CHAPTER SIXTEEN

INDUSTRIAL LOCATION THEORY

Since the mid-1950s there has been a significant change of cmphaei
industrialgeography, from observation and description to the develon in
of
theory. Until that time, industrial gcographers were largely concerned
or industrial regions, but the desir
case studies of particular industriesmade a theoretical annr
make geography mure scientific to necessary the location of industry
(Chapter Four). Theories are needed explain and
also to predict suitable locations for future developments.

The Search for Order

Thereal world is apparent confusion, and one of the basic questions to be
answered in geography is whether this reality is chaos or just complexity, Is
the distribution of industry simply random, or is it arranged in an ordered
pattern ? Increasingly, the searchfor an explanation of the location of industry
has taken the form ofa search for order in a complex world, and this has
resulted in a movement away from the study of the unique and the particular
to a search for generalisation and theory.
The distribution of indastry is not, in fact, totally random, as can be seen
from the world pattern of manufacturing (see Fig. 15.1), since it tends to
form clusters in certain latitudes. This tendency for industries to come to-
gether is such a marked feature thatJ. H. Thompson has suggested that a
concentration theory can beformulated. identifying a hierarchy of concentra-
tions (Fig. 16.1).
The members of the hierarchy are basically classified according to the

Industrial belt

Industrial zone

Urban system

Central place

Industrial district

ind.vidual plant
AAAMMAAANAAMAAMM
Fig. 16.1. A hierarchy of industrial concentrations.
198
 Industrial Location Theory
n o u n t ü nclensity
d of manufncturing that 1
linkagc. The basic nit js the 1akes place, and also in
terrmn
of
unction .
in an
C o n c e n l r i i
lcd ar indlividual plant
aren such as an industrial factory, wtoch,
or

whcn
istrict. wo oo
orr nmore
dlistricts Jorm n central place,cstate, forms a n irndustral
usually
such as Swind lon,
e and two o r mofe central places a
manufacturina
form a n u r b n
own
rhation
such as systm
s
mall conurbation

form an indusUil 20ne,Portsmoulh-90uthamptrn.

UCh a >Outh
Two or more urhan
Lanashire, and a t t h e top o f
syste h y is the industrial belt ol cstern Furope o r iorth
c America.
e n of concentration is carricd Jurther and a n agglomeration
theory is
which takes account of the lact that the arnount of rnanufacturinz
suzg
onurbations increases as a country devclops economically. Thompon
n hc very large urban systCms geting very nuch larger in advancerd
cconomies,
but it must be remembered that there will corne a tirne when the
henefits of agglomcration wil be balanced by the penalties of congestion and
will follow.
process of dispersal
a
The location of particular industries is not totally random either, as can
beseen from the fact that many industries have similar locations in different
countries. Oil refineries are largely situated on coastal or waterway sites,
especially in the large oil-importing countries of Western Europe or Japan,
despite a recent trend towards market oriented, pipeline based, inland sites
in Germany. Some industries such a s flour-miling, shipbuilding, sugar
andd
that they h a v e
vegetable oil refining show such a marked locational pattern
come to be known as 'port industries'.
Order and Theory
industries to
This tendency for industries to c o m e together and for certain
have 'typica!' locations is the combined result of thousands of individua
decisions, and represents response to certain attractions. These
a comnmon
of conditions which limits
decisions a r e taken within the framework of a set
directions and encourages it
the range of activity of manufacturers in some social and
in others. These conditions constitute the physical, economic,
w e r e examined i n the preceding chapter
as a set
political environments which location of industry.
olvariables affecting the affecting the location of industry varies
The importance of these factors from time t o time. The
industry, from a r e a to a r e a and
irom industry to variables c a n be ordered
problem to be solved is whether o r not these
pasic framework that willi n d help to explain p r e s e n t
s o r t of theoretical growth that will
nto some choice of sites for
u s t r i a l
giributions and also help in the
develop successfully in the future. have been made by
to develop such
a theoretica framework using a largely
L tempts the gcographer
and economists, With his c a s e studies. How-
gCUgraphers
general conclusions Iromn theoretical.
drawing
uctive a p p r o a c h . done by economists
using a m o r e
been a r e s t a t e d and
mnost work has basic conditions
d which a number or be hoped that
in Iuture it may
be deduced.o r the
ctive a p p r o a c h .
c a n r e a l w o r l d situations
w h i c h conclusions neO
t o
ne
c a n marry net and the complexity of reality
ecC
Domic
Omic g e o g r a p h e r s can
geographers h e theories
fo f tthe
simplicity
heorie

Jthough the i relative

nake reluctant riners.

