1.

Baker, A. J., Finite Element Computational Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill,

New York, 1983.

2. Carey, G. F., and Oden, J. T., Finite Elements: Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1986.

3. Brebbia, C. A., and Dominguez, J., Boundary Elements: An Introductory

Course, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989.

4. Moran, J., An Introduction to Theoretical and Computational Aerodynamics,

Wiley, New York, 1984.

5. Anderson, J. D., Computational Fluid Dynamics: The Basics with

Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.

6. Tannehill, J. C., Anderson, D. A., and Pletcher, R. H., Computational Fluid

Mechanics and Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed., Taylor and Francis, Washington, D.C.,
1997.

7. Versteeg, H., and Malalasekera, W., An Introduction to Computational Fluid

Dynamics: The Finite Volume Method, 2nd Ed., Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.

8. Tu, J., Yeoh, G. H., and Liu, C., Computational Fluid Dynamics: A Practical
Approach, 2nd Ed., Butterworth-Heinmann, Paperback, 2012.

9. Wilcox, D. C., Turbulence Modeling for CFD, DCW Industries, Inc., La

Canada, California, 1994.

10. Hoffman, K., and Kunze, R., Linear Algebra, 2nd Ed., Paperback, Pearson
Prentice Hall, 2009.

Appendix A ■

■ Computational Fluid Dynamics 755

11. Patankar, S. V., and Spalding, D. B., A Calculation Procedure for Heat,
Mass, and Momentum Transfer in Three-Dimensional Parabolic Flows,
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 15, p. 1787, 1972.
12. Hall, E. J., and Pletcher, R. H., Simulation of Time Dependent, Compressible
Viscous Flow Using Central and Upwind-Biased Finite-Difference Techniques,
Technical Report HTL-52, CFD-22, College of Engineering, lowa State
University, 1990.

13. Lewellen, D. C., Gong, B., and Lewellen, W. S., Effects of Debris on Near-
Surface Tornado Dynamics, 22nd Conference on Severe Local Storms, Paper
15.5, American Meteorological Society, 2004.

B Physical

Properties

of Fluids

4.0

2.0

1.08

Glycerin

Castor oil

1 × 10–186

SAE 30W oil

SAE 10W-30 oil

2
2

SAE 10W oil

1 × 10–28

s/m•

Kerosene

Mercury

1 × 10–38

Octane

Carbon tetrachloride

, Dynamic viscosity, Nμ

Heptane

Water

1 × 10–486

Air
Air

Carbon dioxide

Methane

Helium

1 × 10–586

Hydrogen

–20

20

40

60

80

100

120

Temperature, °C

■ Figure B.1 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of common fluids as a function of

temperature. To convert to BG units of lb · s/ft2 multiply N · sm2 by 2.089 ×
10−2.

(Curves from R. W. Fox and A. T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid

Mechanics, 3rd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1985. Used by permission.) 756

Appendix B ■
■ Physical Properties of Fluids 757

1 × 10–28

SAE 30W oilGlycerin

1 × 10–38

SAE 10W–30 oil

Helium

Hydrogen

1 × 10–4

/s2

SAE 10W oil

Methane

2
Air

1 × 10–58

Carbon dioxide

, Kinematic viscosity, mν

Kerosene

Octane

Water

1 × 10–68

Heptane

Carbon tetrachloride

Mercury

1 × 10–78

–20

20
40

60

80

100

120

Temperature, °C

■ Figure B.2 Kinematic viscosity of common fluids (at atmospheric

pressure) as a function of temperature. To convert to BG units of ft2s
multiply m2s by 10.76. (Curves from R. W. Fox and A. T. McDonald,
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 3rd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1985. Used by
permission.) 758 Appendix B ■

■ Physical Properties of Fluids ■ Table B.1

Physical Properties of Water (BG/EE Units)a

Specifi c

Dynamic

Kinematic

Surface

Vapor

Speed of

Density, Weightc, Viscosity, Viscosity, Tensiond, Pressure, Sounde,

Temperature
ρ

pυ

(°F) (slugsft3)b (lbft3) (lb · sft2) (ft2s) (lbft) [lbin.2(abs)] (fts) 32

1.940

62.42 3.732 E − 5 1.924 E − 5 5.18 E − 3 8.854 E − 2 4603

40

1.940

62.43 3.228 E − 5 1.664 E − 5 5.13 E − 3 1.217 E − 1 4672

50

1.940

62.41 2.730 E − 5 1.407 E − 5 5.09 E − 3 1.781 E − 1 4748

60

1.938

62.37 2.344 E − 5 1.210 E − 5 5.03 E − 3 2.563 E − 1 4814

70
1.936

62.30 2.037 E − 5 1.052 E − 5 4.97 E − 3 3.631 E − 1 4871

80

1.934

62.22 1.791 E − 5 9.262 E − 6 4.91 E − 3 5.069 E − 1 4819

90

1.931

62.11 1.500 E − 5 8.233 E − 6 4.86 E − 3 6.979 E − 1 4960

100

1.927

62.00 1.423 E − 5 7.383 E − 6 4.79 E − 3 9.493 E − 1 4995

120

1.918

61.71 1.164 E − 5 6.067 E − 6 4.67 E − 3 1.692 E + 0 5049

140

1.908

61.38 9.743 E − 6 5.106 E − 6 4.53 E − 3 2.888 E + 0 5091

160

1.896

61.00 8.315 E − 6 4.385 E − 6 4.40 E − 3 4.736 E + 0 5101

180
1.883

60.58 7.207 E − 6 3.827 E − 6 4.26 E − 3 7.507 E + 0 5195

200

1.869

60.12 6.342 E − 6 3.393 E − 6 4.12 E − 3 1.152 E + 1 5089

212

1.860

59.83 5.886 E − 6 3.165 E − 6 4.04 E − 3 1.469 E + 1 5062

aBased on data from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 69th Ed., CRC Press,
1988. Where necessary, values obtained by interpolation.

bTo obtain EE units (lbm/ft3) multiply by 32.174.

cDensity and specifi c weight are related through the equation γ = ρg. For this
table, g = 32.174 fts2.

dIn contact with air.

eBased on data from R. D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van

Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New York, 1984.

■ Table B.2

Physical Properties of Water (SI Units)a

Specifi c

Dynamic

Kinematic
Surface

Vapor

Speed of

Density, Weightb, Viscosity, Viscosity, Tensionc, Pressure, Soundd,

Temperature

pυ

(°C) (kgm3) (kNm3) (N · sm2) (m2s) (Nm) [Nm2(abs)] (ms) 0

999.9 9.806 1.787 E − 3 1.787 E − 6 7.56 E − 2 6.105 E + 2 1403

1000.0 9.807 1.519 E − 3 1.519 E − 6 7.49 E − 2 8.722 E + 2 1427

10

999.7

9.804 1.307 E − 3 1.307 E − 6 7.42 E − 2 1.228 E + 3 1447

20

998.2

9.789 1.002 E − 3 1.004 E − 6 7.28 E − 2 2.338 E + 3 1481

30

995.7

9.765 7.975 E − 4 8.009 E − 7 7.12 E − 2 4.243 E + 3 1507

40

992.2

9.731 6.529 E − 4 6.580 E − 7 6.96 E − 2 7.376 E + 3 1526

50

988.1

9.690 5.468 E − 4 5.534 E − 7 6.79 E − 2 1.233 E + 4 1541

60

983.2

9.642 4.665 E − 4 4.745 E − 7 6.62 E − 2 1.992 E + 4 1552

70

977.8

9.589 4.042 E − 4 4.134 E − 7 6.44 E − 2 3.116 E + 4 1555

80

971.8

9.530 3.547 E − 4 3.650 E − 7 6.26 E − 2 4.734 E + 4 1555

90

965.3

9.467 3.147 E − 4 3.260 E − 7 6.08 E − 2 7.010 E + 4 1550

100

958.4

9.399 2.818 E − 4 2.940 E − 7 5.89 E − 2 1.013 E + 5 1543

aBased on data from Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 69th Ed., CRC Press,
1988.

bDensity and specifi c weight are related through the equation γ = ρg. For this
table, g = 9.807 ms2.

cIn contact with air.

dBased on data from R. D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van

Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New York, 1984.

