THE SOUTH AFRICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION

SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

Guidance for Managing Ethical Issues

Version 1

7 April 2020

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This is a living document. As such, it will be updated as COVID-19
evolves

Contents

Preamble and Introduction ...................................................................................... 3

Guidelines............................................................................................................... 5

1. Obligations and duties of Doctors .............................................................. 5

2. The Patient-Doctor interaction ................................................................... 7

3. Situations of vulnerability ........................................................................... 8

4. Allocation of scarce resources ................................................................... 9

5. Emergency use of unproven interventions outside of research ............... 11

6. Research during the COVID-19 outbreak ................................................ 12

7. Information collection and sharing ........................................................... 12

8. Obligations of government ....................................................................... 13

9. The Role of Media.................................................................................... 14

10. References .............................................................................................. 15

11. Annexure 1: CCSSA Triage Guidelines (2 April 2020) ............................. 17

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Preamble and Introduction

Ethical dilemmas in health care are common even under normal circumstances
because health care responds to human suffering. To act ethically is integral to
professionalism in health care. A surge of individuals seeking health care, as well as
critically ill patients with COVID-19, disrupts normal processes for supporting ethically
sound patient care.

COVID-19 is an acute viral infection that has reached pandemic proportions requiring
an ethical reflection and response, rooted in human rights.

As a Nation, our health care resources are already limited. COVID-19 may tragically
constrain those resources further, resulting in the loss of lives that would have been
preventable under normal circumstances.

It cannot be denied that the duties and obligations of Doctors are the realities of the
practice of medicine. Care is the foundation of medicine, and this foundation is
strengthened by the oath Doctors take, committing their lives to the service and benefit
of humanity. A Doctor’s primary duty and obligation is to their patient; their health and
well-being. There are, however, other duties and obligations (discussed in this
document) that Doctors are expected to fulfil. These duties and obligations do not
change during the COVID-19 pandemic - they are heightened; society puts a greater
expectation on Doctors during this challenging time to fulfil their duties and obligations.

This document provides ethical guidelines for Doctors during the COVID-19, based on
the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Guidance for Managing Ethical Issues in
Infectious Disease Outbreaks, adapted for the South African context. Furthermore,
although this document provides ethical guidance for Doctors, the duties and
obligations of government and society, in general, are also highlighted.

This guidance document draws on a variety of ethical principles, which are grouped
below into several categories:

Justice —Justice, or fairness, encompasses two different concepts. The first is equity,
which refers to fairness in the distribution of resources, opportunities, and outcomes.
Key elements of equity include treating like cases alike, avoiding discrimination and
exploitation, and being sensitive to persons who are especially vulnerable to harm or
injustice.

The second aspect of justice is procedural justice, which refers to a fair process for
making important moral decisions. Elements of procedural justice include due process,
transparency, inclusiveness/community engagement, and oversight.

Beneficence — Beneficence refers to acts that are done for the benefit of others, such
as efforts to relieve individuals’ pain and suffering.

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Utility — The principle of utility states that actions are right insofar as they promote
the well-being of individuals or communities (balancing the potential benefits of an
activity against any risks of harm) and efficiency (achieving the greatest benefits at the
lowest possible cost).

Respect for persons — The term “respect for persons” refers to treating individuals
in ways that are fitting to and informed by a recognition of our common humanity,
dignity and inherent human rights. Respect for persons also includes paying attention
to values such as privacy and confidentiality.

Reciprocity — Reciprocity consists of making a “fitting and proportional return” for

contributions that people have made. Policies that encourage reciprocity can be an
important means of promoting the principle of justice, as they can correct unfair
disparities in the distribution of the benefits and burdens of epidemic response efforts.

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Guidelines

1. Obligations and duties of Doctors

Effective outbreak response to COVID-19 depends on the valuable contribution of

Doctors, some of whom may be working on a volunteer basis. During such a crisis,
Doctors frequently assume a heightened personal risk to carry out their functions.
Doctors’ obligations and duties must be established, to ensure that all stakeholders
are aware of what can be reasonably expected of them.

