Untitled

INDUSTRIAL
ELECTRONICS AND
CONTROL
Including
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER
THIRD EDITION
BISWANATH PAUL
Department of Electrical Engineering
Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray Polytechnic
Jadavpur
West Bengal Technical Education
Kolkata
Delhi-110092
2014
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL Including Programmable Logic Controller Third
Edition Biswanath Paul © 2014 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of
this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-4990-2
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Twelfth Printing (Third Edition)……………………………………………………………July, 2014
Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial
Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC, Kundli-
131028, Sonepat, Haryana.

I offer this work to the love of my parents
Late Shri Anil Bandhu Paul
and
Smt. Chinmoyee Paul
CONTENTS FOREWORD………XIX
PREFACE………XXI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………XXIII
1. POWER SUPPLIES………1–58
1.1 Introduction………1
1.2 Power Supply………1
1.3 Rectifier ………2
1.3.1 Half-wave Rectifier………2
1.3.2 Full-wave Rectifier Using Centre-tap Transformer………5
1.3.3 Full-wave Bridge Rectifier………7
1.4 Performance Parameters of Power Supplies………7
1.4.1 Rectifier Efficiency or Ratio of Rectification………7
1.4.2 Utilisation Factor of a Transformer ………10
1.4.3 Peak Inverse Voltage (P.I.V.) or Peak Reverse Voltage (P.R.V.)
………10
1.4.4 Voltage Regulation………11
1.4.5 Line Regulation or Source Regulation………11
1.4.6 Load Regulation………12
1.4.7 Thermal Regulation………12
1.4.8 Temperature Stability………12
1.4.9 Maximum Power Dissipation………12
1.4.10 Ripple Rejection………12
1.4.11 Stabilisation Factor………12
1.4.12 Ripple Factor………13
1.5 Comparison of Rectifier Circuits (with Resistive Load)………14
1.6 Filtering………15
1.6.1 Capacitor Filter (Shunt Capacitor Filter)………15
1.6.2 Inductor Filter (Series Inductor Filter)………17
1.6.3 Choke Input Filter (LC Filter) ………18
1.6.4 Pi (p) Filter or CLC Filter………19
1.7 Function of a Bleeder Resistor in Filter Circuits………20
1.8 Voltage Multipliers………20
1.8.1 Half-wave Voltage Doubler………20
1.8.2 Full-wave Voltage Doubler………22
1.9 Regulated Power Supply………23
1.9.1 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator………24
1.9.2 Transistorised Series Voltage Regulator or Feedback
Regulator………26
1.9.3 Transistorised Series Voltage Regulator Using 741 IC Op-amp
(Op-amp Voltage Regulator) ………28
1.9.4 Transistorised Shunt Voltage Regulator………29
1.9.5 The 723/723C Voltage Regulator ………29
1.10 Three-Terminal IC Voltage Regulators………32
1.10.1 Three-terminal Fixed Positive Voltage Regulator (LM78xx)
………32
1.10.2 Three-terminal Adjustable Positive Voltage Regulator (LM78xx)
………35
1.10.3 Three-terminal Current Regulator Using LM78xx………36
1.10.4 Three-terminal Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator (LM79xx)
………36
1.10.5 Additional Protection of Thermal Overload by Using External Pass
Transistor for the 78xx Series………37
1.10.6 Current Limiting Circuit for the 78xx Series Voltage
Regulators………38
1.11 Switching Regulator or Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
………39
1.12 Comparison of Linear Power Supply and SMPS………41
1.13 Switch Mode Converter………42
1.13.1 Flyback Converter………42
1.13.2 Buck Converter or Forward Converter or Step-down Converter
(Regulator)………43
1.13.3 Boost Converter or Step-up Converter (Regulator)………44
1.13.4 Buck-boost Converter (Regulator)………45
1.13.5 Cuk Converter or Regulator………45
1.13.6 Comparison of Buck, Boost, and Buck-boost Regulators………47
1.13.7 3524 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Voltage Regulator………47