Appendix B ■

■ Physical Properties of Fluids 759

■ Table B.3

Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (BG/EE

Units)a

Specifi c

Speed

Specifi c

Dynamic

Kinematic

Heat

of

Density,

Weightc, Viscosity, Viscosity, Ratio,

Sound,

Temperature

(°F) (slugsft3)b (lbft3) (lb · sft2) (ft2s) ( — )

(fts)

−40 2.939 E − 3 9.456 E − 2 3.29 E − 7 1.12 E − 4 1.401 1004

−20 2.805 E − 3 9.026 E − 2 3.34 E − 7 1.19 E − 4 1.401 1028

2.683 E − 3 8.633 E − 2 3.38 E − 7 1.26 E − 4 1.401 1051

10

2.626 E − 3 8.449 E − 2 3.44 E − 7 1.31 E − 4 1.401 1062

20

2.571 E − 3 8.273 E − 2 3.50 E − 7 1.36 E − 4 1.401 1074

30

2.519 E − 3 8.104 E − 2 3.58 E − 7 1.42 E − 4 1.401 1085

40

2.469 E − 3 7.942 E − 2 3.60 E − 7 1.46 E − 4 1.401 1096

50

2.420 E − 3 7.786 E − 2 3.68 E − 7 1.52 E − 4 1.401 1106

60

2.373 E − 3 7.636 E − 2 3.75 E − 7 1.58 E − 4 1.401 1117

70

2.329 E − 3 7.492 E − 2 3.82 E − 7 1.64 E − 4 1.401 1128

80

2.286 E − 3 7.353 E − 2 3.86 E − 7 1.69 E − 4 1.400 1138

90

2.244 E − 3 7.219 E − 2 3.90 E − 7 1.74 E − 4 1.400 1149

100

2.204 E − 3 7.090 E − 2 3.94 E − 7 1.79 E − 4 1.400 1159

120

2.128 E − 3 6.846 E − 2 4.02 E − 7 1.89 E − 4 1.400 1180

140

2.057 E − 3 6.617 E − 2 4.13 E − 7 2.01 E − 4 1.399 1200

160

1.990 E − 3 6.404 E − 2 4.22 E − 7 2.12 E − 4 1.399 1220

180

1.928 E − 3 6.204 E − 2 4.34 E − 7 2.25 E − 4 1.399 1239

200

1.870 E − 3 6.016 E − 2 4.49 E − 7 2.40 E − 4 1.398 1258

300

1.624 E − 3 5.224 E − 2 4.97 E − 7 3.06 E − 4 1.394 1348

400

1.435 E − 3 4.616 E − 2 5.24 E − 7 3.65 E − 4 1.389 1431

500

1.285 E − 3 4.135 E − 2 5.80 E − 7 4.51 E − 4 1.383 1509

750

1.020 E − 3 3.280 E − 2 6.81 E − 7 6.68 E − 4 1.367 1685

1000
8.445 E − 4 2.717 E − 2 7.85 E − 7 9.30 E − 4 1.351 1839

1500

6.291 E − 4 2.024 E − 2 9.50 E − 7 1.51 E − 3 1.329 2114

aBased on data from R. D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van

Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New York, 1984.

bTo obtain EE units (lbm/ft3) multiply by 32.174.

cDensity and specifi c weight are related through the equation γ = ρg. For this
table g = 32.174 fts2.

760 Appendix B ■

■ Physical Properties of Fluids ■ Table B.4

Physical Properties of Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (SI Units)a

Specifi c

Speed

Specifi c

Dynamic

Kinematic

Heat

of

Density, Weightb, Viscosity, Viscosity, Ratio, Sound, Temperature

(°C) (kgm3) (Nm3) (N · sm2) (m2s) (—) (ms)

−40 1.514

14.85

1.57 E − 5 1.04 E − 5 1.401 306.2

−20 1.395

13.68

1.63 E − 5 1.17 E − 5 1.401 319.1

1.292 12.67 1.71 E − 5 1.32 E − 5 1.401 331.4

1.269 12.45 1.73 E − 5 1.36 E − 5 1.401 334.4

10
1.247

12.23 1.76 E − 5 1.41 E − 5 1.401 337.4

15

1.225

12.01 1.80 E − 5 1.47 E − 5 1.401 340.4

20

1.204

11.81 1.82 E − 5 1.51 E − 5 1.401 343.3

25

1.184

11.61 1.85 E − 5 1.56 E − 5 1.401 346.3

30

1.165

11.43 1.86 E − 5 1.60 E − 5 1.400 349.1

40

1.127

11.05 1.87 E − 5 1.66 E − 5 1.400 354.7

50

1.109

10.88 1.95 E − 5 1.76 E − 5 1.400 360.3

60
1.060

10.40 1.97 E − 5 1.86 E − 5 1.399 365.7

70

1.029

10.09 2.03 E − 5 1.97 E − 5 1.399 371.2

80

0.9996

9.803 2.07 E − 5 2.07 E − 5 1.399 376.6

90

0.9721

9.533 2.14 E − 5 2.20 E − 5 1.398 381.7

100

0.9461

9.278 2.17 E − 5 2.29 E − 5 1.397 386.9

200

0.7461

7.317 2.53 E − 5 3.39 E − 5 1.390 434.5

300

0.6159

6.040 2.98 E − 5 4.84 E − 5 1.379 476.3

400
0.5243

5.142 3.32 E − 5 6.34 E − 5 1.368 514.1

500

0.4565

4.477 3.64 E − 5 7.97 E − 5 1.357 548.8

1000

0.2772

2.719

5.04 E − 5 1.82 E − 4 1.321 694.8

aBased on data from R. D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van

Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., New York, 1984.

bDensity and specifi c weight are related through the equation γ = ρg. For this
table g = 9.807 ms2.

Properties

C of the U.S.