Being registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA),
Doctors have moral duties to themselves, patients, colleagues, and society. These
duties are generally in keeping with the principles of the South African Constitution
and the other obligations imposed by law. Doctors, therefore, have certain moral duties
during a COVID-19 outbreak, which include the following:

 A duty to self - Doctors have a duty to take care of their own health and mental
well-being, as failure to do so will render them incapable of delivering care to
their patients. Doctors need to maintain and improve the standard of their
professional knowledge and skills, regularly taking part in educational activities
that enhance their ability to provide quality healthcare.
 A duty of care to patients - Pursuant to their oath, Doctors have a duty of
reasonable clinical care towards patients. This duty is enhanced during
pandemics like the COVID-19 crisis. The primary professional duty of a Doctor
should be their concern for the best interests or well-being of their patients.
 A duty to colleagues and other professionals - During such distressing times,
Doctors have a moral duty to regard all fellow professionals as colleagues and
to treat them with dignity and respect. They should readily share relevant
information in the patient's best interest and in particular, junior doctors should
remain under the close supervision of their senior colleagues whilst
simultaneously maintaining professionalism and care.
 A duty to society - During the COVID-19 crisis, Doctors, as custodians of health
care, have a duty to deal responsibly with scarce healthcare resources, to
refrain from providing services that are not needed and to refrain from
unnecessary wastage. They should not participate in improper financial
arrangements, especially those that escalate costs and disadvantage
individuals or institutions unfairly.
 A duty to participate in public health and reporting efforts - Doctors have a duty
to participate in measures to respond to the COVID-19 outbreak, including
public health laws, surveillance and reporting. Doctors should remember to
protect the confidentiality of patient information to the maximum extent
compatible with relevant and applicable legalisation.
 A duty to provide accurate information to the public - Doctors have a duty not
to spread unsubstantiated rumours or suspicion and ensure that information

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 they provide comes from reliable sources. Additionally, Doctors also have a
duty to debunk false and inaccurate information about the COVID-19 disease.
 A duty to advocate - Doctors are uniquely positioned to function as advocates
for patients, especially vulnerable patients, and the health care system, as they
better than anyone else understand the needs of patients and the health care
system. Advocacy, in the context of COVID-19, requires more than helping
individual patients get the services they need; it requires working to address the
root causes of the problems they face.
 A duty to avoid exploitation — In the context of a rapidly spreading life-
threatening virus with no proven treatment, certain entities may want to offer
any intervention, regardless of the expected risks or benefits for questionable
reasons. Doctors have a duty not to exploit individuals’ vulnerability by offering
treatments or preventive measures for which there is no reasonable basis to
believe that the potential benefits outweigh the uncertainties and risks.

Reciprocal obligations

Irrespective of whether a Doctor has a pre-existing duty to assume heightened risks

during the COVID-19 outbreak, the Government , the Department of Health, the
Private healthcare sector (both hospitals and funders) and society, in general, have
reciprocal obligations to provide necessary support to Doctors. If the reciprocal
obligations are not met, Doctors cannot morally be expected to assume a significant
risk of harm to themselves and their families.

The fulfilment of these reciprocal obligations to Doctors include, at minimum, the

following:

 Minimizing the risk of infection — Government, and indeed ALL service

providers (including the Private Hospital groups treating Covid19 patients) have
a reciprocal responsibility towards Doctors to ensure as safe as reasonably
possible a working environment.

This includes providing Doctors with the necessary appropriate resources to

minimize the risk of infection, i.e. PPE, facilities and equipment appropriate to
the treatment of COVID-19 infections and, where appropriate, medical
prophylaxis. This should also include training on the COVID-19 disease,
providing Doctors with accurate information of the disease and regular
screening of Doctors.

 Priority access to medical care — Doctors who become infected, as well as any
immediate family members who become ill through consequent exposure,
should be guaranteed access to the highest level of care reasonably available.

 Priority access to the Covid-19 vaccine once developed – Doctors, as front-line

essential workers should have priority access to the Covid-19 vaccine. They

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 need to develop immunity so as to be available to manage patients with the
disease.

 Assistance to family members — Assistance should be provided to the families

of those Doctors who are not able to care for their families due to the execution
of their duties.

 Minimizing the spread of COVID-19 – Society in so far as possible, has a

reciprocal responsibility to adhere to any public health efforts to minimize the
spread of COVID-19, i.e. adhering to the lockdown restrictions and social
distancing, so as to not overwhelm the health care system.

