y 3  2
y

64. 4 y 3  7 x 2  5 x cos 2 y 65. x 3 y  3 x 2 y 2  5 y 3  7 66. 3 x 2 y  5 x n y  7 x 2  0

Logarithmic Differentiation
3
x2  5 x 3 cos 2 x sec 2 x ln x
67. y = 68. y = 69. y =
x4 2x  3 e x (1  x 2 )
3
2 3x 2  5

2 x  1  1  sin x 
70. y = 71. y = e 2 x  1( x 2  1) 72. y  ln  
x ( x  1)
2
3  1  sin x 

Higher derivatives
If f(x) is a function, differentiating once gives f ’(x). Differentiating f ’(x) gives the second derivative f “(x)
. Find the second derivatives for each of these.

74. y  x e 2 x 76. y  2e  x
2
73. y  x 3  2 x 2  5 75. , y =3x sin 5x

2x A B  Cx
77. Find the values of A , B and C such that =  2 . Use the partial fractions to
( x  1)( x  1) ( x  1) x  1
2

2x
find the first and second derivatives of : .
( x  1)( x 2  1)
78. Given f ( x)  e 2 x find f '(0) , f "(0) , f '''(0) and f '''' (0).
x x2 x3 x4
If f ( x)  f (0)  f '(0)  f "(0)  f "'(0)  f "''(0) .... write down an expression for e2x.
1! 2! 3! 4!
50
Applications of differentiation
Example
The displacement of an object with time t is given by the relation x(t) = 2 sin 2t. Find

(a) the displacement (b) the velocity and (c) the acceleration at t = seconds.
3
Solution
dx
(a) x (/3) = 2 sin 60 = 1,732 m (b) v   4 cos 2t and v|t=/3 = 4 cos (2/3) = 2,0
dt
d2x
( c) the acceleration a =  8 sin 2t | t = /3 =  8 sin (2/3) = 6,928
dt 2

Curve sketching
The derivative f (x) gives the slope of the tangent line. The table shows what happens to f as f  changes
sign.

f ' ( x)  0 f ' ( x)  0 f ' ( x)  0

f decreasing f horizontal f increasing

d2y
The derivative of a derivative is called the second derivative. This is written as f ' ' ( x) or . The table
dx 2
shows what happens to f as f ' ' ( x) changes.
f ' ' ( x)  0 f ' ' ( x)  0 f ' ' ( x)  0
slope decreasing There may be an inflexion slope increasing
f concave down point. Check using f’(x) f concave up

Example
Sketch the curve given by the equation y = x4 + 4x3 + 12
Solution
(a) Intercepts: Let x = 0, y = 12. The y-intercept is (0;12). . Let y = 0, x4 + 4x3 +12 = 0 does not factorise.
The x–intercepts are difficult to find.
dy
(b) Critical points: Locate the turning points by setting  0 . dy  4 x 3  12 x 2  0 when x  0, x  3 .
dx dx
Thus critical points occur at (0;12) and (3; 15)
( c) Maxima/Minima: Determine if these points are maxima, minima or points of inflexion. If the second

d2y d2y
derivative at the point is ve, the curve has a maximum. If is +ve the curve has a minimum at the
dx 2 dx 2

d2y
point. If  0 , there may be a point of inflexion at the point. In our case
dx 2

51
d2y
2
 12( 3) 2  24( 3)  36
dx x  3

d2y
and 2
 12(0) 2  24(0)  0 .
dx x 0

Thus, we have a minimum at x = 3 and there may be an inflexion

point at x = 0. We confirm the latter by checking the slope at x = 1
(+ve) and at x = 1 (also +ve). Alternatively, check the
concavity on either side of (0;12).
On the left y '' <0, curve is concave down; on the right , y ''  0 and the curve is concave up. The concavity
also changes on near (2;4), which is also an inflexion point.
(d) Curve: Finally sketch the curve.
Example
An open water channel is made by folding up equal sides from a rectangular sheet 40 cm wide. What is the
maximum cross-sectional area of the channel if the sides slope at 60o with the horizontal?
Solution
See diagram for cross-section of the channel. Let the sloping sides = x cm each
The cross-sectional area is the area of the trapezium
A= ½ (sum of // sides)  height of trapezium x h x
Sum of // sides = 2[(40  2x) + x cos 60o] = 80  3x

3
Area Trap, A = ½ [80  3x]  [x sin 60]= (80  3 x ) x 60o 60o
4
The maximum area can be found by differentiating A. 40 2x
dA d  3  3
  (80  3 x ) x   (80  6 x )
dx dx  4  4

This is 0 when x = 13,33 cm. Hence the maximum flow rate occurs when x = 13,33 cm
Practice
160
1. If C  20 x , find
x
dC dC
(a) C|x = 20 (b) (c) (d) Determine the minimum value of C.
dx x 1 dx x 3
2. The range R of a projectile is given by the relation R  20 sin 2 where  is the angle of projection.
Determine
(a) R|=20o (b) (a) R|=45o (c) dR (d) Sketch a graph of R against .
d 45o
3. The concentration C, of a solution for t > 4 varies according to the relation: C  50  2e 0,4t 5
dC dC
Determine (a) C|t =5 (b) C|t =20 (c) (d) .
dt t 7 dt t 20
(e) Sketch a graph to show how the concentration varies with time.