Multiple Choice Questions………50
True or False Statements………56
Review Questions………57
Problems………58
2. DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS………59–99
2.1.1 Ebers–Moll Model………59
2.2 Differential Amplifier………61
2.2.1 Double-Ended Input and Double-Ended Output Differential
Amplifier………61
2.2.2 Single-Ended Input and Double-Ended Output Differential
2.2.3 Double-Ended Input and Single-Ended Output Differential
2.2.4 Single-Ended Input and Single-Ended Output Differential
2.3 Difference Mode and Common Mode Signals………71
2.4 DC Analysis of a Differential Amplifier………72
2.5 Different Terminologies of Differential Amplifiers………72
2.5.1 Tail Current of a Differential Amplifier………72
2.5.2 Input Bias Current of a Differential Amplifier………74
2.5.3 Input Offset Current of a Differential Amplifier ………74
2.5.4 Input Impedance of a Differential Amplifier………74
2.6 Rejection of Common Mode Signal by Differential Amplifier ………77
2.7 Differential Amplifier with Common Mode Signal………78
2.8 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)………79
2.9 Differential Amplifier with a Constant Current Source………81
2.10 Current Mirror………84
2.10.1 Widlar Current Mirror ………85
2.10.2 Wilson Current Mirror ………87
2.11 Hybrid Parameters for Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)………89
2.12 Hybrid Model for BJTs in Common Emitter Configuration………90
2.13 The Darlington Amplifier………93
2.14 Differential Amplifier with Darlington Configuration………95
2.15 Cascaded Differential Amplifier Stages………96
2.16 Powering of a Differential Amplifier by a Dual Supply………96
True or False Statements ………98
Problems………99
3. Operational Amplifiers………100–173
3.2 Interpreting the mA741 Op-amp Series………101
3.3 Op-amp Characteristics………104
3.4 Open-Loop Op-amp Configuration………107
3.5 Closed-Loop Op-amp Configuration………108
3.6 Terminologies of Op-amp………109
3.6.1 Virtual Ground………109
3.6.2 Slew Rate………110
3.6.3 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)………112
3.7 Typical Parameters of Monolithic mA741C Op-amp………113
3.8 Linear Applications of Operational Amplifier………114
3.8.1 The Inverting Amplifier or Negative Scale Changer or Scale
Changing Amplifier………114
3.8.2 Noninverting Amplifier………118
3.8.3 Unity Gain Buffer (Voltage Follower)………121
3.8.4 Adder or Summing Amplifier (Inverting Mode)………121
3.8.5 Adder/Summing Amplifier (Noninverting Mode)………122
3.8.6 Subtractor (Difference Amplifier)………123
3.8.7 Adder-Subtractor ………125
3.8.8 Instrumentation Amplifier ………129
3.8.9 Current-to-Voltage Follower………132
3.8.10 Voltage-to-Current Follower/v to i Converter………133
3.8.11 Logarithmic Amplifier………134
3.8.12 Precision Rectifier………135
3.9 Nonlinear Applications of Op-amps………138
3.9.1 Differentiator………138
3.9.2 Integrator………139
3.9.3 Op-comparator………142
3.9.4 Noninverting Comparator………142
3.9.5 Inverting Comparator………144
3.9.6 Zero-crossing Detector………144
3.9.7 Schmitt Trigger………145
3.9.8 Relaxation Oscillator………148
3.9.9 Window Comparator………150
3.9.10 Op-comp as Rectangular-to-Triangular Pulse Converter………151
3.9.11 Op-comp as Triangular-to-Rectangular Pulse Converter………151
3.10 Wien Bridge Oscillator Using Op-amp………151
3.11 Function Generator Using 741 Op-amp………154
3.12 Frequency Response of an Op-amp………155
3.13 The LM725 (Instrumentation) Op-amp………157
3.14 The LM709 Op-amp………158
3.15 Block Representation of a Typical Op-amp………159
3.15.1 Simplified Circuit Diagram of the 741 IC Op-amp………160
3.16 Power Supplies for Integrated Circuits………161
3.17 Filters………161
3.17.1 Active Low-pass Filter Using Op-amp………162
3.17.2 Active High-pass Filter Using Op-amp………162
3.18 Audio Amplifier………163