 Leadership and Accountability– Management in the both the private and public
sector have a duty to provide guidance and supervision to Doctors, particularly
junior Doctors. As well as to ensure that Doctors are adhering to ethical and
professional codes.

2. The Patient-Doctor interaction

The patient-Doctor relationship during the COVID-19 crisis may be characterised by a

range of ethical issues, in particular those of informed consent, confidentiality and
telehealth consultations.

Informed Consent

Generally, Doctors who treat competent patients without their consent violate the
patient’s constitutional rights and breach fundamental principles of medical ethics.
However, Covid-19 has given rise to particular complexities with regard to consent.
The following are guidance points for Doctors on obtaining consent when managing
patients in this context:

If the situation is life-threatening and there is no proxy available, as may be the case
during the COVID-19 crisis, and treatment is necessary to delay irreversible damage
to the patient’s health or to prevent death, the National Health Act (NHA) allows for
treatment to be given without the consent of the patient or the proxy provided that the
patient has not previously expressly, impliedly or by conduct refused such treatment.

Doctors must keep clear records of all reasons for the actions they take, especially if
no form of informed consent was given by the patient or the patient’s proxy or if there
was no time to apply for a court order.

Limitations to autonomy in the context of COVID-19

Although the NHA stipulates that patients must give informed consent before the
commencement of any treatment or procedure and this includes testing of any kind,
section 4 for the Disaster Management Regulations states that no one may refuse
medical investigation, testing or quarantine and isolation This implies that informed

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consent is not strictly needed in certain *situations for the purposes of testing and
treating COVID-19 - where this is necessary to protect the interests of the public.

*Persons who have been confirmed, as a clinical case or as a laboratory confirmed

case as having contracted COVID -19, or who is suspected of having contracted
COVID -19, or who has been in contact with a person who is a carrier of COVID -19.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality during the COVID-19 crisis also raises ethical consideration where in
certain instances there will be a requirement to limit confidentiality. Section 14 of the
NHA states that no Doctor may disclose patient information unless:

1. The patient consents to that disclosure in writing;

2. A court order or any law requires that disclosure; or
3. Non-disclosure of the information represents a serious threat to public health.

Confidentiality Limitations and COVID-19

With regard to public health Covid-19 is a notifiable disease, hence the law imposes a
mandatory limitation to confidentiality when a patient is diagnosed with the disease. In
addition, Regulation 11H(5) of the Disaster Management Regulations states that:

No person may disclose any information contained in the COVID-19 tracing

database or any information obtained through this regulation unless authorized to
do so and unless the disclosure is necessary for the purpose of addressing,
preventing or combatting the spread of COVID-19.

Telehealth and COVID-19

The HPCSA’s amendment to its guidelines on telemedicine state that telehealth

should preferably be practised in circumstances where there is an already established
Doctor-patient relationship. However, where such a relationship does not exist,
Doctors may still consult using telehealth, provided that such consultations are done
in the best interest of patients. This therefore allows for telephonic and other forms of
virtual consultations.

The guidelines allow for Doctors to charge for telehealth services but cautions against
practices that may amount to over-servicing, perverse incentives and supersession.

3. Situations of vulnerability

Certain individuals and groups, including Doctors and their families, face heightened
vulnerability during the Covid-19 pandemic. Efforts to address how individuals and
groups may be vulnerable should consider the following:

 Difficulty accessing services and resources — Doctors may have difficulty

accessing PPE thereby putting themselves and their families at risk. Some

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 individuals such as the poor, the disabled, the sick, and other vulnerable
individuals may have difficulty accessing services and resources, particularly
under lockdown conditions.
 Stigmatization and discrimination — Members of socially disadvantaged
groups often face considerable stigma and discrimination, which can be
exacerbated by the COVID-19 crisis.

Both government and Doctors should take measures to assist access to services
and resources and to prevent stigmatization and discrimination.

4. Allocation of scarce resources

COVID-19 has the ability to quickly overwhelm the capacity of government and the
healthcare system, forcing Doctors to make difficult decisions about the allocation of
limited resources.

Priority scoring or triage can be ethically justified in the context of limited resources.

Most of these decisions involve the allocation of medical interventions, such as

hospital beds, medications, ventilators, and other medical equipment. The principle of
utility dictates that allocation of scarce resources take into consideration inter alia
appropriate risk taking, futility of treatment, co-morbid conditions and other relevant
factors.