Standard

Atmosphere

■ Table C.1

Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere (BG/EE Units)a

Dynamic


Acceleration

Density,

Viscosity,

Altitude

Temperature

of Gravity,

Pressure, p

(ft)

(°F) g (fts2) [lbin.2(abs)] (slugsft3)b (lb · sft2) −5,000 76.84 32.189 17.554

2.745 E − 3 3.836 E − 7

59.00

32.174

14.696

2.377 E − 3 3.737 E − 7

5,000

41.17

32.159
12.228

2.048 E − 3 3.637 E − 7

10,000

23.36

32.143

10.108

1.756 E − 3 3.534 E − 7

15,000

5.55

32.128

8.297

1.496 E − 3 3.430 E − 7

20,000

−12.26 32.112 6.759

1.267 E − 3 3.324 E − 7

25,000

−30.05 32.097 5.461

1.066 E − 3 3.217 E − 7

30,000

−47.83 32.082 4.373

8.907 E − 4 3.107 E − 7
35,000

−65.61 32.066 3.468

7.382 E − 4 2.995 E − 7

40,000

−69.70 32.051 2.730

5.873 E − 4 2.969 E − 7

45,000

−69.70 32.036 2.149

4.623 E − 4 2.969 E − 7

50,000

−69.70 32.020 1.692

3.639 E − 4 2.969 E − 7

60,000

−69.70 31.990 1.049

2.256 E − 4 2.969 E − 7

70,000

−67.42 31.959 0.651

1.392 E − 4 2.984 E − 7

80,000

−61.98 31.929 0.406

8.571 E − 5 3.018 E − 7
90,000

−56.54 31.897 0.255

5.610 E − 5 3.052 E − 7

100,000

−51.10 31.868 0.162

3.318 E − 5 3.087 E − 7

150,000

19.40

31.717

0.020

3.658 E − 6 3.511 E − 7

200,000

−19.78 31.566 0.003

5.328 E − 7 3.279 E − 7

250,000

−88.77 31.415 0.000

6.458 E − 8 2.846 E − 7

aData abridged from U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, U.S. Government

Printing Offi ce, Washington, D.C.

bTo obtain EE units (lbm/ft3), multiply by 32.174

761
762 Appendix C ■

■ Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere ■ Table C.2

Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere (SI Units)a

Dynamic

Acceleration

Density,

Viscosity,

Altitude

Temperature

of Gravity,

Pressure, p

(m)

(°C) g (ms2) [Nm2(abs)] (kgm3) (N · sm2) −1,000 21.50

9.810 1.139 E + 5 1.347 E + 0 1.821 E − 5

0

15.00

9.807

1.013 E + 5 1.225 E + 0 1.789 E − 5

1,000

8.50

9.804

8.988 E + 4 1.112 E + 0 1.758 E − 5

2,000

2.00

9.801

7.950 E + 4 1.007 E + 0 1.726 E − 5

3,000

−4.49 9.797

7.012 E + 4 9.093 E − 1 1.694 E − 5

4,000

−10.98 9.794

6.166 E + 4 8.194 E − 1 1.661 E − 5

5,000

−17.47 9.791

5.405 E + 4 7.364 E − 1 1.628 E − 5

6,000

−23.96 9.788

4.722 E + 4 6.601 E − 1 1.595 E − 5

7,000

−30.45 9.785

4.111 E + 4 5.900 E − 1 1.561 E − 5

8,000

−36.94 9.782

3.565 E + 4 5.258 E − 1 1.527 E − 5

9,000

−43.42 9.779

3.080 E + 4 4.671 E − 1 1.493 E − 5

10,000

−49.90 9.776

2.650 E + 4 4.135 E − 1 1.458 E − 5

15,000

−56.50 9.761

1.211 E + 4 1.948 E − 1 1.422 E − 5

20,000

−56.50 9.745

5.529 E + 3 8.891 E − 2 1.422 E − 5

25,000

−51.60 9.730

2.549 E + 3 4.008 E − 2 1.448 E − 5

30,000

−46.64 9.715

1.197 E + 3 1.841 E − 2 1.475 E − 5

40,000

−22.80 9.684

2.871 E + 2 3.996 E − 3 1.601 E − 5

50,000

−2.50 9.654

7.978 E + 1 1.027 E − 3 1.704 E − 5

60,000

−26.13 9.624

2.196 E + 1 3.097 E − 4 1.584 E − 5

70,000

−53.57 9.594

5.221 E + 0 8.283 E − 5 1.438 E − 5

80,000

−74.51 9.564

1.052 E + 0 1.846 E − 5 1.321 E − 5

aData abridged from U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, U.S. Government
Printing Offi ce, Washington, D.C.

Compressible

D Flow Functions

for an Ideal Gas

with k = 1.4

0.1

0.5

1.0

5.0

10.0

1.0

10.0

0.9

9.0

__

0.8

8.0

__ρ
__ρ

0.7

7.0

__

0.6

6.0

__

___

__

A*

T
A

___

A*

0.5

5.0

__

ρ0

0.4

4.0

0.3

3.0

0.2

2.0

0.1

1.0

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.5
1.0

5.0

10.0

Ma

■ Figure D.I Isentropic flow of an ideal gas with k = 1.4. (Graph provided
by Dr. Bruce A. Reichert.)