 200
Economic and Social Gcography Made Simple
Optium Locations
in the vclopment of industr location
A central theme
the concept of optimun1 ocation; that there is for cnch theoricsa 'besas hetn
ctory
tho cxistee
tion'.In a real world that constantly chunging,
is

has value in theory he uch

seemsimprobablo, but tho concopt can bo nmcusurcd, place
wlhich reality
standard against is meant by the best locatie
sents a
The question arises ol whulin
best could bo interpreted cconomic, social or politie
location theory has been largcly dovcloped
in capitalist senses. Singe.
location is taken to be. that
which gives the best profits. The ies, the te
best
therefore where costs arè lowest and revenues are highest, since
inco locationminws
expenditure equals profit. There are, however, two probl
development of maximum profit theories of industrial location in the
First, such locations are difficult to find. Profitability is not absolute
basic distinction must be made between long-term. and short-term proe, and a
ity, since decisions emphasising one or other of these considerationb
require diferent locations. Even if this problem is solved, the num
variables involved, affecting both costs and revenues, makes the Draeactical
development of such theories very difficult.
Secondly, the whole assumption that actual decisions are made on a praf
maximising basis has been called into question. This is because governme
are playing an increasingly important role in location decision-makine
subordinating profits to other social goals such as full employment, and aln
because of the growing awareness that individuals have goals other than that
of making money.
Findirg the Optimum Location
Because of the practical problems involved in developing maximum profit
theories, two principal approaches to location have been developed which
examine the questions of costs and revenues separately. In the first, or last
cost theories, revenues are taken as being cqual at all locations, and variations
in costs from place to place are examined to find the location where costs are
least. This is then the optimum location. In the second, or maximum revenue
theories, costs are taken as being equal at all locations, and variations n
demand are examined to find the location giving the maximum revenue. Ths
is then the optimum location. This is not to say that the least cost school has
totally ignored revenues, nor that the maximum revenue school has ignorc
but rather that there has been a distinct on one aspect
or
cOsts,
other
emphasis
Least Cost Theory
There are two general classes of costs that are ually considered in manu
andthe
1acturing: transport costs, involved in the collection of raw matc
distribution of finished products; and labour, po
processing costs
cipital and services. The least cost school sts, such as manufacturer

would best locate where the assumes that

sum total of these costs is
To find the least cost Jeasspatial variations
in these costs, and also
location it is necessary to examine spa e r e n t industrie

to examine the cost

sit ce a location with low structures or i
industry

labour costs will not be very attracu

 Industrial Location Theory
201
malllabour cost component suc as oil refining, whilc an area with
wilha

h i g hl a b o u r
stmall

costs
and cheap
power will not attruct
industries
component such as textiles. with a high
p b o u r ,l o w pownt attempt to devclop a theory bascd on
ost importa

T h em the complexity of reality, costs came from

W e b e ri n 1 9 0 9 ,
Weber, in common
theorists, had to simplify.
si His theory assumcd that there was
A

h
other
atall locntions, resulting in a uniform a
n dema nlant locatcd at the point of least costs woulkd getprice,
therelore
the
and

first sought the least transport cost location, which

h i g h e s t
p r o f i t s .

Weber
this point,
lind
considered the most
To important influence, using a "locational triangle
he
16.2).
Reality is simrlified to Iwo raw materials-M and M, and one
point, C. The least transport cost point, P, is the point at which
Th
mption
materials and finished
(otal cost ot moviDg raw products is least. These
ke are calculated by multiplying the weight of material or product
Iransportc
ied, resulting in a 'pull' being exerted on the production
carried,distance
the
by b each of the corners of the triangle. In Fig. 16.2a, two tonnes of
point
by

-1 ton e
-2toniesS 2tonnes.

M Me M

a. Weight losing industry b. Weight gaining industry

Weber's locational triangle.