3.19 Classification of Integrated Circuits ………164
3.19.1 Types of Integrated Circuits………164
Problems………173
4. MULTIVIBRATORS, SWITCHING TRANSISTORS, AND
TIMERS………174–226
4.2 The Astable Multivibrator………174
4.3 Monostable Multivibrator………179
4.4 Bistable Multivibrator………184
4.4.1 Types of Triggering Signals………187
4.4.2 Comparison of Multivibrators………187
4.5 Timers………190
4.5.1 Clock Waveforms ………190
4.5.2 Basic Principle of Timer Circuits………191
4.6 The LM555 IC Timer ………191
4.6.1 Working Principle of the 555 IC Timer as in Monostable
Mode………195
4.6.2 Working Principle of the 555 IC Timer as in Astable
Mode………197
4.6.3 10 kHz IC Timer………202
4.6.4 Disadvantages of the 555 IC Timers………203
4.6.5 Parameter Values of the 555 IC Timer………203
4.7 555 IC as Voltage-Controlled Oscillator ………204
4.8 555 IC as Ramp Generator………204
4.9 555 IC as Schmitt Trigger………205
4.10 556 IC Timer………206
4.11 741 Op-amp as an Astable Multivibrator………207
4.12 741 Op-amp as a Monostable Multivibrator………208
4.13 741 Op-amp as a Bistable Multivibrator………209
4.14 Sequential Timer………209
4.15 Digital or Programmable Timer………210
4.16 Switching Circuits………212
4.16.1 Transistor as a Switch………212
4.16.2 Comparison of a Transistor and an SCR as a Switch ………216
4.17 Electronic Time Delay Circuits………216
4.17.1 AC Operated Delay Timer………217
4.17.2 DC Operated Delay Timer Using 741 IC………217
4.18 UJT as a Relaxation Oscillator………218
5. Thyristors………227–344
5.2 Silicon Controlled Rectifier ………228
5.2.1 Constructional Features………228
5.2.2 Theory of Operation of SCR with Two Transistor
Analogy………229
5.2.3 Physical Operation of SCRs………232
5.3 SCR Terminology………233
5.3.1 Forward Breakover Voltage or Forward Breakdown
Voltage………233
5.3.2 Reverse Breakdown Voltage………233
5.3.3 ON-state Voltage………234
5.3.4 Finger Voltage………234
5.3.5 Average ON-state Current………234
5.3.6 Holding Current………234
5.3.7 Latching Current………234
5.3.8 Forward Current Rating………235
5.3.9 Gate Triggering Current………235
5.3.10 Power Rating………236
5.3.11 Turn-on Time………236
5.3.12 Turn-off Time………237
5.4 Different Methods of Turning on of SCRs………238
5.4.1 Radiation Triggering or Light Turn-on………238
5.4.2 Voltage Triggering or Breakover Voltage Turn-on………238
5.4.3 dv/dt Turn-on………239
5.4.4 Gate Turn-on or Gate Triggering………239
5.5 Different Methods of Turning off of SCRs………240
5.5.1 Natural Commutation………240
5.5.2 Forced Commutation………240
5.5.3 Gate Turn-off………240
5.6 Different Methods of Triggering SCR Circuits………240
5.6.1 Pulse Control by R-C Network………241
5.6.2 Pulse Triggering by Saturable Reactor………241
5.6.3 Composite Triggering by PWM Controller………242
5.6.4 Pulse Triggering by Discrete Transistors………243
5.7 Different Methods of Forced Commutation………247
5.7.1 Class a Commutation (Series Resonant Commutation by an LC
Circuit)………247
5.7.2 Class B Commutation (Parallel Resonant Commutation by an LC
Circuit)………249
5.7.3 Class C Commutation (Complementary Commutation or Parallel
Capacitor Turn-off)………250
5.7.4 Class D Commutation (Auxiliary Commutation)………251
5.7.5 Class E Commutation (External Pulse Commutation)………253
5.7.6 Class F Commutation (AC Line Commutation)………253
5.8 Comparison of SCRs and Transistors………254
5.9 Thermal Characteristics of SCRs………255
5.10 Causes of Damage to SCRs………257
5.10.1 Preventing Damage to SCRs………258
5.11 The SCR Crowbar or Overvoltage Protection Circuit………259
5.12 Series and Parallel Operation of SCRs………260
5.12.1 Series Connected SCRs………260
5.12.2 Triggering of Series Connected SCRs………262
5.12.3 Parallel Connection of SCRs ………264
5.12.4 Triggering of Parallel Connected SCRs………266
5.13 Line-Commutated Converters or Rectifier Circuits………267