The Critical Care Society of South Africa (CCSSA) provides useful triage guidance
and utilises a frailty scale should the COVID-19 create a demand for critical care
resources (e.g., ventilators, critical care beds) that would outstrip the supply. The
principle of utility is used to maximize benefit to the majority of patients, specifically by
maximizing survival to hospital discharge and beyond. (See annexure 1)

The SAMA endorses the CCSSA guidelines, which proposes as follows:

The triage system should be applied for all patients with serious illness who follow the
normal requirements for ICU care, not just those with COVID-19.

Doctors should immediately stabilize any patient in need of critical care, irrespective
of whether they have COVID-19. Temporary ventilatory support can be provided in
combination with stabilisation to allow the triage team to assess the patient for vital
resource allocation. Effort should be made to complete the initial triage evaluation
within 90 minutes of recognizing the likelihood for use of critical care resources.

Doctors should remember to consider the patient’s wishes with regard to ICU care. If
the patient is incapacitated, guidelines under patient-Doctor interaction apply.

Guidance and allocation of scare resources for critically ill patients

The CCSSA recommends using the Clinical Frailty Scale (CFS) to assess the patient

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The CSF ranges from 1 to 9 as follows:

1. Very fit – those amongst the fittest for their age, and are very active and
motivated.
2. Well – there is no active disease or symptoms, but not as active as in category
1.
3. Managing well – medical problems present, but well controlled. Not regularly
active.
4. Vulnerable – not dependant on others for daily help, but symptoms limit
activities.
5. Mildly frail – more evident slowing and need help in high order IADLS, e.g.,
finances, transport, etc.
6. Moderately frail – need help with all outside activities, keeping house, bathing
and dressing.
7. Completely dependent for personal care, but are stable and not at high risk for
dying (within 6 months)
8. Very severely frail – completely dependent, approaching the end of life and not
able to recover from a minor illness.
9. Terminally ill – life expectancy of less than 6 months.
 Patients with a CFS score ≥ 5 are to be offered a management plan
excluding ICU.
 The lower the score, the higher the likelihood of benefit from ICU care.

Thereafter a colour-coded Priority Score is created, taking into consideration the

Sequential Organ Failure Score (SOFA) and other significant Co-morbidities. This
guides decision-making by helping factor in patient prognosis.

For more detail on Priority Scoring, see Annexure 1

According to the WHO, supportive and palliative care should be provided to persons
unable to access lifesaving resources — even when it is not possible to provide life-
saving medical resources, e.g. ventilators, to all who could benefit from them, efforts
should be made to ensure that no patients are abandoned. This is similar to the
CCSSA triage guidelines.

To the extent possible, responsibilities should be separated and the interpretation of

allocation principles should not be entrusted to Doctors who have pre-existing
professional relationships that create an ethical obligation to advocate for the interests
of specific patients.

Instead, decisions should be made by Doctors who have no personal or professional

reasons to advocate for one patient over another.

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 5. Emergency use of unproven interventions outside of research

There is currently no proven effective intervention for the clinical management of

COVID-19. Although there may be interventions that have shown promising safety and
efficacy in the laboratory and relevant animal models, these have not yet been
evaluated for safety and efficacy in humans. Under normal circumstances, such
interventions undergo testing in clinical trials that can generate reliable evidence about
safety and efficacy. However, in the context of an outbreak such as COVID-19, which
is characterized by high mortality, it can be ethically appropriate to offer individual
patients’ experimental interventions on an emergency basis outside clinical trials.

WHO provides the following criteria for the ethical emergency use of unproven
interventions outside of research:

10. no proven effective treatment exists;

11. it is not possible to initiate clinical studies immediately;
12. data providing preliminary support of the intervention's efficacy and safety are
available, at least from laboratory or animal studies, and use of the intervention
outside clinical trials has been suggested by an appropriately qualified scientific
advisory committee based on a favourable risk-benefit analysis;
13. an appropriately qualified ethics committee has approved such use;
14. adequate resources are available to ensure that risks can be minimized;
15. the patient’s informed consent is obtained; and
16. the emergency use of the intervention is monitored, and the results are
documented and shared promptly with the wider medical and scientific
community.

The ethical basis for emergency use of unproven interventions outside of research
must be justified by the ethical principle of respect for patient autonomy — i.e. the right
of individuals to make their risk-benefit assessments considering their values, goals
and health conditions.