763

764 Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

■ Table D.I

Isentropic Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

Ma

T T0

p p0

ρ ρ0

A A* Ma T T0

p p0

ρ ρ0

A A*

0.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 ∞

2.0500 0.5433 0.1182 0.2176 1.7600

0.0500 0.9995 0.9983 0.9988 11.5914

0.0500 0.9995 0.9983 0.9988 11.5914

2.1000 0.5313 0.1094 0.2058 1.8369

0.1000 0.9980 0.9930 0.9950 5.8218

2.1500 0.5196 0.1011 0.1946 1.9185

0.1500 0.9955 0.9844 0.9888 3.9103

2.2000 0.5081 0.0935 0.1841 2.0050

0.2000 0.9921 0.9725 0.9803 2.9635

2.2500 0.4969 0.0865 0.1740 2.0964

0.2500 0.9877 0.9575 0.9694 2.4027

2.3000 0.4859 0.0800 0.1646 2.1931

0.3000 0.9823 0.9395 0.9564 2.0351

2.3500 0.4752 0.0740 0.1556 2.2953

0.3500 0.9761 0.9188 0.9413 1.7780

2.4000 0.4647 0.0684 0.1472 2.4031

0.4000 0.9690 0.8956 0.9243 1.5901

2.4500 0.4544 0.0633 0.1392 2.5168

0.4500 0.9611 0.8703 0.9055 1.4487

2.5000 0.4444 0.0585 0.1317 2.6367

0.5000 0.9524 0.8430 0.8852 1.3398

2.5500 0.4347 0.0542 0.1246 2.7630

0.5500 0.9430 0.8142 0.8634 1.2549

2.6000 0.4252 0.0501 0.1179 2.8960

2.6000 0.4252 0.0501 0.1179 2.8960

0.6000 0.9328 0.7840 0.8405 1.1882

2.6500 0.4159 0.0464 0.1115 3.0359

0.6500 0.9221 0.7528 0.8164 1.1356

2.7000 0.4068 0.0430 0.1056 3.1830

0.7000 0.9107 0.7209 0.7916 1.0944

2.7500 0.3980 0.0398 0.0999 3.3377

0.7500 0.8989 0.6886 0.7660 1.0624

2.8000 0.3894 0.0368 0.0946 3.5001

0.8000 0.8865 0.6560 0.7400 1.0382

2.8500 0.3810 0.0341 0.0896 3.6707

0.8500 0.8737 0.6235 0.7136 1.0207

2.9000 0.3729 0.0317 0.0849 3.8498

0.9000 0.8606 0.5913 0.6870 1.0089

2.9500 0.3649 0.0293 0.0804 4.0376

0.9500 0.8471 0.5595 0.6604 1.0021

3.0000 0.3571 0.0272 0.0762 4.2346

1.0000 0.8333 0.5283 0.6339 1.0000

3.1000 0.3422 0.0234 0.0685 4.6573

1.0500 0.8193 0.4979 0.6077 1.0020

3.2000 0.3281 0.0202 0.0617 5.1210

1.1000 0.8052 0.4684 0.5817 1.0079

1.1000 0.8052 0.4684 0.5817 1.0079

3.3000 0.3147 0.0175 0.0555 5.6286

1.1500 0.7908 0.4398 0.5562 1.0175

3.4000 0.3019 0.0151 0.0501 6.1837

1.2000 0.7764 0.4124 0.5311 1.0304

3.5000 0.2899 0.0131 0.0452 6.7896

1.2500 0.7619 0.3861 0.5067 1.0468

3.6000 0.2784 0.0114 0.0409 7.4501

1.3000 0.7474 0.3609 0.4829 1.0663

3.7000 0.2675 0.0099 0.0370 8.1691

1.3500 0.7329 0.3370 0.4598 1.0890

3.8000 0.2572 0.0086 0.0335 8.9506

1.4000 0.7184 0.3142 0.4374 1.1149

3.9000 0.2474 0.0075 0.0304 9.7990

1.4500 0.7040 0.2927 0.4158 1.1440

4.0000 0.2381 0.0066 0.0277

10.7188

1.5000 0.6897 0.2724 0.3950 1.1762

4.5000 0.1980 0.0035 0.0174

16.5622

1.5500 0.6754 0.2533 0.3750 1.2116

5.0000 0.1667 0.0019 0.0113

5.0000 0.1667 0.0019 0.0113

25.0000

1.6000 0.6614 0.2353 0.3557 1.2502

5.5000 0.1418 0.0011 0.0076

36.8690

1.6500 0.6475 0.2184 0.3373 1.2922

6.0000 0.1220 0.0006 0.0052

53.1798

1.7000 0.6337 0.2026 0.3197 1.3376

6.5000 0.1058 0.0004 0.0036

75.1343

1.7500 0.6202 0.1878 0.3029 1.3865

7.0000 0.0926 0.0002 0.0026

104.1429

1.8000 0.6068 0.1740 0.2868 1.4390

7.5000 0.0816 0.0002 0.0019

141.8415

1.8500 0.5936 0.1612 0.2715 1.4952

8.0000 0.0725 0.0001 0.0014

190.1094

1.9000 0.5807 0.1492 0.2570 1.5553

8.5000 0.0647 0.0001 0.0011

8.5000 0.0647 0.0001 0.0011

251.0862

1.9500 0.5680 0.1381 0.2432 1.6193

9.0000 0.0581 0.0000 0.0008

327.1893

2.0000 0.5556 0.1278 0.2300 1.6875

10.0000 0.0476 0.0000 0.0005

535.9375

Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 765

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

1.0

40.0

0.8

0,y

____
p 0, x 30.0

p0,y

____

px

Ma y

py

___

px

0.6

Ty

___

Tx

Ma

___

px

20.0
y

___

0, y

_____

0, x

Vx

___

0.4

p0,y

____

px

10.0

0.2

y
x

___

___

ρ &

Vy

Ty

___

Tx

0.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

Ma x

■ Figure D.S Normal shock flow of an ideal gas with k = 1.4. (Graph
provided by Dr. Bruce A. Reichert.)