5.13.1 Half-wave Rectifier (Inductive Load)………268
5.13.2 Half-wave Rectifier (Resistive Load)………272
5.13.3 Full-wave Control Circuit………273
5.13.4 Single-phase Full-wave Controlled Rectifier Using Centre-tap
Transformer (M-2 Connection)………273
5.13.5 Single-phase Bridge Rectifier ………279
5.13.6 Single-phase Full-wave Full-controlled Bridge Rectifier
(B-2 Connection) ………279
5.13.7 Single-phase Full-wave Half-controlled Bridge Rectifier (B-2
Connection) ………282
5.13.8 Three-phase Full-wave Rectifier (M-6 Connection or Six-pulse
Double-star Circuit)………285
5.13.9 Three-phase Full-wave Full-controlled Bridge
Rectifier (B-6 Connection)………288
5.13.10 Three-phase Full-wave Half-controlled Bridge
Rectifier (B-6 Connection) ………291
5.13.11 Three-phase Half-wave Diode Rectifier with Resistive
Load………293
5.13.12 Differences between Full-controlled Bridge and Half-controlled
Bridge Rectifiers………295
5.14 Triacs………295
5.14.1 Gate Triggering Modes of the Triac………296
5.14.2 Choice between Triacs and SCRs………298
5.14.3 Comparison of Triacs with Antiparallel SCRs………299
5.15 Diacs………300
5.16 Quadracs………302
5.17 Recovery Characteristic………302
5.18 Fast Recovery Diodes………302
5.19 Power Diodes………303
5.19.1 Current Ratings of Power Diodes………305
5.19.2 Voltage Ratings of Power Diodes………305
5.19.3 Protection of the Power Diode (Snubber Circuit)………306
5.20 Power Transistors or Power BJTs………306
5.20.1 Snubber Circuit (Switching-aid Circuit) of the Power
BJT………308
5.20.2 Switching Characteristic of the Power Transistor………309
5.21 Power MOSFETs………312
MOSFET………314
5.21.2 Switching Characteristics of the Power MOSFET………314
5.22 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)………315
5.23 Loss of Power in Semiconductor Devices………317
5.24 Comparison between Power MOSFET, Power Transistor and Power
IGBT………318
5.25 Unijunction Transistor ………319
5.26 Electron Tubes………321
5.26.1 Gas-filled Diode………322
5.26.2 Thyratrons………324
5.26.3 Ignitron (Mercury-pool Tube)………326
6. Inverters, Dual Converters, Choppers, and
Cycloconverters………345–411
6.1 Inverters………345
6.2 Line-commutated Inverters………345
6.2.1 Single-phase Line-commutated Full-controlled Inverter ………346
6.2.2 Three-phase Line-commutated Full-controlled Inverter or Six-pulse
Converter………349
6.3 Forced-Commutated Inverters………350
6.3.1 Single-phase Parallel-capacitor Commutated Inverter
(Resistive Load)………351
6.3.2 Single-phase Parallel Inverter with Feedback Diodes………353
6.3.3 Single-phase Series Inverter………355
6.4 Voltage-Source Inverter………360
6.5 Current-Source Inverter………360
6.5.1 Differences between Voltage-source and Current-source
Inverters………361
6.6 Three-phase Forced-commutated Bridge Inverters………361
6.7 Functional Circuit Blocks of a Line-Commutated Converter………365
6.7.1 The Inversion Mode of Operation………365
6.7.2 Two-quadrant Operation of a Phase-controlled Converter………366
6.7.3 Static Four-quadrant Operation………369
6.8 Dual Converters………371
6.8.1 The Phase-controlled Dual Converter………371
6.8.2 Single-phase Dual Converter………372
6.8.3 Types of Three-phase Dual Converters………373
6.8.4 Circulating Current Type Dual Converter (Mid-point Configuration)
………373
6.8.5 Circulating Current Type Dual Converter (Dual-bridge
Configuration) ………375
6.8.6 The Circulating Current-free Type or Non-circulating Type Dual
Converter………376
6.8.7 Different Configurations Used for Dual Converters………377
6.9 Choppers………379
6.9.1 Principle of Operation………380
6.9.2 Chopper Control Technique………382
6.9.3 Voltage Step-down Chopper………384
6.9.4 Voltage Step-up Chopper………386
6.9.5 Jones Chopper………387
6.9.6 Two-quadrant Chopper or Reversible Chopper………391
6.9.7 AC Chopper………392