It must also be supported by the principle of beneficence — providing patients with

available and reasonable opportunities to improve their condition, including measures
that can plausibly mitigate extreme suffering and enhance survival.

Administering unproven interventions always involves risks, some of which will not be
fully understood until further testing is conducted. However, any known risks
associated with an intervention should be minimized to the extent reasonably possible.

Collection and sharing of meaningful data — Doctors overseeing and administering

unproven interventions have a moral obligation to collect all scientifically relevant data
on the safety and efficacy of the unproven intervention. Knowledge generated through
should be collected across patients if possible and shared transparently, completely
and rapidly. Doctors also have a duty to keep meticulous patient records.

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Doctors also have a moral obligation to describe information accurately, without
overstating benefits or understating uncertainties or risks.

Importance of informed consent — Individuals who are offered an unproven

intervention should be made aware that the intervention might not benefit them and
might even harm them. If the patient is unconscious, cognitively impaired, or too sick
to understand the information, proxy consent should be obtained from a family
member or other authorized or competent decision-maker.

6. Research during the COVID-19 outbreak

Research conducted during the COVID-19 outbreak should be designed and

implemented ethically and rooted in human rights. The research should NOT
compromise the public health response to the outbreak or the provision of appropriate
clinical care. All clinical trials must be prospectively registered in an appropriate clinical
trial registry.

There is a moral obligation to learn as much as possible as quickly as possible, to

inform the ongoing public health response, and to allow for the proper scientific
evaluation of new interventions being tested. Carrying out this obligation requires
carefully designed and ethically conducted scientific research. In addition to clinical
trials evaluating diagnostics, treatments or preventive measures such as vaccines,
other types of research — including epidemiological, social science, and
implementation studies — can play a critical role in reducing morbidity and mortality
and addressing the social and economic consequences of the outbreak.

Researchers, government and Doctors ought to be guided by the principles of the

Declaration of Helsinki. Doctors, in particular, are reminded that during the COVID-19
crisis they have a duty as a Doctor to promote and safeguard the health, well-being,
and rights of patients, including those who are involved in medical research. The
Doctor’s knowledge and conscience are dedicated to the fulfilment of this duty.

7. Information collection and sharing

Accurate information collection and sharing are important under normal conditions.
During the COVID-19 situation, information collection and sharing takes on increased
urgency. Doctors who collect and share information have a responsibility to adequately
protect the confidentiality of personal information while taking into consideration any
laws, policies, and practices that are in effect during the COVID-19 situation. The
Disaster Management Regulations (11H(5)) state that: No person may disclose any
information contained in the COVID-19 Tracing Database or any information obtained
through this regulation unless authorized to do so and unless the disclosure is
necessary for the purpose of addressing, preventing or combatting the spread
of COVID-19.

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 8. Obligations of government

The government plays a critical role in preventing the spread of and responding to
COVID-19 by improving social and environmental conditions, ensuring a well-
functioning and accessible health system, and engaging in public health surveillance
and prevention activities. The government has an ethical obligation to ensure the long-
term capacity and functioning of the health system necessary to carry out effective
prevention and response efforts.

Key obligations of government:

 Protection of human rights – The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa is

founded on the protection of human rights. The government has an obligation
to ensure that human rights are upheld and protected during the COVID-19
crisis.

 Ensuring the sufficiency of national public health laws —The government

should review public health laws to ensure that they have enough authority to
respond effectively to the epidemic while also providing individuals with
appropriate human rights protections.

 Adequate Resource Allocation – Adequate resource allocation, particularly

scarce resource allocation is of paramount importance during the COVID-19
crisis. The government has an obligation to ensure the ethical and rational
allocation of resources needed to combat the COVID-19 outbreak.

 Participating in global surveillance and preparedness efforts — The

government has an obligation to provide rapid notification and surveillance to
the global community. Additionally, the government should develop adequate
preparedness plans and guide relevant health-care facilities to implement the
plans.

 Involving society - All aspects of the COVID-19 response efforts should be

supported by early and ongoing engagement with the broader South African
(SA) society. In addition to being ethically important, societal engagement is
essential to establishing and maintaining trust and preserving social order.