766 Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

■ Table D.S

Normal Shock Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

Ma

x Ma y

py px

Ty Tx

ρy ρx = Vx Vy p0 y p0 x Ma x Ma y

py px

Ty Tx

ρy ρx = Vx Vy p0 y p0 x

1.00 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

1.0000

1.0000

3.05 0.4723 10.6863 2.7383

3.9025

0.3145

1.05 0.9531 1.1196 1.0328

1.0840

0.9999

3.10 0.4695 11.0450 2.7986

3.9466

0.3012

1.10 0.9118 1.2450 1.0649

1.1691

0.9989

3.15 0.4669 11.4096 2.8598

3.9896

0.2885

1.15 0.8750 1.3763 1.0966

1.2550

0.9967

3.20 0.4643 11.7800 2.9220

4.0315

0.2762

1.20 0.8422 1.5133 1.1280

1.3416

0.9928

3.25 0.4619 12.1563 2.9851

4.0723

0.2645

1.25 0.8126 1.6563 1.1594

1.4286

0.9871

3.30 0.4596 12.5383 3.0492

4.1120

0.2533

1.30 0.7860 1.8050 1.1909

1.5157

0.9794

3.35 0.4573 12.9263 3.1142

4.1507

0.2425

1.35 0.7618 1.9596 1.2226

1.6028

0.9697

3.40 0.4552 13.3200 3.1802

4.1884

0.2322

1.40 0.7397 2.1200 1.2547

1.6897

0.9582

3.45 0.4531 13.7196 3.2472

4.2251

0.2224

1.45 0.7196 2.2863 1.2872

1.7761

0.9448

3.50 0.4512 14.1250 3.3151

4.2609

0.2129

1.50 0.7011 2.4583 1.3202

1.8621

0.9298

3.55 0.4492 14.5363 3.3839

4.2957

0.2039

1.55 0.6841 2.6363 1.3538

1.9473

0.9132

3.60 0.4474 14.9533 3.4537

4.3296

0.1953

1.60 0.6684 2.8200 1.3880

2.0317

0.8952

3.65 0.4456 15.3763 3.5245

4.3627

0.1871

1.65 0.6540 3.0096 1.4228

2.1152

0.8760

3.70 0.4439 15.8050 3.5962

4.3949

0.1792

1.70 0.6405 3.2050 1.4583

2.1977

0.8557

3.75 0.4423 16.2396 3.6689

4.4262

0.1717

1.75 0.6281 3.4063 1.4946

2.2791

0.8346

3.80 0.4407 16.6800 3.7426

4.4568

0.1645

1.80 0.6165 3.6133 1.5316

2.3592

0.8127

3.85 0.4392 17.1263 3.8172

4.4866

0.1576

1.85 0.6057 3.8263 1.5693

2.4381

0.7902

3.90 0.4377 17.5783 3.8928

4.5156

0.1510

1.90 0.5956 4.0450 1.6079

2.5157

0.7674

3.95 0.4363 18.0363 3.9694

4.5439

0.1448

1.95 0.5862 4.2696 1.6473

2.5919

0.7442

4.00 0.4350 18.5000 4.0469

4.5714

0.1388

2.00 0.5774 4.5000 1.6875

2.6667

0.7209

4.10 0.4324 19.4450 4.2048

4.6245

0.1276

2.05 0.5691 4.7363 1.7285

2.7400

0.6975

4.20 0.4299 20.4133 4.3666

4.6749

0.1173

2.10 0.5613 4.9783 1.7705

2.8119

0.6742

4.30 0.4277 21.4050 4.5322

4.7229

0.1080

2.15 0.5540 5.2263 1.8132

2.8823

0.6511

4.40 0.4255 22.4200 4.7017

4.7685

0.0995

2.20 0.5471 5.4800 1.8569

2.9512

0.6281

4.50 0.4236 23.4583 4.8751

4.8119

0.0917

2.25 0.5406 5.7396 1.9014

3.0186

0.6055

4.60 0.4217 24.5200 5.0523

4.8532

0.0846

2.30 0.5344 6.0050 1.9468

3.0845

0.5833

4.70 0.4199 25.6050 5.2334

4.8926

0.0781

2.35 0.5286 6.2763 1.9931

3.1490

0.5615

4.80 0.4183 26.7133 5.4184

4.9301

0.0721

2.40 0.5231 6.5533 2.0403

3.2119

0.5401

4.90 0.4167 27.8450 5.6073

4.9659

0.0667

2.45 0.5179 6.8363 2.0885

3.2733

0.5193

5.00 0.4152 29.0000 5.8000

5.0000

0.0617

2.50 0.5130 7.1250 2.1375

3.3333

0.4990

5.50 0.4090 35.1250 6.8218

5.1489

0.0424

2.55 0.5083 7.4196 2.1875

3.3919

0.4793

6.00 0.4042 41.8333 7.9406

5.2683

0.0297

2.60 0.5039 7.7200 2.2383

3.4490

0.4601

6.50 0.4004 49.1250 9.1564

5.3651

0.0211

2.65 0.4996 8.0262 2.2902

3.5047

0.4416

7.00 0.3974 57.0000 10.4694

5.4444

0.0154

2.70 0.4956 8.3383 2.3429

3.5590

0.4236

7.50 0.3949 65.4583 11.8795

5.5102

0.0113

2.75 0.4918 8.6562 2.3966

3.6119

0.4062

8.00 0.3929 74.5000 13.3867

5.5652

0.0085

2.80 0.4882 8.9800 2.4512

3.6636

0.3895

8.50 0.3912 84.1250 14.9911

5.6117

0.0064

2.85 0.4847 9.3096 2.5067

3.7139

0.3733

9.00 0.3898 94.3333 16.6927

5.6512

0.0050

2.90 0.4814 9.6450 2.5632

3.7629

0.3577

9.50 0.3886 105.1250 18.4915

5.6850

0.0039

2.95 0.4782 9.9862 2.6206

3.8106

0.3428

10.00 0.3876 116.5000 20.3875

5.7143

0.0030

3.00 0.4752 10.3333 2.6790

3.8571

0.3283

∞ 0.3780

6.0000

0.0000

Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 767

0.1

0.5

1.0

5.0

10.0

5.0
5.0

___

p 0

p*0

4.0

4.0

3.0

3.0

2.0

2.0

___

V*

1.0

1.0

f( l* – l) _______

__

p*

T
__

T*

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.5

1.0

5.0

10.0

Ma

■ Figure D.F Fanno flow of an ideal gas with k = 1.4. (Graph provided by
Dr. Bruce A. Reichert.)

768 Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

■ Table D.F

Fanno Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

Ma f (ℓ *−ℓ ) D

p p*

T T *

p *

*
0 p0

ρ ρ* = V* V Ma f (ℓ*−ℓ ) D p p*

T T *

p0 p0

ρ ρ* = V* V

0.00

∞ 1.2000 ∞

1.60 0.1724 0.5568

0.7937 1.2502 0.7016

0.05 280.0203 21.9034 1.1994 11.5914 18.2620

1.65 0.1902 0.5342 0.7770 1.2922

0.6876

0.10 66.9216 10.9435

1.1976

5.8218 9.1378

1.70 0.2078 0.5130

0.7605 1.3376 0.6745

0.15 27.9320 7.2866

1.1946
3.9103 6.0995

1.75 0.2250 0.4929

0.7442 1.3865 0.6624

0.20 14.5333 5.4554

1.1905

2.9635 4.5826

1.80 0.2419 0.4741

0.7282 1.4390 0.6511

0.25

8.4834

4.3546 1.1852 2.4027

3.6742

1.85 0.2583 0.4562 0.7124 1.4952

0.6404

0.30

5.2993

3.6191 1.1788 2.0351

3.0702

1.90 0.2743 0.4394 0.6969 1.5553

0.6305

0.35
3.4525

3.0922 1.1713 1.7780

2.6400

1.95 0.2899 0.4234 0.6816 1.6193

0.6211

0.40

2.3085

2.6958 1.1628 1.5901

2.3184

2.00 0.3050 0.4082 0.6667 1.6875

0.6124

0.45

1.5664

2.3865 1.1533 1.4487

2.0693

2.10 0.3339 0.3802 0.6376 1.8369

0.5963

0.50

1.0691

2.1381 1.1429 1.3398

1.8708
2.20 0.3609 0.3549 0.6098 2.0050

0.5821

0.55

0.7281

1.9341 1.1315 1.2549

1.7092

2.30 0.3862 0.3320 0.5831 2.1931

0.5694

0.60

0.4908

1.7634 1.1194 1.1882

1.5753

2.40 0.4099 0.3111 0.5576 2.4031

0.5580

0.65

0.3246

1.6183 1.1065 1.1356

1.4626

2.50 0.4320 0.2921 0.5333 2.6367

0.5477

0.70
0.2081

1.4935 1.0929 1.0944

1.3665

2.60 0.4526 0.2747 0.5102 2.8960

0.5385

0.75

0.1273

1.3848 1.0787 1.0624

1.2838

2.70 0.4718 0.2588 0.4882 3.1830

0.5301

0.80

0.0723

1.2893 1.0638 1.0382

1.2119

2.80 0.4898 0.2441 0.4673 3.5001

0.5225

0.85

0.0363

1.2047 1.0485 1.0207

1.1489
2.90 0.5065 0.2307 0.4474 3.8498

0.5155

0.90

0.0145

1.1291 1.0327 1.0089

1.0934

3.00 0.5222 0.2182 0.4286 4.2346

0.5092

0.95

0.0033

1.0613 1.0165 1.0021

1.0440

3.50 0.5864 0.1685 0.3478 6.7896

0.4845

1.00

0.0000

1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

1.0000

4.00 0.6331 0.1336 0.2857 10.7188

0.4677

1.05
0.0027

0.9443 0.9832 1.0020

0.9605

4.50 0.6676 0.1083 0.2376 16.5622

0.4559

1.10

0.0099

0.8936 0.9662 1.0079

0.9249

5.00 0.6938 0.0894 0.2000 25.0000

0.4472

1.15

0.0205

0.8471 0.9490 1.0175

0.8926

5.50 0.7140 0.0750 0.1702 36.8690

0.4407

1.20

0.0336

0.8044 0.9317 1.0304

0.8633
6.00 0.7299 0.0638 0.1463 53.1798

0.4357

1.25

0.0486

0.7649 0.9143 1.0468

0.8367

6.50 0.7425 0.0548 0.1270 75.1343

0.4317

1.30

0.0648

0.7285 0.8969 1.0663

0.8123

7.00 0.7528 0.0476 0.1111 104.1429

0.4286

1.35

0.0820

0.6947 0.8794 1.0890

0.7899

7.50 0.7612 0.0417 0.0980 141.8415

0.4260

1.40
0.0997

0.6632 0.8621 1.1149

0.7693

8.00 0.7682 0.0369 0.0870 190.1094

0.4239

1.45

0.1178

0.6339 0.8448 1.1440

0.7503

8.50 0.7740 0.0328 0.0777 251.0862

0.4221

1.50

0.1361

0.6065 0.8276 1.1762

0.7328

9.00 0.7790 0.0293 0.0698 327.1893

0.4207

1.55 0.1543 0.5808

0.8105

1.2116 0.7166

∞ 0.8215 0.0000
0.0000 ∞

0.4082

Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4 769

0.1

0.5

1.0

5.0

10.0

2.5

2.5

p0

____

p 0,*

2.0

2.0

___*

___

1.5
ρ

1.5

& V*

1.0

1.0

T0

____

T *

0,

0.5

0.5

__

T*

__

p*

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.5
1.0

5.0

10.0

Ma

■ Figure D.R Rayleigh flow of an ideal gas with k = 1.4. (Graph provided by
Dr. Bruce A. Reichert.)