52
  x2
4. Find y’ given (a) x 2e  y  y 2e  x  1 (b) y  xe
x
5. Given y  e cos 2 x show that y " 6 y ' 13 y  0
6. Find the equations of the tangents and the normals to
(a) x2  y2 = 7 at ( 4;3) (b) y = x3  2x2 + 4 at (2 ; 4)
7. Use differentiation to find the maxima, minima or points of inflection. Sketch each curve.
(a) y = x3 +
48 (b) y = e x  x (c) y = x3  6x2 + 9x  8
x

n x
(d) y = (x  2)3 (e) y =
x
4x
8. For the curve y = e find the tangent line parallel to the line 2x + y = 7.
3 t dx dx dx
9. Given x  t e find (a) (b) t when =0 (c)
dt dt dt t 1
10. A farmer has 500 metres of fencing wire and wishes to enclose a rectangular area along a straight stretch
of a river. The side along the river needs no fence. What is the greatest area the farmer can fence?
11. Find the point on the parabola y = x2 that is closest to the point (3;0).
12. In a chemical plant a tank is in the form of an inverted cone 8 m in diameter at the top and 6 m deep.
Chemical solutions pour in at the rate of 10 m3/h. At what rate is the depth of the solution changing when the
solution is 4 m deep?
13. Nitrogen gas is pumped into a spherical rubber balloon at the rate of 20 cm3 per second. At what rate is
(a) the radius (b) surface area and (c) the volume of the balloon increasing when the balloon is 12 cm in
diameter?
14. An open water channel is made by folding up equal sides from a rectangular sheet 60 cm wide. (a) What
is the cross-sectional area of the channel if the sides slope at 45o with the horizontal and the volume rate of
flow is to be a maximum? (b) Is the cross-sectional area greater when the sides of the channel are vertical?

15. The depth , d , in cm of water in an irrigation channel fluctuates according to the equation
d = 5 + 1,5 cos (30 t)o where t is the time in hours after daybreak at 6 a.m.. What is the depth of the water
at (a) daybreak (b) noon? (c) after 12 hours?
(d) At what times in a 24 hour day is the rate of change 0?
(d) What is the maximum and minimum depth of the water in the channel.

16. The active mass m in grams of a radioactive substance is given by the equation m  50e0,01t , where t is
the time in hours.
(a) What is the active mass initially at t = 0 hours?

(b) What is the rate of change in mass at t = 2 hours?

(c) After how many hours will (i) m = 25 grams (ii) m = 10 grams?

53
Integration
d
Given y = x3, we can easily find the derivative, { x 3 }  3x 2 . Suppose we are given the derivative,
dx
y  = 3x2. How do we find y? Intuitively, we note that instead of reducing the exponent, we need to increase
the exponent by 1. Thus 3x2 becomes 3x 3. However, this leaves an unwanted 3 in the answer. To correct
this, we divide by 3. This gives us the original function,. x3. What if there was a constant k or C, added to
x3? Under differentiation the constant would have fallen out. In other words, the derivative of y = x3 + k
(where k is constant) is also 3x2. So, to get back the function we need to add an arbitrary constant k or C to
the function. The required function, y = x3 + k is called the integral of the given derivative. The process of
finding the function is called integration. The given function is called the integrand. The symbol for
integration is  . Since the answer to  3x2 dx , which is x3 + C contains an arbitrary constant C, the integral
is called an indefinite integral. Thus, integration is the reverse or inverse of differentiation and is also called
x n 1
the antiderivative. In general the antiderivative of x is (n  1). You can check this easily by
n
n 1

d  x n 1  (n  1) x n
differentiation:    x n . Knowing the derivatives we can find the antiderivatives easily:
dx  n  1  (n  1)

d
cos x    sin x   sin x dx   cos x  C d  sin x   cos x   cos x dx  sin x  C
dx dx
d x
dx
 e   e x   e x dx  e x  C (Since, the exponential function is its own derivative, it is also its own
antiderivative).

The definite integral

An important theorem in calculus, called the Fundamental Theorem tells us that when g(x) = f(x)

 f ( x)dx  [ g ( x)]
b
then,  g (b)  g (a)
a
a
3
For example, to find  ( x 2  1)dx we note that f(x) = x2+1 and so g(x), which is the antiderivative of f(x) =
1
3
x
 x  C . We then evaluate g(x) at x = 3 (the upper limit of the integral) and at x = 1 (the lower limit of
3
the integral) and we subtract. Thus:
3 3
 x3 
1   33  13 
2
( x 1) dx =
  x C 
2
   3  C     1  C   10
3  3  3
3  1

The definite integral as an area

 f ( x)dx  g ( x)
b
b
When f(x) is positive and the limit of integral a is less than b the integral  g (b)  g (a)
a
a

represents the area under the graph of f between a and b.

54
Methods of integration
1. Constant multiple
rule:
 kf ( x)dx  k  f ( x)dx
 3x  2cos x dx  3 x 2 dx  2 cos x dx  x3  2sin x  C
2
Example:

2. Rule for negatives: e2x

  f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx Example:   e dx   2x
C
2

3. Sum and difference rule: The integral of a sum = the sum of the integrals:
i.e   f ( x)  g ( x) dx   f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx

Integration by substitution
 x(3x  2) 4 dx
2
Substitution is often used to reverse the chain rule: Consider:
du
We let u = (3x2 + 4) , then  6 x . Substitution gives:
dx
1 1 u5 (3x 2  2) 4
 x(3x  2) dx =  x(u) du   u 4 du  C  C.
2 4 4

6x 6 6.5 30
Note in the final step after integration, change u back to the original variable, x.

Using the first entry in the Tables of integration:  f ( x)[ f ( x)]n dx 

 f ( x)n1 we note that the inside
n 1
function f(x) = (3x + 2), in  x(3 x  2) dx has the derivative f (x) = 6x. The original problem has an x,
2 2 4

1 (3x 2  2)5
6
not a 6x. We multiply and divide by 6 to give: 6 x (3 x 2
 2) 4
dx  C
30

 4x ( x 3  1) 3 dx
2
Example:
Solution
By substitution Using Tables. Use first entry
Let u  ( x 3  1) , then
du
 3x 2  du = 3x2 dx  f ( x)
n 1

 f ( x)[ f ( x)] dx  n  1
n
dx
 4 x ( x  1) dx , We note f(x) =
du 4 4
 4 x ( x  1) dx   4 x (u ) 3x 2  3 u  c
2 3 3 2 3 2 3 3