Fig. 16.2.
tonne
needed to produce one
af and two tonnes of material M, are
process such as
iron
weight-losing manufacturing
t edproduct. In a sources of the raw
least transport cost location is near to the
m the material M, and one tonne of
material
erial, but in Fig. 16.2b, one tonne of
and in a weight-
are eeded to produce two tonnes of finished product, location is
attractive.
tated
paining industrysuch as baking, a market-orien
will have a
locational
t oust be noted that only i materials that are
localised
little significance.
tect aDd that materials found everywhere will be of location since he con-
Weber next examined the effects of labour costs on least transport
idered tha the point of
located away from greafer
Osts t the ustries would be costs if savings in labour costs were
point of least!labour in such a mov
Y t i o n a l transport costs involved
 Economic and Social Geography Made Simple
202 cost point, and aro
the least transport
P is
In Fig. 16.3,series lines of this point have
contours), or linesthis
Doi.
isodapancs (cost contours),
a of
been drawn of production from P. There is cheap labour
cqual
ost per unit
unit of production, and the au nd L
by 15p per
would reduce costsworthwhile iswher
lor a manulacturcr to rclocato
ornotit would be mP
15nPin in ether
to take advantage
of it. Clearly, any location within the
tho 15p Iransportorder
i
iso

Critical Isodapane
where Increased transport
costs balance savings on
labour costs

20p 15P 10P/5p

M Ma/

Fig. 16.3. The effect of labour and transport costs on location.

dapane would save more on labour than would be spent on extra transport
and therefore L would be a more profitable location than P. Locating at L
would increasc transport costs more than any saving in labour costs and
would not be attempted. Weber saw labour costs increasing in importance in
location because technological developments were increasing the eficiency of
transport, thus increasing the distance betwcen the transport isodapanes,
while labour costs were risingg relative to other costs.
Having combined the effects of transport and labour costs, Weber thirdly
examined the effect of industry's tendency to
A, B, C, D and E are lcast cost locatíons, but the agglomerate. In Fig. 16.4,
firms located there could
cut their
production costs by £l per unit of production if at least three of
them operated in the same location.
However, they must not incur
transport costs of, qver £l per unit of production. In Fig. 16.4, theincreased
critical
ISodapane of £l has been drawn round each producer and it is clear that
fims C, D and E could reduce their
total costs by locating in the shaded area.
Weber's attempt to find the least
how this would be transport cost location and then to exaniine
modified by other considerations has obvious
and has been criticised
for being too abstract. His
limitations,
port rates and the effects of agglomeration have been assumptions about trans
theory is questioned,
important because of its pioneering nature and its effects on but the
WTiters. The real test of a
theory is that it later
empirical studies such as w. Isard's work onshould accord with reality, and
the US steel industry and W.
Smith's work on weight-losing industries in Britain have shown the validity
of many of Weber's
conclusions.
 Industrial Location Theory
203

'Crltlcal lsodapanes
Ma C

M2
M M2
Ma
Area of aggfomeration

Fig. 164. The effect of

agglomeration on location.
Maximum Revenue Theory
The most important criticism of Weber's
gpalysing the effect of different costs whiletheory is its emphasis upon supply,
point, thus preventing it from playing a role inholding demand constant at a
deficiency and to study the infuence of demand plant location. To remedy this
school of thought has developed, upon location, a second
largest revenues.
searching for the location that will
give the
Most producers of goods are likely to be competing for markets with
producers, and their locational decisions will other
the decisions of other affect, and will be affected by,
been examined by H.
producers. This locational interdependence of firms has
Hotelling, who tried
give the maximum sales td two ice-cream sellersto find the location that would
pn a mile of beach (Fig. 16.5).

B
A A M
Beach

Fig. 16.5. Locational interdependence: the ice-cream sellers' problem.