6.10 Cycloconverter………393
6.10.1 Types of Cycloconverters………394
6.10.2 Single-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Mid-point
Configuration) ………394
6.10.3 Single-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Bridge Configuration)
………398
6.10.4 Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter………399
6.10.5 Types of Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverters………400
6.10.6 Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Circulating Current
Type)………400
6.10.7 Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Non-circulating Current
Type)………401
6.10.8 Three-phase/Three-phase Cycloconverter………402
7. MOTOR CONTROL………412–465
7.2 AC Voltage Controller or Voltage Control at Constant
Frequency………412
7.2.1 Phase Control………413
7.2.2 ON-OFF Control or Integral Cycle Control or AC Chopper
Control………415
7.3 Zero Voltage Switch………417
7.4 Synchronous Tap Changer………418
7.4.1 Tap Changers for Single-phase Transformers (Synchronous Tap
Changing of Transformers)………419
7.5 Phase Control of DC Motors………421
7.5.1 Speed Control of Shunt-wound DC Motors (Armature Voltage
Control)………422
7.5.2 Speed Control of DC Series Motors………424
7.5.3 Speed Control of Separately Excited DC Motors (Armature Voltage
Control Method)………426
7.6 AC Power Control of a Lamp Dimmer………428
7.7 Basics of Induction Motor………429
7.7.1 Variable Speed Induction Motor Drives………433
7.7.2 Speed Control of Induction Motors by Stator Voltage Control
Method………433
7.7.3 Speed Control of Slip Ring Induction Motors by Means of a
Chopper-controlled Resistance in the Rotor Circuit (Rotor ON-OFF
Control)………435
7.7.4 Closed-loop Speed Control System for Three-phase Induction
Motors………437
7.7.5 Variable Voltage–Variable Frequency Control System for Three-
phase Induction Motors………437
7.8 Chopper Control (ON-OFF) of DC Series Motors………440
7.9 Advantages of AC Motor Control Over DC Motor Control………442
7.10 Stepper Motors………443
7.10.1 Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor………443
7.10.2 Permanent Magnet or Bipolar Stepper Motor………447
7.10.3 Permanent Magnet Hybrid (PMH) Stepper Motor………451
7.11 Synchro………453
7.12 Servomechanism………456
7.12.1 Positioning Servo System Using Control Synchro………457
7.12.2 Principle of Operation of a Synchro Control System for
Remote Indication or AC Positioning Telemetering System………458
7.13 Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL) Control of a DC Motor………460
8. HEATING AND WELDING CONTROL………466–493
8.1.1 Advantages of Electrical Heating………466
8.2 Induction Heating………467
8.2.1 Theory of Induction Heating………467
8.2.2 Principle of Induction Heating ………469
8.2.3 Effects of Supply Frequency on Induction Heating ………471
8.2.4 Effects of Source Voltage on Induction Heating………471
8.2.5 Choice of Frequency for Induction Heating………472
8.2.6 Advantages of Induction Heating………472
8.2.7 Applications of Induction Heating ………473
8.2.8 Surface Hardening of Steel or Surface Heating of a Small
Cylindrical Rod………473
8.2.9 Source of High Frequency Power Supply for Induction
Heating………473
8.3 Dielectric Heating………474
8.3.1 Electronic Theory of Dielectric Heating………474
8.3.2 Principle of Operation of Dielectric Heating ………475
8.3.3 Dielectric Heating in Materials of Irregular Shapes………477
8.3.4 Limitations of the Use of Extremely High Frequency for
Dielectric Heating………478
8.3.5 Effect of Variation of Voltage of the Power Supply on Dielectric
Heating………478
8.3.6 Effect of Variation of Frequency of the Power Supply on Dielectric
Heating………478
8.3.7 Applications of Dielectric Heating………478
8.3.8 Source of High Frequency Power Supply for Dielectric
Heating………479