(x3+1)
1 3
 4 x ( x  1) dx  3 ( x  1)  C and f (x) =3x2. We rewrite:
2 3 3 4

3x 2 ( x 3  1) 3 dx   x3  1  C
4 1

4

3 3
dx
Example : Integrate  x (1  x ) 2

Solution

du 1  12 dx
Let u = 1+ x, then  x  du  or dx  2 x du
dx 2 2 x

2du 2
 u 2
 2 u 2 du  2u 1 
1 x
+C

55
 2 cos x
Example: Integrate:  x sin 2 x
dx

du cos x 2 cos x 2 x
Solution Let u = sin x then
dx

2 x
. Substitute for sin x and dx to give :  xu 2
.
cos x
du

Simplify to give: 4
u
1
2
   
du  4 u 2 du  4 u 1  C 
4
C
sin x

(b) Rationals: The substitution method also works for rationals: For example to integrate
5x 5x 5 x du 5 du
 5x 2  3 dx let u = 5x + 3, then du = 10x dx. So,  5x 2  3 dx   u 10 x  10  u 
2

1 1 f ' ( x)
= ln u  C  ln(5 x 2  3)  C Alternatively use  dx  n f ( x)  C
2 2 f ( x)

(c) Improper rationals (top heavy): Simplify using long division and then integrate.

x2 1 x2
Example  x 1 
dx  ( x  1 
x 1
) dx 
2
 x  ln( x  1)  C

(d) Bottom heavy rationals: Split by partial fractions and then integrate:

2 2 1 1
Example : x 2
1
dx  
( x  1)( x  1)
dx  
x 1
dx  
x 1
dx  ln( x  1)  ln( x  1)  C

Note: The product rule of differentiation is reversed using integration by parts, which you will meet in
Maths 2.

Finding areas by Integration

Example
Determine the area under the function, f(x) = − x 3+ 6x and the x-axis on the interval [−2, 2].
Solution
1. Draw a graph.of the function.
2. Set up the integrals and evaluate.
Note: On the interval [−2, 0], the graph of the function lies
below the x-axis. This will yield a negative area. On the
interval [0, 2], the graph lies above the x-axis. The integral
will yield a positive area. Therefore, split into two
integrals. If a single integral on the interval [−2 ; 2] is used
you will get 0 for the area.

0
0 0
 x4 x2    (2)4 
 f ( x)dx   ( x  6 x)dx  (  6 )   0     3(2) 2    8
3

2 2  4 2 
2  
4 

56
 2
2 2
 x4 x2   (2) 4  
 f ( x)dx   ( x  6 x)dx  (  6 )      3(2) 2   0   8 Total Area = 16.
3

0 0  4 2 
0 
4  

Example 4: Find the area between the curve f (x x on the interval [0, 2].
Solution:
1: Draw the graph of the function. Note that angle,
x is given in radians.
2: Set up the integrals and evaluate.
Note: The required area is in three pieces. The
intervals [0 ; 0,5] and [1,5 ; 2] are above the x-axis,
and the interval [0,5 ; 1,5] is below. Therefore, we
have three integrals.

0,5 1, 5 2
Area =  (cos x  0)dx   (0  cos  x)dx   (cos x  0)dx = 4 square units.
0 0,5 1, 5

Area between two or more curves

An important application of the definite integral is to determine the area between two or more
curves. There are three main steps to this process. They are:
1. Graph the equations. 2. Determine the points of intersection.

3. Set up and evaluate the definite integral.

Example: Find the area between the curves f (x) =
4 − x 2 and g (x) = x 2 − 4.
Solution
Draw a graph of the function.
From the graph, you can see that f (x) is the upper
function, g (x) is the lower function, and that the
points of intersection which give the limits of the
integrals, are x = −2 and x = 2.

You can determine the intersection algebraically by setting the equations equal to each other:

4−x2=x2− x2 x2 x = −2 or x = 2
b
Set up the integral to find the area: Area =  (upper curve  lower curve) dx
a
2
 x3 
   
2 2
64
2    2     
2 2 2
( 4 x ) ( x 4) dx = (8 2 x ) dx 8 x 2
 3  2 3

57
 
Example Find the area under the graph of f(x) = sin x from (a) 0 to . (b) 0 to 2
3

Solution

3
  
(a) Area = 0 sin x dx  cos x  0    cos
3
   cos 0 
1
 3 2
Note the limits are in radians.
(b) The area we need is in two pieces: 0 to  and  to 2
 2
 2
0 sin x dx   sin x dx    cos x 0    cos x    2  2  4
Alternatively use symmetry : The required area:
 
2   sin x dx  2  2  4 or 4   sin x dx  4  1  4
0 0

Example Find the area bounded by the graphs of y1 = 5  x2 and y2 = (x 1)2

Solution. The sketch shows the two curves. The intersection
points are x = 1 and x = 2.

Set up the integral to find the area: Area =

b

 (upper curve  lower curve) dx

a

2 2 2

 ( y1  y2 )dx   [(5  x )  ( x  1) ]dx   (4  2 x  2 x )dx  9.