t h e sellers were selling the same brand or ICe-Cream at the same price,
d the buyers who were evenly distributed on the beach, went to the nearest
Ts, hen the best location would
Decessary,half
T to avoid walking further thaneach seller ofthe beach as his market
e at the quartiles A and B, giving
Qqu nearer to u e nlddle of the beach to A.:
But seller A moved
supposing
 204 Economic and Social Geography Made Simple
he would attract some of B's customers, and so the stable situation
havethe sellers standing back to back in the middle of the lcach t
were not prepared to walk over a quartcr
tionsat A and B would be the slable ones.
of ahe scllers were sellingthen
mile for ico-cream, Ioca
differ
erent
brands oficc-crenm, the one with a well-known brand would capture mor
of
themarket, and in this case the seler with an unfamiliar procuct could eithe
cut his prices to incrcasc his sales at M, or move back to one of the quarile
t ogetthe custon1 of those buyers who Were not prepared to puy the 'transpors
costs' of walking far. From this annlogy it is clear that finding the point of
maximum revenue is dependent on a number of factors such as price, trang
port costs and the possibility ofsubstitution, and that these factors will there.
fore influence the concentration or dispersal of industry.
The first attempt to develop a general theory of location with the major
emphasis on demand was made by A. Lösch in 1940. This sought to explain
the size and shape of market areas within which a location would command
the largest revenue. Lösclh simplified the world to a flat uniform plain, held
supply constant, and assumed that demand for a product decreased with an
increase in the price. If this price increase was the result of an increas in
transport costs, then demand would decrease with distance from a production
centre.

Sales = volume
Price of cone

P Distance

Market area
Quantity boundary
P production point
OP price at production point Demand curve rotated around
AQN demand curve production point to give cone
PQ quantity sold at P AQP
A no demand because price too high

Fig. 16.6. The theoretical shape of the market area.

(fromA. Lösch, The Economics
of Locatlon, Yale University Press, 1954)
In Fig. 16.6, demand decreases as price increases, thus forming a denmand
curve AQN. Assuming that the price increase is the result of transport costs,
by rotating the demand curve around the production point P, the share of
the market area is seen to be circular, and the size of the
market area is the
volume of the cone AQP.
As competition increases as other producers
develop on the plain, the
Inarket areas become hexagonal to avoid overlap and the
exclusion of some
areas. They also become smaller as large proits are
competed (Fig. away
 Inhusyiol locatien 7hrery
dct will have a different
T n hp r o d u e t

market area
/Tlanee
e of Iranspert co in its price, and depentin
fing pen the
ill emerge. these
patterne are di@eren
nt patters f
alre, some of these patterns will rotatel Arnd 1 emmen
r k eanr24 tuill

o v hh o n

mum demnnd wh
c e n i r e ,

coincile,
shich should develop as forming prints of
concentrations of indtr

--

1. 2. 3.
Firms operate Competition To avoid owerlap Final pattern
with circular Increases to of circles and to of market
areas, serve all the serve alt areas, aress.
market
potential market. market areas
become hexagonal.

Fig. 16.7. Market areas become hexagons.

(from A. Löscb, The Economics of Locatlon, Yale University Pres, 1954
for its abstract nature and its failure to
Lösch's theory has been criticised
arising from the locational interdependence
take into account the problems for overemphasising supply, so Lösch
was criticis d
of plants. Just as Weber attempts to
overemphasising demand, but subsequent
was criticised for
writers such as M, Greenhut and W. Isard
have
integrate these two aspects by accepted theory of
successful and there is still no generally
not been totally
location. locations has been sub-
search for maximum profit
In recent years the theories which accord
more with the irregu-
of on the fact that
ordinated to the development is now being placed
the real world. Emphasis
behaviour
of locational
larities of and the study
decisions are taken by people,
ocation
IS increasing in importance.
Location and Behaviour
the assumption
been based on
discussed have totally rational
so far man,
The location theories taken by economie would
decisions were
being the location that
location seeking
and
of course, and
at the of perfect
knowledge,
not XIst,
and in possession
Such a creaturo does and less than perfect
profit. with
ted ability
limited
locations
maximum to choose
t a k e n bymen
men
m e
ne for such can be
location decisions a r e necessary
that some profit
ertheless, it
is still reveDues,
so
more xtensive
knowledge. lower
than total
be
made are much
or
where total costs are
some
profit
can
search is now to find the margins,
and the
where
made. Locations profit
maximum
than points of
 206 Economic and Social
limits, within which profitable activityGeography Made StrSimple
deviations from the optimum location. can take place
an then to ep
Spatial Margins to Profitability
A theoretical model of these
which considers the interactionmargins has becn
betwecn costs and developed h
simple form. The basis of the model
vary from place to place, resulting in
and revenues
is the fact that revenues in space
total costs
varying profit levels and renin
yD.M.3n
The effects of this can be seen
by levels at difo
first holding demand differcnt
that this will result in a constant demand constant
price, and allowing constan locations
by holding costs constant, and allowing demand costs to Var
vary, and thes
to vary.