770 Appendix D ■

■ Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

■ Table D.R

Raleigh Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas with k = 1.4

Ma

T *

0 T 0

p p*

T T *

p0 p0

ρ ρ* = V* V Ma T0 T 0

p p*
T T *

p0 p0

ρ ρ* = V* V

0.00

0.0000 2.4000 0.0000 1.2679

1.60 1.7699 0.5236 0.7017 1.1756

0.7461

0.05

0.0105 2.3916 0.0143 1.2657 167.2500

1.65 1.8422 0.4988 0.6774 1.2066

0.7364

0.10

0.0370 2.3669 0.0560 1.2591

42.2500

1.70 1.9161 0.4756 0.6538 1.2402

0.7275

0.15

0.0741 2.3267 0.1218 1.2486

19.1019

1.75 1.9915 0.4539 0.6310 1.2767

0.7194

0.20

0.1181 2.2727 0.2066 1.2346

11.0000

1.80 2.0685 0.4335 0.6089 1.3159

0.7119

0.25

0.1667 2.2069 0.3044 1.2177

7.2500

1.85 2.1472 0.4144 0.5877 1.3581

0.7051

0.30

0.2181 2.1314 0.4089 1.1985

5.2130
1.90 2.2275 0.3964 0.5673 1.4033

0.6988

0.35

0.2713 2.0487 0.5141 1.1779

3.9847

1.95 2.3096 0.3795 0.5477 1.4516

0.6929

0.40

0.3257 1.9608 0.6151 1.1566

3.1875

2.00 2.3934 0.3636 0.5289 1.5031

0.6875

0.45

0.3807 1.8699 0.7080 1.1351

2.6409

2.10 2.5663 0.3345 0.4936 1.6162

0.6778

0.50

0.4360 1.7778 0.7901 1.1141

2.2500

2.20 2.7466 0.3086 0.4611 1.7434

0.6694

0.55

0.4915 1.6860 0.8599 1.0940

1.9607

2.30 2.9344 0.2855 0.4312 1.8860

0.6621

0.60

0.5471 1.5957 0.9167 1.0753

1.7407

2.40 3.1299 0.2648 0.4038 2.0451

0.6557

0.65

0.6029 1.5080 0.9608 1.0582

1.5695
2.50 3.3333 0.2462 0.3787 2.2218

0.6500

0.70

0.6587 1.4235 0.9929 1.0431

1.4337

2.60 3.5448 0.2294 0.3556 2.4177

0.6450

0.75

0.7148 1.3427 1.0140 1.0301

1.3241

2.70 3.7644 0.2142 0.3344 2.6343

0.6405

0.80

0.7710 1.2658 1.0255 1.0193

1.2344

2.80 3.9923 0.2004 0.3149 2.8731

0.6365

0.84515 0.8221 1.2000 1.0286 1.0116

1.1667

2.90 4.2286 0.1879 0.2969 3.1359

0.6329

0.85

0.8276 1.1931 1.0285 1.0109

1.1600

3.00 4.4734 0.1765 0.2803 3.4245

0.6296

0.90

0.8845 1.1246 1.0245 1.0049

1.0977

3.50 5.8276 0.1322 0.2142 5.3280

0.6173

0.95

0.9420 1.0603 1.0146 1.0012

1.0450

4.00 7.4050 0.1026 0.1683 8.2268

0.6094

1.00

1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

1.0000

4.50 9.2111 0.0818 0.1354 12.5023

0.6039

1.05

1.0587 0.9436 0.9816 1.0012

0.9613

5.00 11.2500 0.0667 0.1111 18.6339

0.6000

1.10

1.1181 0.8909 0.9603 1.0049

0.9277

5.50 13.5244 0.0554 0.0927 27.2113

0.5971

1.15
1.1784 0.8417 0.9369 1.0109

0.8984

6.00 16.0362 0.0467 0.0785 38.9459

0.5949

1.20

1.2395 0.7958 0.9118 1.0194

0.8727

6.50 18.7870 0.0399 0.0673 54.6830

0.5932

1.25

1.3017 0.7529 0.8858 1.0303

0.8500

7.00 21.7778 0.0345 0.0583 75.4138

0.5918

1.30

1.3649 0.7130 0.8592 1.0437

0.8299

7.50 25.0095 0.0301 0.0509 102.2875

0.5907

1.35

1.4292 0.6758 0.8323 1.0594

0.8120

8.00 28.4827 0.0265 0.0449 136.6235

0.5898

1.40

1.4947 0.6410 0.8054 1.0777

0.7959

8.50 32.1979 0.0235 0.0399 179.9236

0.5891

1.45

1.5615 0.6086 0.7787 1.0983

0.7815

9.00 36.1557 0.0210 0.0356 233.8840

0.5885

1.50
1.6296 0.5783 0.7525 1.1215

0.7685

10 44.8000 0.0170 0.0290 381.6149

0.5875

1.55

1.6990 0.5500 0.7268 1.1473

0.7568

0.0000 0.0000

0.5833

Comprehensive

E Table of

Conversion

Factors

mil

cm

Hour

(hr)
Minute

(min)

Second

(sec)

393.7

Int’l nautical

mile (mi)

hr

sec

sec

min

Second

(sec)

st mi

3600

60

I.N. mi

mm

Statute mile

(mi)

1.151
hr

min

Mil

rd

mi

Minute

(min)

60

rd

mi

Rod

(rd)

320

Time conversion factors

368.3

Hour

(hr)

rd

mi
fath

fath

mi

fath

Table E.1

2.75

Fathom

(fath)

Mil

mm

cm

in

879.7

1012

rd

fath

m
mi

mi

Meter

(m)

1.829

5.029

1609

1852

yd

yd

mi

yd

mi

cm

yd

rd

yd

fath
2

Yard

(yd)

393.7 mil

5.5

1.094

1760

2026

= 1.143 cm.

ft

ft

mi

ft

rd

ft

mi

ft

yd

ft
3

fath

Foot

(ft)

for

450.0 mil

16.5

for the

3.281

5280

rwo

6076.12

in.

mi

in.

mi

in.

column

ft
in.

rd

in.

in.

yd

in.

fath

Inch

(in.)

12

36

72

198

39.37

6.336E4

7.291E4

unit (cm). If unsure as to the

Locate the

unit (mil) and the

ft

cm
mi

cm

mi

cm

in.

cm

cm

yd

cm

rd

cm

larger

cm

fath

2.54

30.48

9.144

100

182.9

502.9
Centimeter

(cm)

Solution: smaller the smaller unit, try the second option if your first guess
doesn’t work. The intersection gives the conversion factor. In this case dividing
by the conversion factor (equal to unity) cancels the mils, so 1.609E5

1.852E5

mm

fath

mi

mm

mi

mm

in.

ft

mm

yd

mm

mm

rd

mm

mm
cm

mm

Convert 450.0 mils to centimeters.

10

25.4

304.8

914.4

1000

5029

Millimeter

(mm)

1.829E3

1.609E6

1.852E6

ft

rd

mil

mi

mil

mi
Example:

mil

mil

cm

mil

in.

mil

mil

yd

mil

mil

mm

mil

fath

Mil

39.37

393.7

1000

1.2E5

3.6E5

7.2E4
2.54E5

1.98E5

6.336E7

7.291E7

μ ft

μ in.

yd

μ m

rd

fath

mi

mi

mil
mm

cm

)μ

25.4

1000

1.0E4

Micron

2.54E4

1.0E6

3.048E5

9.144E5

1.829E6

5.029E6

1.609E9

1.852E9

ft

Å
rd

mi

mi

mil

in.

yd

fath

cm

mm

10
1.0E7

1.0E8

2.54E5

2.54E8

1.0E10

Angstrom

(Å)

3.048E9

9.144E9

1.829E10

5.029E10

1.609E13

1.852E13

Length conversion factors

Mil

Inch

(in.)