Involving the broader society fully in the COVID-19 outbreak planning and response
efforts entail attention to the following issues:

 Inclusiveness — The SA society should have opportunities to make their voices

heard in all stages of outbreak planning and response, either directly or through
legitimate representatives (i.e. community leaders). Adequate communication
platforms and tools should be put in place to facilitate public communication
with health officials.

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  Openness to diverse perspectives — Communication efforts should be
designed to facilitate a genuine two-way dialogue and include all members of
society.

 Transparency — The ethical principle of transparency requires that the

government publicly explain the basis for decisions. When decisions must be
made in the face of uncertain information, the uncertainties should be explicitly
acknowledged and conveyed to the public.

 Accountability — Society should know who is responsible for making and

implementing decisions concerning the COVID-19 outbreak response, and how
they can challenge decisions they believe are inappropriate or a violation of
their human rights.

 Situations of vulnerability —Special attention should be given to ensuring that

persons who face heightened vulnerability to harm or injustice during the
COVID-19 pandemic can contribute to decisions about outbreak planning and
response.

9. The Role of Media

The media plays an important role in any infectious disease outbreak response effort.
It is therefore important to ensure that the media has access to accurate and timely
information about COVID-19 and its management. Government, Doctors, non-
governmental organizations, and academic institutions should make efforts to support
media training in relevant scientific concepts and techniques for communicating risk
information without raising unnecessary alarm. Media training is important for
government and public sector employees who may interact with media covering issues
related to COVID-19. In turn, the media has both an obligation and a responsibility to
provide ethical, accurate, factual, and balanced reporting.

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 10. References

Critical Care Society of South Africa. 2020. Allocation of Scarce Critical Care
Resources During the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency in South Africa.
https://criticalcare.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Allocation-of-Scarce-Critical-
Care-Resources-During-the-COVID-19-Public-Health-Emergency-in-South-Africa.pdf
(accessed 06 April 2020)
Critical Care Society of South Africa. 2020. Summary of Allocation of Scarce Critical
Care Resources During the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency in South Africa.
https://criticalcare.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/CCSSA-SUMMARY-COVID-
19-TRIAGE-ALGORITHM.pdf (accessed 06 April 2020)
Earnest MA, Wong SL, Federico SG. Perspective: physician advocacy: what is it and
how do we do it?. Academic medicine. 2010 Jan 1;85(1):63-7.
Giordano J. The good patient: Responsibilities and obligations of the patient-physician
relationship. Practical Pain Management. 2007;7:58-65.
Health Professions Council of South Africa. 2014. Guidelines For Good practice in the
Health Care Professions General Ethical Guidelines for the Health Care Professions
Booklet 1.
https://www.hpcsa.co.za/Uploads/Professional_Practice/Ethics_Booklet.pdf
(accessed 03 April 2020)
McQuoid-Mason D. Provisions for consent by children to medical treatment and
surgical operations, and duties to report child and aged persons abuse: 1 April 2010.
SAMJ: South African Medical Journal. 2010 Oct;100(10):646-8.
South African Government. Children's Act No. 38 of 2005.
https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a38-053.pdf (accessed
06 April 2020)
South African Government. National Health Act No. 61 of 2003.
https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/a61-03.pdf (accessed
06 April 2020)
South African Government. 2020. Disaster Management Act: Regulations to address,
prevent and combat the spread of Coronavirus COVID-19: Amendment.
https://www.gov.za/documents/disaster-management-act-regulations-address-
prevent-and-combat-spread-coronavirus-covid-19 (accessed 04 April 2020)
The Hastings Centre. 2020. Ethical Framework for Health Care Institutions &
Guidelines for Institutional Ethics Services Responding to the Coronavirus Pandemic.
https://www.thehastingscenter.org/ethicalframeworkcovid19/ (accessed 03 April
2020)
World Health Organization. 2016. Guidance for Managing Ethical Issues in Infectious
Disease Outbreaks. file:///C:/Users/brandonf/Downloads/9789241549837-
eng%20(1).pdf (accessed 03 April 2020)

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World Medical Association. 2001. Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical principles for
medical research involving human subjects. Bulletin of the World Health
Organization, 79 (4), 373 - 374. World Health Organization.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2020. Statement on
COVID-19: Ethical Considerations from a Global Perspective.
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373115 (accessed 03 April 2020)

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11. Annexure 1: CCSSA Triage Guidelines (2 April 2020)

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18