Loss Profit Cost

Price

Ma Mp
Distance

Fig. 16.8. The spatial margins to

profitability: demand held constant
(after D. M. Smith).
In Figs. 16.8-16.10, cost and
distance along price
the horizontal axis. In
areplotted on the vertícal axis, an
that the price obtained is equal at all Fig. 16.8, demand is held constant.
increase with distance from point 0, points, but
costs per unit of
produc
curve. In this case, O is the least cost resulting in the V-shaped
space-eo
M-M, are the margins to profitability.location giving maximum proñis, a
In Fig. 16.9, costs are held
constant,
that the producer can get, varies,
but demand, and therefore the p
results in the A-shaped declining with distance from
point 0.
space-revenue curve. In this case, O is the
revenue location giving maximum prohts, maxim
and M,-M, are
profitability. the margins
In reality, both costs and demand vary from place
of this are seen in Fig. 16.10, in which costs and the effects
revenues decrease from point B. In this case the mawincrease from point A an

A, despite the fact that it IS not the point of hio

point off num profit location is a
seen that different space cost and revenue chighest revenues. It can
alS
optimum location. What this figure illustrates is that although
result
therin another
ere may be
 Industrial Location Theory
207

Loss Profit
U Cost

Price

Ma O Mp
Distance

cost held constant

Fig. 16.9. The spatial margins to profitability:
(after D. M. Smith).

a profitable location may be made anywhere

a noint of maximum profit,
is affected by the
within the margins M,-M,. The extentdifferencesmargins
of these
spatiaB in costs and revenues, and
steepness of the curves, retlecting whether
these decide whether
an industry can be dispersed over a wide area or

E Cost
Loss Profit

Price

Mb
Ma Distance-

location (after D. M. Smith).

maximum profit
Fig. 16.10. The
be located
only o n e irm
can

Nevertheless, in theory, therefore have sub-

concentrated. o t h e r firms must
must be maximum
proñt and all a r e
operating
successfully, making
a t h e point of m a n y hrms a t t e n t i o n has
turned in
In reality, result,
locations, and a n da why firms choose such
locations. as locations,
Optimal
sub-optimal of hOw
proits in examination
an
ocent years to
208 Economic and Social Geography
Made Sinple
Sub-optimal Locations
Profit-maximising theorics asume that all firms
locations,but in reality it is diflicult, if not impossible,arc secking
ma oopt
because unlike cconomic man. real man lacks perfect
tor
fect knowle to opoptimie pfime
and therefore his locational decisions must reflect these constrain and knowledge
and
At there are two main approaches to the explanat
present shil
world locations are first approach of how re
made. The thatemphasises
an is
optimiser but that he makes his decisions within the f constraints
information, uncertainty, and limited ability, An atlempt to e lack
decisions can be made by using the behavioural matrix developed by in
trix developed thes
and discu.ssed in Chapter Four. Using the behavioural matrir
within the spatial margins can be analysed, and in Fig. 16.11 the
margins of a particular industry have been mapped, showing two on
locations, and the location decisions ofindustrialists have been plotted
the
matrix. Industrialist 1 has made the right decision by using good informati
wisely, but Industrialist 2 is in a similar location purely by chance since
he

(a) BEHAVIOURAL MATRIX

Ability to use information

Factories
o Optimal locations

Spatial margins

(b) MAP OF
FACTORIES

Fig. 16.11. Hypothetical industríal location

decisions linked to the behavioural
matrix (after A. Pred).
has poor information and little ability to
dustrialist 2 but less lucky, and since he is
use it, Industrialist 3 is like u
of business. Industrialist 4 is making no profit must soon Bo
making a profit
but not doing as well as he mus
because he has not been
dustrialist 5 is in a similarable to use the information available to
location but for different reasons; he is him
but lacks good
information. Industrialist 6 is making a steady verye
best of his ability and information. profnt to
However, it is by no means certain that
explanation of ub-optimal locations man is an second
to accept locations with which he is suggests that
optimiser,
he is a
iser, and
and a
ared
maximum proñts. satisfied rather thansatisficer, pr
ht those which B
 Industrial Location Theory
cory can
tun
suDportcd, first,
by thc fact that it
is
0
s

innpoSSiblc
t i s I i c e r
t h

ssible,
e

1o say
in monctary ternms what
the maximumvery dificult,
clh less what it will bC in five
mu profit fromm
be not ycars' time.
dclightcd, with Most firms
l o c a t i o n w i l l

tioeficd, if
tisficd profits that are higher than
S. Profitability might bereforc be scen those
analdb e S a t i

compctifors.
ct hat is
as
rclative, rather
central inthc location theories.
tlhcir
n wc of locations
n b s o l u t c
This, of course,
within he spatial margins to profitahi
t o profitability.
Wgive a vide