2 2 2

1 1 1

Integration
x n1
 x dx  C
n
1. Powers of x
n 1
2 3
(a)  3x 2  2 dx (b)  (1  x 2 )dx (c )  2
dx (d )   x 3 dx
x x
x  x  3x  2
4 3
1 3
(e)  ( x 3  1) 2 dx ( f )  (2 x  1) x 3 dx ( g ) 3
dx ( h )  ( 3
x   )dx
x x x

 f ( x)
n 1

  f ( x) f ' ( x)dx  c

n
2. Chain rule for powers of f(x):
n 1
(a)  6 x(3x  2)dx
2
(b)  3x ( x  2)dx
2 3
(c)  x( x 2  1) 3 dx (d )  sec 2 x tan x dx

(e)  (2 x  3)( x 2  3x  7) 2 dx ( f )  2 x (3x 2  5) dx ( g )  cos x(sin x) 2 dx (h)  sec 5 x dx

ln y dy et cos 2t sec 2  y 2 n( y 3  1)

(i )  ( j) dt (k )  dt (l )  d ( m) 
y 1  5e t (1  sin 2t ) 4 (1  4 tan ) 3 y3 1

58
 f ' ( x)
3. The log form   ln f ( x)  c
f ( x)

2x 2x  1 x2 8v ex
(a)  dx (b)  dx (c )  dx (d )  dv (e)  dx
x 1
2
x2  x x3  5 3v 2  5 3e x  7

1  cos 2 x 6x 2  4x  2 1  sin 2 x cos x

( f ) dx ( g ) dx ( h)  dx (i)  dx
2 x  sin 2 x x3  x2  x x  sin 2 x sin x

e3x (e 4 x  sin 4 x)dx ( x 2  cos ec 2 3x)dx  2x

(i)  dx ( j) (k )  (l )  dx
1  6e 3 x e 4 x  cos 4 x x 3  cot 3x  2x  1

4. Improper fractions: Long divide first

x2 x2 2x  1 x 2  3x  2 x3
(a)  dx (b)  dx (c )  dx (d )  dx ( e)  dx
x 1 2x  1 x 1 x2 1 x2 1

5. Split using partial fractions

1 1 x4 x 2  8x  4 5  2x
(a)  2 dx (b)  2 dx (c )  dx (d )  dx ( e)  dx
4x  9 x  3x  4 x2  9 x2  x  9 x  4x  5
2

a f ( x)
6. The exponential form  a f ( x ) f ' ( x)dx  c
ln a
e tan 3 x
(a)  (e 5 x  a 2 x )dx (b)  e sin 3 x . cos 3x dx (c)  2 x a  x dx (d ) 
2
dx
cos 2 3x
e cot 5 x a ln x
( e)  ( f ) ( g )  (e 2 x  1) 2 dx (h)  5 2 x x. dx
2
dx dx
sin 2 5 x x
e tan  e 2
(i )  y e  y dy ( j )  10 3 x dx (k )  d (l )  d (m)  e 2 x ln e 2 x dx
2 2

cos 2  1  3e 2

7. Trig functions:  (trig function) f ' ( x)dx = integral of trig function + C

x
(a)  cos 2 x dx (b)  (tan 3x  cot )dx (c )  x cot 5 x 2 dx (d )  cos ec 2 (4 x)dx
3

8. Definite integrals

3 1  2 3 2
2x
(a)  3x dx (b)  (3x  1)dx (c)  cos xdx (d )  sin 3xdx (e)  2 ( f )  1  3x dx
1 0 0 0 1 x 3 1

9. Areas. Find the plane areas bounded by:

(a) y = x2 1; x=1; x=3 and y = 0 (b) y = 2sin x ; x = 0 to x = /2

(c) y = cos 2x ; x = /6 to x = /2 (d) y = e2x; x = 0 to x = 2
(e) y = 2xx2 and y = 3 (f) y = 2  x2 and y =  x

59
10. Integrate the following.
e cot 3 x
d
(a)  (e sin 2 x cos 2 xdx (b)  xa 3 x dx (c)  2 x a  x dx (d )  sin 2 3x
2 2

sin 3x (ln x) 2 x2
( e)  dx ( f ) dx ( g )  e 2 x e 2 x  1 dx ( h)  . dx
2  cos 3x
3
x ex

1 1 2x
(i )  sin x cos 3 xdx ( j) dx (k )  d (l )  sec 2 dx
1  2x x  3x  2
2
5

1 1 1
( m)  dx ( n)  dx ( p)  dx
2x  x  1
2
4x  92
( x  2 x  8)
2

11. Integrate

x 1 3 cos x
(a)  tan dx (b)  cos ln 3x dx (c )  dx (d )  5 cos 2 x sin 2 x dx
5 x x

sin 2 x x x2 cos 2 x
(e )  dx ( f ) dx ( g ) dx ( h)  dx
cos 3 x ( x  1)( x  1) e 2 x3
2  sin 2 x

x (2 x  1)( x  1) 2x 2  1
(i )  dx ( j ) dx (k )  dx (l )  (2  5 x) 3 dx
2x  1 ( x  1) x2

12. Evaluate the definite integrals.

1 3 4  /6 5
x
(a)  (3x  1) dx 2
(b)  e dx2x
(c )  dx (d )  cos 2 x dx (e)  e x 1 dx
2 (1  x )
2
2 1 0 1

13. The gradient function f (x) and one point on the function f(x) are given. Find the function.
(a) f (x) = 3x2  2x + 1 (0; 2) (b) f (x) = sin (2x) (0; 1)
( c) f (x) = e2x + 1 (0; 2)
14. The velocity v(t) of a particle is given by v(t) = 6t2 + 2t  1 ( t 0). At time, t = 0 the displacement, s =
4 m. Find the displacement when t = 2 sec.
15. Given the acceleration a in m/s2 of a particle at time t is given by a(t)= t3t t  0 , the displacement
s at t = 0 is s(0) = 2 m and the velocity v(t) at t = 2 is 1 m/s find
(a) s(t = 5 s) (b) v (t = 2 s)
dP
16. The rate of change of a population of a species is given by  60 t 2  220 t 1, 2 and
dt
P(t = 0 years) = 2200 members, what is the population of the species after 5 years?