Foot

(ft)

Rod

(rd)
Micron

)(

Yard

(yd)

Meter

(m)

Angstrom

(Å)

Fathom

(fath)

Millimeter

(mm)

Centimeter

(cm)

Statute mile

(mi)

Table E.2

Int’l nautical

mile (mi)

771
772 Appendix E ■

■ Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors 2 )

2 )

Acre

2 )

2 )

2 )

2 )

Square centimeter (cm

Square statute mile (mi

Square meter (m

Square yard (yd

Square foot (ft

Square inch (in

cm

mi

2
2

cm acre

3 )

cm

cm

yd

ft

cm

cm

in

2 )

Square centimeter (cm

1.0E4

8361

929.0
6.452

Cubic statute mile (mi

2.589E10

4.047E7

in

mi

in

acre

mi

2
in

in

yd

in

ft

2 )

3 )

Square inch (in

1550

1296

144

4.166E9

Cubic meter (m

4.014E9

6.272E6

2
3

ft

ft

mi

acre

ft

yd

yd

mi

2 ft yd

3 )

2 )

1.308

Square foot (ft

10.76

Cubic yard (yd

5.452E9

2.788E7

4.356E4

ft

mi

yd

mi

ft
yd acre

yd

ft

yd

2 )

27

3 )

35.31

Square yard (yd

4840

Cubic foot (ft

1.196

1.472E11

3.098E6

2
3

gal

mi

mi

gal

ft

gal

yd

gal

acre

2 )

7.48

202.0

264.2

Square meter (m

4047

U.S. liquid gallon (gal)

1.101E12

2.589E6

gal

mi

ft

yd

acre

mi

Acre

Liter (1)
640

3.7854

28.3

764.6

1000

4.166E12

Area conversion factors

qt

qt

qt

ft

qt

qt

mi

2 )
qt

yd

gal4

1.057

29.92

807.9

U.S. liquid quart (qt)

1.057E3

Table E.3

Square statute mile (mi

4.404E11

fl oz

yd

fl oz

fl oz
mi

qt

ft

fl oz

fl oz

gal

fl oz

fl oz

32

33.81

128

957.5

2.585E4

3.381E4

U.S. fluid ounce (fl oz)

1.409E14

3
3

in

in

in qt

in

in

yd

in

mi

fl oz

in gal

in

ft
3 )

57.75

61.02

231

1728

1.805

6.102E4

Cubic inch (in

4.666E4

2.544E14

ml

ml

mi

mil

in

mil fl oz
ml

qt

ml

ml gal

ml

ft

yd

ml

16.39

946.4

1000

3785.4

2.83E4

29.574

7.646E5

1.0E6

4.166E15

Milliliter (ml) cubic centimeter( )

Volume conversion factors

3 )

3 )

Liter (1)

3 )

3 )

3 )

Cubic inch (in

U.S. fluid quart (qt)

U.S. liquid gallon (gal)

Cubic foot (ft

Cubic yard (yd

Milliliter (ml) cubic centimeter

U.S. fluid ounce (fl oz)

Cubic meter (m

( )

Cubic statute mile (mi

Table E.4

Appendix E ■

■ Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors 773

Slug

Kilogram (kg)
Pound (lbm) (avdp.)

Ounce (oz) (avdp.)

Gram (g)

Grain (gr)

gr

gr

kg

slug

gr

gr

oz

gr

lbm

Grain (gr)

7000

437.5

15.43

1.543E4

2.252E5

g
slug

kg

lbm

oz

Gram (g)

1000

453.6

28.35

1.459E4

oz

oz

kg

slug

oz

lbm

Ounce (oz) (avdp.)

Long ton

35.27
16

514.8

lbm

slug

kg

lbm

m ton

l ton

Pound (lbm) (avdp.)

Metric ton

32.174

2.2046

1.016

kg

slug

s ton

m ton

s ton

l ton

Short ton

Kilogram (kg)
1.12

14.594

1.102

Mass conversion factors

lb

lb

lb

s ton

l ton

m ton

Slug

Pound (lb) (avdp.)

2000

2205

2240

Table E.5

lb

N
s ton

l ton

m ton

Newton (N)

4.448

8896

9808

9964

pdl

pdl

lb

pdl

s ton

pdl

pdl

l ton

m ton

Poundal (pdl)

7.233

32.174
6.435E4

7.094E4

7.207E4

pdl

dyne

lb

dyne

dyne

s ton

dyne

m ton

dyne

l ton

dyne

Dyne

E5

1.383E4

4.448E5

8.896E3

9.807E3
9.964E3

Force conversion factors

Dyne

Poundal (pdl)

Newton (N)

Pound (lb) (avdp.)

Short ton

Metric ton

Long ton

Table E.6

774 Appendix E ■

■ Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors O

atm

Bar

psi
N

in. Hg

(32°F)

ft H

dyne

cm

(39.2°F)

in. H (39.2°F)

mm Hg (0°C)

Torr

Pascal

O
2

O 2

Pa

dyne

cm

atm

bar

psi

Torr

1.032E6

in. Hg

dyne/cm

dyne/cm

1.0E6

dyne/cm

6.895E4

dyne/cm

3.386E4
dyne/cm

ft H

2.989E4

dyne/cm

in. H

2491

dyne/cm

mm Hg

1333

dyne/cm

1000

dyne/cm

10

Pa

bar

Pa
Pa

Pa

Pa

Pa

N 2

in Hg

Torr

ft H

in H

mm Hg

Pascal

Pa

1.013E5

atm

Pa

1.0E5

6.895E3

psi

3386
2989

249.1

133.3

1.00

m s

Torr

bar

psi

Torr

atm

Torr

Torr

Torr

in. Hg

ft H

Torr

Torr
Torr

in. H

mm Hg

760

750.1

51.71

25.4

knot m/s

304.8

1868

1.00

Knots

1.944

bar

psi

atm

mm Hg
mm Hg

mm Hg

in. Hg

mm Hg

mm Hg

ft H

mm Hg

in. H

mm Hg (0°C)

mph knot

mph m/s

760

750.1

51.71

25.4

22.42

1.868

hr

O 2

O
O

O 2 O

1.151

2.237

statute mile

(mph)

psi

atm

bar

in. H

in. H

in. H

in. Hg

in. H

in. H
ft H

in. H (39.2°F)

12

fps mph

fps knot

fps m/s

406.8

401.5

27.68

13.60

ft sec

(fps)

O 2

1.47

1.688
3.281

atm

bar

psi

ft H

ft H

ft H

ft H

in. Hg

ft H (39.2°F)

fps

33.90

33.46

2.307

1.133

km/hr

mph

km/hr

knot
km/hr

m/s

km/hr

km hr

1.097

1.609

1.852

3.6

atm

psi

in. Hg

bar

in. Hg

in. Hg

in. Hg (32°F)