V en
men do do o t hav
not havc prolit amaximisation
x i m i s a t i o r as
their sole aim
d t t most witl
actual
location
c h o i c c of location within thesc margins would
depend upon
in

nanyhe 1siderations, since thomen taking the decisions would

The aclua

have personal
r certain locations, espccially those that they found congenial.
for
prelerenccs
work for
work
ds in addition to money, such as pleasant living and
for r e w a r d s
king conditions, a n d it has been argucd that these could be
men
MOst quantified a s
chicincomea n d
R o r k i n
used as a non-cost when discussing location thecory. The
of the south-western USA have been cited as an important
ic attractions of
clima
the
affecting
growth new industry there since 1945, and on the
or
side, the ttractiveness, real or imagined, of northern England has
factor in the reluctance of firms to locate theTe, despite
negatives

red as a
becn
from the government.
6aancial inducementsbe
However, it might argued that the theory that men are satisficers does
into account the fact that psychic income might simply
antsufficiently take that m a n does optimise, although for other
e anofher form of profit and in reality, satisficers might be imperfect
rewards as well as money. Thus,
variety of goals.
with a
optimisers but it must not be forgotten that locational decis-
This debate is interesting taken by firms o r government departments rather
ions are increasingly being be a
and that the decision-making process is likely to
than by individuals, as firms increase in size
a n individual one. Thus,
corporate rather than overall pattern of
decisions may result in locations which relate to the
corporate location for the single plant. Similarly,
the
the firm rather than the optimum
in industrial location decision-making
can
increasing role of governments
for social, political, o r strategic
reasons
produce sub-optimal locations
relocation
considerations have resulted in the
(Chapter Twenty-three). Defence unemployment in
plant in the USA, and attempts to reduce local
of aircraft controls over location choice.
UK have resulted in the exercise of s o m e
ne maximum profit location
choices often
countries with planned economies, in
it has been suggested that
counter to stated ideologies, although
n considerations have been
of increasing
Europe since 1956, economic mixed economies
i decision-making. In countries with
rtance in location cost-benefit analysis, which attempts to
in
ase ne UK, recent interest and disadvantages of
location decisions
n u
rather
mber
advantages in the
thanc e social considerations alone,
should lead to an increase
future.
considered in the
of fafactorsncial
of to be evaluated when location theory is
Conclusion
in this
s e e m to be some order
The world is complex, but there would
of the geographer
is to try to
Complev tasks location
mplexity, and one of the
fundamental

order to be
demonstrated.
Industrial
it is, but
mplify this reality to allow the
industry is located a s
ries have been developed to explain why however valuable thiss may o e
the ern on finding the
sis optimum location,
 Economic andSocial Geography Made Simple
210
of the thcories haveno
as a Concept, has meant that many been applicah,
applicab
Recently, there has been a
when tested against reality. change of
with more attention being given
finding
to margins within which
the emphasin
locations can be made and explaining
profitahle
deviations from the optimumofitah
behaviour.
by examining decision-making
Suggested Further Reading
Chorley, R. J., and Haggett, P., Socio-Economic Models in Geography, Methurs
London, 1968.
ATheoretical Approach
Lloyd, P. E., and Dicken, P., Location in Space:York, Ecompm
to

New 1977.
Geography (2nd edn), Harper & Row,
McCarty, H. H., and Lindberg, J. B., A Preface to Economic Geography, Prentic
New Jersey, 1966.
Hall, Englewood Clifis,
Smith, D. M., Industrial Location: An Economic Geographic Analysis, Wiley, Nea

York, 1971.
Thoman, R. S., Conkling, E. C., and Yeates, M. H., A Geography of Economie
New York, 1968.
ictivity (2nd edn), McGraw-Hill, and in Economic
1ovne, P., Organisation, Location 1974. Behaviour: Decision-Making
Geography, Macmillan, London,
Webber, M. J. Indhustrial Location, Sage, Beverley Hills, 1984.