60
Vectors
Vectors in 2-space: In 2-dimensions, the position vector of a point
P(3;1) is given by the vector OP = 3 ,1  . The numbers 3 and 1 are the
components of vector OP in the x- and y-directions. In general,
any ordered pairs of real numbers (a ; b) , gives the position vector a , b .
Example: Given a =  1 ,4 and b = 6 ,3  the vector sum is a + b = 5 ,1 

the difference is a  b =  7,  3 . Similarly, 2a + 3b = 16 , 1 

The magnitude, length or norm of a vector a is denoted by | a |. Thus, the norm of vector  a , b  is

a 2  b 2 . The unit vector has a magnitude of 1. The unit vector of vector u

u
has the symbol û is given by . The unit vectors 1 ; 0  and 0; ,1  in the
|u|
x- and y-directions, are given special symbols i and j. Any vector e.g. 6 ;3 
can be written as a linear combination of the unit vectors i.e as 6 i + 3 j

Example Find the vector P1P2 given the points P1 (4 ; 2) and P2(1; 3)
Solution: Use the position vectors: P1P2 = P1O + OP2 = < 4; 2 > + <1; 3 > = < 3 ; 5 >.

Vector products
Two vector products are possible: the dot product and the cross product
The Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors a and b is the scalar a  b = |a| |b| cos ,
where  is the angle between a and b such that 0    180. The dot
product a.b records the amount of vector a that lies in the direction
off vector b. Since i, j and k are orthogonal the dot products i.j , j.k
and k.i etc are = 0 as cos 90=0. Also i.i = j . j = k . k. = 1.

Component form of the dot product: If a = a1i + a2j and b = b1i + b2j then
a.b = a1b1 +a2b2 . Thus the dot product is the sum of the products of the corresponding components.
Some properties of the dot product are: a.a = |a|2 , a.(b+c) = a.b + a.c ,

a.b = b. a , and a.(kb) =k(a.b). Also |a| = a .a  a12  a2 2  a32 .

Angle between two vectors: Use the two forms of the dot product :
a.b = |a| |b| cos  = a1b1 +a2b2 to find the angle between two vectors a and b.

61
Example Find the angle between a = 2i + 3j and b = i + 5j .
a .b
Solution Since a.b = |a| |b| cos  it follows cos   . So, |a| = 13 |b| = 26
| a || b |
a . b = 16 . Therefore, cos  = 16  (13 . 26) and  = 29,5o.

The Cross Product

The cross product of a and b is a  b = (|a| |b| sin ) n where n is a unit

vector ar to the plane spanned by a and b. Its direction is determined
by the Right Hand Rule.
The properties of the cross product include: a  b = b  a ; a  (b + c) = a  b + a  c ;
a a = 0 ; a. (a  b) = 0 and b.(a  b) = 0 etc.
Also, i  i = j  j = k  k = 0; Also i  j = k ; j  k = i and k  i = j ; j  i = k etc.
To find the cross-product of two vectors a = a1i +a2j + a3k and b = b1i +b2j +b3k use the third
i j k
order determinant: a  b  a1 a 2 a 3 .
b1 b2 b3
i j k
Example: If a = 2i 2j + 3k and b = 3i  2j k then a  b = 2  2 3  8i + 11j + 2k
3  2 1
Example Find a unit vector perpendicular to both a = 3i + j – 2k and b = 4i + 3j –2k
i j k
Solution a  b is perpendicular to a , b = 3 1  2  i ( 2  6)  j ( 6  8)  k (9  4)  4i - 2j  5k . Hence
4 3 2
4i  2 j  5k
unit vector is .
45
Parallel vectors Two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if a  b = 0.

Practice
1. Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points:
(a) (4;1) and (3 ; 4 ) (b) (3;4) and (2; 5)
2. Find the vector P1P2 given (a) P1 is (3 ; 4 ) and P2 (0 , 2 ) (b) P1 is (0,1 ) and
P2 is (2 ; 0 ) (c) Find also the mid-points of the line segment joining P1 and P2.
3. Given a = <1 ; 3 > , b = < 1 ; 1 > and c = < 2 ; 6 > find

(a) a + b + c (b) 2a (b c) (c) |a + c| (d) |c| |2b| (e) â (b) b̂ .
4. Show that 2ij + 4k and 5i+2j 2k are orthogonal. Find a third vector perpendicular to both.
5. Find a vector perpendicular to both

(a) i 3j + 4k and 5i  j  4k (b) 2i + j and i + j  2k

62
Statistics
What is statistics?
There are several definitions.
1. Statistics is the science of processing data: collecting, organising, displaying, analysing and interpreting
data in order to make informed decisions in the face of uncertainty or to solve a problem.
2. Statistics also refers to the set of rules and procedures for reducing large masses of data to manageable
proportions. For example, if you want to know what heavy metal pollutants are present in river water, you
would take samples of water and test for the amount of heavy metal concentrations. After collecting the
samples you would record the different amounts of pollutants and find the mean, the standard deviation etc
You can then compare these results with the reference levels.
3. Staistics is also used to refer to data itself. For example statistics show that there are more unemployed
farm workers now than last year.
There are two main branches in statistics
1. Descriptive statistics: involves procedures used to organise and summarise masses of numerical data to
describe the state/ situation now eg using frequency tables, median, mean, modes etc (includes the collection,
classification, analysis and presentation or graphical display of data.)
2. Inferential Statistics: refers to techniques of interpreting the data collected from samples to make decisions
or generalisations about a target population. It is used to make predictions about the population on the basis of
data collected from random samples.
Basic terms
Population: A complete set of all possible observations or measurements on the characteristics we want to
study. The characteristics can be expressed numerically or non-numerically.
Sample: A selection of the all possible observations about the members of the target population.
A biased sample will yield unreliable results e.g. Checking the first few batches produced may give a biased
sample. However, checking the batches periodically will give a more representative sample.
A random sample is one in which every member of the population has an equal opportunity to be included.
A statistic is any characteristic determined from a sample. The two important statistics we use are the sample
mean represented by x and the sample standard deviation represented by the letter S .
A parameter is any characteristic of a population . The two important population parameters we use often are
the population mean represented by the Greek letter  and the population standard deviation represented by the
Greek letter .
Variable: the topic or feature of a sample about which data are collected.
Data: The set of observations or measurements you take. Data can be quantitative, taking numerical values
e.g. mass, capacity, height, or qualitative eg attributes such as sex, occupation, etc. Quantitative data can be
discrete (taking distinct and separate values and can be counted 0, 1, 2 ,… or labelled, A, B, O+ ) e.g. number
of cars etc, or continuous (falling within a range) usually measurements. A set of data is said to be categorical
63
if the values or observations belonging to it can be sorted according to category eg Gender : Male/ Female.
Ratio data include physical measurements eg time, size, weight, density. This type of data has a natural zero
point. Interval data takes any value within a range and the zero point is arbitrary, eg temperature. An interval
scale is a scale of measurement where the distance between any two adjacent units of measurement (or
'intervals') is the same but the zero point is arbitrary. In nominal data numbers represent arbitrary codes or
categories eg. 0 for chem Eng, 1 for anal chem 2, etc You can count but not order or measure nominal data.,
Ordinal data are data that can be ranked or ordered in terms of strength, importance eg wind speeds : 9 for a
gale, 6 for strong wind etc. You can count and order, but not measure, ordinal data.