29.92

29.53

2.036

in./sec km/hr

fps

mph
knot

m/s

in./sec

in./sec

in./sec

in./sec

in. sec

10.94

12

17.6

20.26

39.37

psi atm

psi bar

psi

fps

14.696

14.504

m/min in./sec

m/min km/hr

m/min
mph

m/min

knot

m/min
Document Outline
Cover
Title
Copyright
About the Authors
A Quarter-Century of Excellence
Preface
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives
1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids
1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units
1.2.1 Systems of Units
1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior
1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
1.4.1 Density
1.4.2 Specific Weight
1.4.3 Specific Gravity
1.5 Ideal Gas Law
1.6 Viscosity
1.7 Compressibility of Fluids
1.7.1 Bulk Modulus
1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases
1.7.3 Speed of Sound
1.8 Vapor Pressure
1.9 Surface Tension
1.10 A Brief Look Back in History
1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
2 FLUID STATICS
Learning Objectives
2.1 Pressure at a Point
2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field
2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid
2.3.2 Compressible Fluid
2.4 Standard Atmosphere
2.5 Measurement of Pressure
2.6 Manometry
2.6.1 Piezometer Tube
2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer
2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer
2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices
2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
2.9 Pressure Prism
2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability
2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle
2.11.2 Stability
2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion
2.12.1 Linear Motion
2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation
2.13 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
3 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS—THE BERNOULLI
EQUATION
Learning Objectives
3.1 Newton’s Second Law
3.2 F = ma along a Streamline
3.3 F = ma Normal to a Streamline
3.4 Physical Interpretations and Alternate Forms of the Bernoulli
Equation
3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure
3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3.6.1 Free Jets
3.6.2 Confined Flows
3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement
3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3.8.1 Compressibility Effects
3.8.2 Unsteady Effects
3.8.3 Rotational Effects
 3.8.4 Other Restrictions
3.9 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
4 FLUID KINEMATICS
Learning Objectives
4.1 The Velocity Field
4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions
4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows
4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines
4.2 The Acceleration Field
4.2.1 Acceleration and the Material Derivative
4.2.2 Unsteady Effects
4.2.3 Convective Effects
4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates
4.3 Control Volume and System Representations
4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem
4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
4.4.2 Physical Interpretation
4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative
4.4.4 Steady Effects
4.4.5 Unsteady Effects
4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes
4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume
4.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
5 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Learning Objectives
5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation
5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation
5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume
5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume
5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume
5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-
Momentum Equations
5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation
5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation
 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation
5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation
5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation
5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation
5.3.3 The Mechanical Energy Equation and the Bernoulli
Equation
5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows
5.3.5 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-
Momentum Equation
5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics—Irreversible Flow
5.4.1 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Energy
Equation
5.4.2 Semi-infinitesimal Control Volume Statement of the Second
Law of Thermodynamics
5.4.3 Combination of the Equations of the First and Second Laws
of Thermodynamics
5.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
6 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Learning Objectives
6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics
6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited
6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation
6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation
6.2 Conservation of Mass
6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity Equation
6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
6.2.3 The Stream Function
6.3 The Linear Momentum Equation
6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
6.3.2 Equations of Motion
6.4 Inviscid Flow
6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion
6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation
6.4.3 Irrotational Flow
6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow
6.4.5 The Velocity Potential
 6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows
6.5.1 Uniform Flow
6.5.2 Source and Sink
6.5.3 Vortex
6.5.4 Doublet
6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows
6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body
6.6.2 Rankine Ovals
6.6.3 Flow around a Circular Cylinder
6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis
6.8 Viscous Flow
6.8.1 Stress–Deformation Relationships
6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations
6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Laminar, Viscous, Incompressible
Flows
6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow between Fixed Parallel Plates
6.9.2 Couette Flow
6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus
6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis
6.10.1 Numerical Methods
6.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, SIMILITUDE, AND MODELING
Learning Objectives
7.1 The Need for Dimensional Analysis
7.2 Buckingham Pi Theorem
7.3 Determination of Pi Terms
7.4 Some Additional Comments about Dimensional Analysis
7.4.1 Selection of Variables
7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions
7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms
7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection
7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics
7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data
7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term
7.7.2 Problems with Two or More Pi Terms
7.8 Modeling and Similitude
 7.8.1 Theory of Models
7.8.2 Model Scales
7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models
7.9 Some Typical Model Studies
7.9.1 Flow through Closed Conduits
7.9.2 Flow around Immersed Bodies
7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface
7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations
7.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
8 VISCOUS FLOW IN PIPES
Learning Objectives
8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow
8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow
8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow
8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress
8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow
8.2.1 From F = ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element
8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes Equations
8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis
8.2.4 Energy Considerations
8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress
8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile
8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling
8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence
8.4 Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow
8.4.1 Major Losses
8.4.2 Minor Losses
8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits
8.5 Pipe Flow Examples
8.5.1 Single Pipes
8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems
8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement
8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters
8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters
8.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
 References
Problems
9 FLOW OVER IMMERSED BODIES
Learning Objectives
9.1 General External Flow Characteristics
9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts
9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object
9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics
9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate
9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution
9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat
Plate
9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient
9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation with
Nonzero Pressure Gradient
9.3 Drag
9.3.1 Friction Drag
9.3.2 Pressure Drag
9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples
9.4 Lift
9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution
9.4.2 Circulation
9.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
10 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
Learning Objectives
10.1 General Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow
10.2 Surface Waves
10.2.1 Wave Speed
10.2.2 Froude Number Effects
10.3 Energy Considerations
10.3.1 Energy Balance
10.3.2 Specific Energy
10.4 Uniform Flow
10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations
10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations
 10.4.3 Uniform Flow Examples
10.5 Gradually Varied Flow
10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow
10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump
10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs
10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs
10.6.4 Underflow (Sluice) Gates
10.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
11 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Learning Objectives
11.1 Ideal Gas Thermodynamics
11.2 Stagnation Properties
11.3 Mach Number and Speed of Sound
11.4 Compressible Flow Regimes
11.5 Shock Waves
11.5.1 Normal Shock
11.6 Isentropic Flow
11.6.1 Steady Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
11.6.2 Incompressible Flow and Bernoulli’s Equation
11.6.3 The Critical State
11.7 One-Dimensional Flow in a Variable Area Duct
11.7.1 General Considerations
11.7.2 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas With Area Change
11.7.3 Operation of a Converging Nozzle
11.7.4 Operation of a Converging–Diverging Nozzle
11.8 Constant-Area Duct Flow With Friction
11.8.1 Preliminary Consideration: Comparison with
Incompressible Duct Flow
11.8.2 The Fanno Line
11.8.3 Adiabatic Frictional Flow (Fanno Flow) of an Ideal Gas
11.9 Frictionless Flow in a Constant-Area Duct with Heating or
Cooling
11.9.1 The Rayleigh Line
11.9.2 Frictionless Flow of an Ideal Gas with Heating or Cooling
(Rayleigh Flow)
11.9.3 Rayleigh Lines, Fanno Lines, and Normal Shocks
11.10 Analogy between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows
 11.11 Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow
11.12 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
12 TURBOMACHINES
Learning Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Basic Energy Considerations
12.3 Angular Momentum Considerations
12.4 The Centrifugal Pump
12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations
12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics
12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
12.4.4 System Characteristics, Pump-System Matching, and
Pump Selection
12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws
12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws
12.5.2 Specific Speed
12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed
12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps
12.7 Fans
12.8 Turbines
12.8.1 Impulse Turbines
12.8.2 Reaction Turbines
12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines
12.9.1 Compressors
12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines
12.10 Chapter Summary and Study Guide
References
Problems
Appendix A Computational Fluid Dynamics
Appendix B Physical Properties of Fluids
Appendix C Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Appendix D Compressible Flow Functions for an Ideal Gas
Appendix E Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors
Answers to Selected Problems
Index
Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids
Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases
Conversion Factors
Friction Factors - The Moody Table
EULA