DATA

Qualitative Quantitative
(non-numerical) (Numerical or metric)
(Attributes or
categories) Discrete Continuous
Eg. Sex, Colour of car
Can take any
Takes finite values value in a range
only. Countable. eg weight,volume
eg. Car sales, No.
of passengers in
bus
Nominal Ordinal
Eg blood Eg HIV stage 1,2 3, Ratio Interval
group, A, Medals (Gold, silver) Data from Life of a bulb
Make of Travel classes measurement Tyre pressure
car, You Responses SA, A, N, s
can count (can be ranked (put in order) or weights,
have a rating scale attached. You
but not can count and order, but not heights
order or measure, ordinal data.

measure
nominal
data.

Data can be collected in several ways:

1. By census : e.g. details of each house in a street. Could use personal interviews e.g. visiting each house, by
phone.
2. By questionnaires: Have lists of questions e.g. health effect of industry in the area, opinions about nuclear
energy
3. By observation: e.g. Counting, (Toss a coin 10 times. How many heads?) measure volumes, masses, timing,
reading instruments such as micrometer etc.
4. By experiment: e.g. What treatment, what doses of applied chemicals? rate of growth under different
fertilizers.

64
Descriptive Statistics
To summarise important features of data the following are used.

1. Measures of central tendency ( “centre” or “middle” of data)

The most common measures of central tendency are:
(a) The mean: The mean is found by summing all the observations and dividing the number of observations:
Sum of observations.  x ( f x )
Mean =  For a frequency table, Mean =
No. of observations N f

(b) The Median is the value such that half the values are smaller than it and half the values are larger. The
values or observations should be arranged in ascending or descending order. It is not influenced by extreme
values and is therefore a valuable measure of location when a distribution is skewed. If there are n values and n
is odd the median is the (n+1)/2 th value.
Eg. Median of 1, 3, 5, 5 , 6, 6 and 7 is (7+1)/2 or 4th value = 5
If n is even the median is the average of the n/2 th and the (n+1)/2 th value.
Eg Median of 2; 3; 3; 4; 5; 6; is 3,5
n / 2  CF
For grouped data, the median = L  (i )
f

(c) The mode is the value that occurs most frequently in a set of data. The given data can have more than one
mode. For symmetric data, the mean, mode and median coincide.
Eg. The mode of 2 ; 3 ; 3 ; 3 ; 3 ; 4 ; 4 ;5 is 3.

2. Measures of spread or dispersion indicate the spread of the data.

(a) The range is the difference between the highest and the lowest values in the set of data
(b) Interquartile Range = Upper quartile  Lower Quartile = Q3  Q1. Quartiles divide the data into 4
equal parts

 f(x x)
2
 f(x x)
2
( c) Sample Variance, S2 = : The Sample Standard deviation =
N 1 N 1

Population variance ( denoted by 2) : Spread in the population of possible values about the mean, .
(d) The coefficient of variation : relates sample variability to the mean and is equal to:
Sample S .D 
Sample coef. of variation =  100 : Popln coeff. of variation =  100
mean 
(e) The coefficient of skewness indicates whether the data is +vely or –vely skewed. A symmetrical
distribution has no skewness, i.e. the coefficient of skewness is 0. Skewness ranges from  3 to 3 and is found
using the formula :
3(Mean  median)
Coefficient of skewness = :
standard deviation

If mean > median, data is +vely skewed ( long tail to the right).
3. The 5 number summary. This has the 5 numbers:
65
 ( lowest value ; value ¼ way : value in the middle ; value ¾ way : highest value)
Rank 1 Lower Median Third Rank n
Quartile Quartile
The quartiles can be used to create a display of the data called a box-and-whisker plot or box plot. The box
is formed from the quartiles and the whiskers connect the box to the highest and the lowest values. The 5
values which are used to draw a box plot are sometimes called a 5 number summary.

Using a calculator to find the mean and standard deviation

Suppose you are given 3 data values: 12,65 ; 13,79 and 17,33
1. Switch to SD mode: MODE 
2. Clear memory store: Shift AC
3. Enter data: 12,65 M+ 13,79 M+ 17,33 M+
Find Sample size n: Shift n : Ans 3
Find mean: Shift x ( orange) Ans 14,59
Find sample s.d.: Shift  n 1 Ans 2,44
Take special care if the data values include some negative numbers. Use the +/− key to change the sign of
the value.

Example
The length in mm of crystals of a salt found in rock samples were recorded as follows:
11,8 10,9 9,5 11,4 10,5 9,9 10,8 12,3 11,5 12,4 10,8 10,7
Calculate (a) the mean, (b) the standard deviation (c) median and (d) the coefficient of variation
(e) coefficient of skewness for the data.

( x  x )
2
Solution: (a) Mean =  
x 132,5
 11,04 (b) S.D = = 0,8826
N 12 N 1
( c) The median is the score in the middle after the data has been ordered:

9,5 9,9 10,5 10,7 10,8 10,8 | 10,9 11,4 11,5 11,8 12,3 12,4
10,8  10,9
In this case we have two scores in the middle. So the median is  10,85
2
Sample S .D 0,8826
(d) the coefficient of variation =  100 = 100  7,99%.
mean 11,04
3(mean  median) 3(11,04  10,85)
(e) Coefficient of skewness =   0,65
S .D 0,8826

Grouped Frequency distribution

1. Frequency distribution: In a grouped frequency table data is grouped into mutually exclusive categories in a
table, showing the number or frequency in each category.
Example :
The tensile strength in kN/m2 of 30 specimens of nylon cord tested were recorded as follows:
41,6 40,4 45,3 40,7 44,5 42,0 45,0 47,8 44,9 44,5 42,1 45,7
44,6 42,7 43,9 47,7 41,6 44,5 45,5 47,8 42,3 43,5 45,1 44,9
47,8 42,3 44,5 42,1 45,7 46,1

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(a) Is the data discrete or continuous? (b) Group the data using the class intervals: 40,0  41,9; 42,0  43,9 etc
(c) Use your grouped frequency table to find the mean and Standard deviation of the data.

Solution (a) The data was obtained by measurement. It is continuous data.

(b)
Class 40,0  41,9 42,0  43,9 44,0  45,9 46,0  47,9
Frequency 4 8 13 5
(c)

Class Frequency,f Central value, x fx f ( x  x )2

40,0 41,9 4 41,0 164,0 42,77
42,0  43,9 8 43,0 344,0 4,26
44,0  45,9 13 45,0 585,0 6,93
46,0  47,9 5 47,0 235,0 37,26
 30 1328 91,22
 fx 1328 f ( x  x )2 91,22
Mean =   44,27 S.D =   1,77
N 30 N 1 29
Displaying data
The number of defects on products leaving an assembly line was recorded in a table as follows:

Defects 0 1 2 3
Number of items 30 40 20 50
The data can be presented in various ways:

Bar Chart/Line Chart: Bars or lines

4
whose lengths are proportional to the
number in the category. 3

Grouped Bar Charts are used for 2

describing 2 or more categories at the
same time. The different categories 1

are represented by different bars side

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
by side on the same chart.
Pie Chart: Angle assigned is Pie chart for defects
proportional to the number in
category. Should include number or f angle
percentage. Useful to display 0 30 30/140  360=77o
components of totals as sectors in a 1 40 40/140  360=103o
circle. 2 20 20/140  360=51o

3 50 50/140  360=129o

Pictogram: Small symbols repeated Pictogram for defects

50 D
appropriate number of times
40 D D
30 D D D
20 D D D D
10 D D D D
0 1 2 3
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 Defects Scale 1D = 10 defects

Quantitative Variables

Dotplot: Values are represented by dots

which are stacked vertically on a horizontal
axis. Useful for locating central tendency and
spread of data.

Box and whisker Plot: Used to display the 5-number summary. The box is formed
from the quartiles and the whiskers connect the box to the highest and the
lowest values.

Stem-and-Leaf Plot: 3. Useful for arranging 40 ,4 ,7

numerical data or observations on a “tree” so that 41 ,6 ,6
features such as median and percentiles can be 42 ,0 ,1 , 1 ,3 , 3 ,7
found easily. The original data is at least partially 43 ,5 ,9
retrievable. 44 ,5 , 5 , 5 ,5 ,6 ,9 ,9
Steps: 45 ,0 ,1 ,3 ,5 ,7 ,7
1. Decide on a step size to give you between 5 and 46 ,1
10 groups. 47 ,7 ,8 ,8 ,8
2. Write the `Stem' using the leading digit or
digits of the numbers. Stem and leaf Plot
3. For each data value, use the next digit as the
`Leaf' and ignore other digits.
4. Sort leaves.
Histogram: shows frequencies in each category as
a rectangle whose area is proportional to the
number in the group. The horizontal axis is divided
into intervals (usually of equal widths). The vertical
axis has freq or relative frequencies. The central
tendency, shape and spread of data is easy to see.

A frequency polygon : Classes are scaled on the x-

axis and frequencies on the y-axis. Dots are plotted
and joined together for the frequencies in the centre
of each class.

6. Cumulative frequency polygon: The upper true

limit of the classes are plotted against the
cumulative frequencies. This allows us to determine
how many or what % are below a certain upper
limit of a class (the percentiles). The quartiles can
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also be read easily from a cumulative frequency
graph.

Correlation analysis
Correlation analysis is used to study the association (strength and direction of the relationship) between 2 sets of
data. The strength of the relationship is indicated by a number between 1 and 1. For example, the correlation
between cigarette smoking and the incidence of lung cancer is high positive.

Strong ve low no reln moderate strong +ve

1 low +1
high ve 0 high +ve

A scatter diagram is useful to show if a relation exists. It shows the degree

of relationship between the two variables.

Two commonly used measures of correlation are:

1. Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient, r, given by

n ( xy)  ( x)( y )
Pearson's r 
[n x 2  ( x) 2 ][n y 2  ( y ) 2 ]

It is used when both variables are continuous. Not: r is not the gradient of scatter plots.

2. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, r. Data is ranked and the difference in ranks d is used to
calculate r. It is used when either both or one variable is ordinal

6 d 2
Spearman’s, r  1  d = diff. in ranks n = no. of pairs in data
n(n 2  1)

Note : A high correlation does not imply a causal relationship i.e that the change is due to the change in the
second variable. A third variable could also be the cause.

Linear Regression
This is used to predict the value of one variable (the dependent variable,Y) from the values of a second
variable (called the independent variable,X). The regression equation is :
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(predicted value of Y) Yˆ  a  b x where a is the estimated value of Y when x = 0, and b is the regression
coefficient. a and b can be found using:

a
 y  b x b
n( xy)  ( x)( y )
n n[( x 2 )  ( x) 2 ]

Practice
1. Match the word in List A with its definition or description in List B.

List A List B
1. Statistic A. One in which each member has equal chance of representation
2. Standard deviation B. Chance of two or more events occurring
3. Random sample C. Values fall into distinct categories
4. Correlation D. A value derived from a sample
5. Parameter E. draws conclusions about population based on sample data
6. Joint Probability F. value derived for a population
7. Nominal data G. Accurate measures of the “spread” of data
8. Sample space H. having no influence on each other
9. Independent events J. Contains all possible outcomes
10. Inferential statistics K. measure of association between two variables

2. Distinguish between these terms: (a) descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (b) parameter and
statistic ( c) variable and a constant (d) sample and a population (e) Discrete and continuous variable (f) dot
plot and box plot (g) median and mode (h) variance and correlation ( i) a random sample and a biased
sample ( j) joint and conditional probabilities

3. State whether the variable in each of these is discrete, continuous or categorical.

(a) The density of samples of ores (b) The type of occupations graduates engage (c)The colour of peoples
hair (d) The yield in kg of tomatoes per plant in a greenhouse (e) The alpha particle count from a
radioactive source (f) The annual income of secretaries (g) The systolic blood pressure of 30 patients

4. For the 8 observations of x: 5 , 4, 2 , 0, 6 , 4, 3, and 1 find

( x) 2
(a)  x (b)  x 2 (c)  ( x  3) (d )  x 2  ( e)  ( x  x ) 2 ( f )  ( x 2  1)
n
5. A machine automatically drops 100 capsules in each bottle as it passes down the production line. At the
end of the day, 30 bottles were selected at random for a quality check. The number of defective capsules
found in each bottle were as follows:
3 4 8 5 8 7 0 3 6 3

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 5 1 5 5 6 3 3 4 7 9
4 2 4 3 2 0 1 7 4 2
(a) Is the collected data discrete or continuous? (b) Name the variable in this study
(c) Construct an ungrouped frequency distribution for the data. (d) Write down the five number summary
for the data (e) Display the 5-number summary as a box and whisker plot (e) Extend your frequency
distribution table to find the mean numbers of defective capsules per bottle. (f) Calculate the standard
deviation for the number of defective capsules

6. The mass of suspended solids in 30 samples of water taken from a river in mg were :

10,3 9,4 14,1 11,5 12,6 15,3 10,9 13,7 16,5 10,9
9,7 11,3 15,4 9,8 16,3 11,5 13,8 11,8 17,7 12,9
9,5 12.2 14,6 15,1 12,4 10,6 11,5 12,0 13,8 16,6

(a) Is the collected data discrete or continuous?

(b) Name the variable in this study (c) Construct a grouped frequency distribution for the data using the
groups 9,0  11,4.; 11,5  13,4; 13,5  etc (d) Extend your frequency distribution table to find the
mean mass of suspended solids in the river. (e) Calculate the standard deviation for the data (f) Use the
raw data and EXCEL to confirm your answers to (d) and (e).
(g) Display the data in the grouped frequency table as a histogram.

7. The pH of a number of soil samples taken from different locations was determined. The results grouped
under intervals of 2,0 are shown in the table:

pH 4,0 5,9 6,0  7,9 8,0 – 9,9 10,0  12,0 –

Frequency 6 20 28 12 8

(a) Is the data collected discrete or continuous? (b) How many soil samples were tested?
(c) Compute the mean and standard deviation for the data. (d) Construct a cumulative frequency table and
draw a less-than-ogive. (e) Use your ogive to estimate the median and the interquartile range.
8. The thickness of 25 samples of steel bars made by a machine set to forge metal bars with a thickness of
7,0 mm, were measured and recorded to 2 s.f as follows:
6,9 6,8 7,3 7,1 6,6 7,0 7,8 7,3 7,5 6,5 6,9 6,7
6,9 7,1 6,5 6,8 7,2 7,4 6,5 6,9 7,2 7,6 7,0 6,8

Copy and complete the following table:

Thickness mm Central Lower class Upper Class Frequency

value boundary Boundary .f
6,5 – 6,7 6,6 6,45 6,75
6,8 – 7,0

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(a) Which class is the modal class? (b) What is the UCB of the third class? (c) Draw a frequency histogram
for the data (d) Use your histogram to find the mode (e) Draw a cumulative frequency polygon for the data.
Use the c.f polygon to find the inter quartile range of the data.

9. The sizes of crystals produced in experiments conducted by a class were measured and tabulated as
follows.

Length in mm 5 6 7 8 9 10 
Frequency 4 9 16 15 6 3

Determine the mean, and Standard deviation of the lengths of the crystals.

10. The table shows the number of workers and the total running costs including the salaries for 6 outlets of
a restaurant.

No. of workers 7 8 10 11 14 16
Running Costs R’000 99 93 102 121 143 136

(a) Draw a scatter graph to illustrate this information. Is there a relation between the variables?
(b) Compute the regression equation for making the running cost prediction from the number of workers. (c)
Predict the running cost of a branch employing 12 workers.

11. Construct a scattergraph for the following data.

x 1 2 3 4 5
y 4 8 9 10 14
(a). Draw the line of best fit line which passes through the mean point by inspection (b) Obtain the equation
of the regression line (c) Predict the value of y when x is 8.

12. A study was conducted to investigate the relation between years of service and efficiency rating of
teachers by the students who were taught by them. The results for a sample of 8 teachers were as follows:

Years of service 1 20 6 8 2 1 15 8
Efficiency rating 6 5 3 5 2 2 4 3

Compute Spearman’s coefficient of correlation. Comment on the results.

13. The mean temperature in oC of sea water discharged from a power plant on 20 consecutive days was
recorded as follows:
37 35 36 38 40 35 32 28 36 35 32 37 39 32
40 41 43 44 44 43

(a) Calculate the mean, the standard deviation and the median
(b) Construct a box plot and comment on the distribution of temperatures.

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