8.3.9 Differences between Induction Heating and Dielectric
Heating………482
8.4 Welding………483
8.4.1 Theory of Resistance Welding………483
8.4.2 Classification of Resistance Welding………483
8.5 Scheme for AC Resistance Welding………487
8.6 Ignitron Contactor as Electronic Line Contactor………488
8.6.1 Heat Control by the Change of Firing Angles in Ignitrons………489
8.6.2 Complete Control in Resistance Welding by a Sequence
Timer………489
9. OPTOELECTRONICS AND OPTICAL FIBRE………494–532
9.2 Photo Emitters………494
9.2.1 Luminescence………494
9.2.2 LED Materials………496
9.2.3 Construction of Surface Emitting Infrared Diodes
(Invisible LEDs)………498
9.2.4 Construction of Edge Emitting Infrared Diodes
(Invisible LEDs)………498
9.2.5 Principle of Operation of LEDs………498
9.3 Lasers………500
9.3.1 Emission and Absorption of Radiation………501
9.3.2 Population Inversion………502
9.3.3 Optical Feedback………502
9.3.4 Formation of Laser Beam………503
9.3.5 Laser Losses………503
9.3.6 Classification of Lasers………503
9.3.7 Semiconductor Laser Diode………503
9.3.8 Differences between LEDs and Laser Diodes………505
9.3.9 Solid State Laser (Ruby)………505
9.4 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs)………506
9.5 Photoconductive Sensors or Bulk Photoconductive Cells………508
9.6 Photodiodes (Junction Type Photoconductors)………510
9.6.1 Photoconductive Type Diode or LDR………511
9.6.2 Photovoltaic Type Diode or Solar Cell………513
9.7 Phototransistors………516
9.8 Light-Activated SCRs (LASCRs) or Photo SCRs………517
9.9 Optocouplers or Optoisolators………518
9.10 Solid State Relays (Light Operated Relays)………521
9.10.1 Solid State Relay Using Optocouplers………522
9.11 Optical Fibre………522
9.11.1 Materials of Optical Fibre………523
9.11.2 Characteristics of Fibre Optic Systems………523
9.11.3 Advantages of the Optical Fibre………524
9.11.4 Applications of Optical Fibres………525
9.11.5 Working Principle of the Optical Fibre (Light Guiding)………525
9.11.6 Fibre Optic Cable………527
9.11.7 Splices and Connectors………528
10. AC POWER CONDITIONER………533–546
10.2 Power Supply Noise………533
10.2.1 Origin of Noise………533
10.2.2 Effect of Noise on Computer and Communication
Systems………534
10.2.3 Reduction of Noise Signal………534
10.2.4 Different Forms of Noise………534
10.2.5 Requirements and Characteristics of the Computer Power Supply
System………535
10.2.6 Types of Power Line Disturbances………536
10.2.7 Effects of Power Line Disturbances on Sensitive Electronic
Equipment………536
10.3 Servo System………537
10.3.1 Servo Motor………537
10.3.2 Principle of Buck-boost Control of a Servo-controlled
Voltage Stabiliser………538
10.4 Servo-Controlled Voltage Stabiliser………539
10.5 AC Generator Voltage Regulator………539
10.6 Constant Voltage Transformer or Ferro-Resonant AC
Regulator………540
10.6.1 Comparison between Power Transformer and Constant Voltage
Transformer ………542
10.7 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)………542
10.7.1 ON-line (Continuous) UPS………543
10.7.2 OFF-line UPS………544
True or False Statements ………546
11. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)………
547–610
11.2 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)………547
11.2.1 Functions of PLC………548
11.2.2 Applications of PLC………548
11.2.3 Advantages of Programmable Logic Controllers over
the Conventional Relay Type of Control………548
11.2.4 Disadvantage of Programmable Logic Controllers over
the Conventional Relay Type of Control………550
11.2.5 Comparison of Data Processing Computer System with the Process
Control Computer System (i.e. System with Logic Controller)………550
11.2.6 Factors to be Considered in Selecting a PLC………550
11.3 Functional Block Diagram of PLC………551
11.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) or PLC Processor………551
11.3.2 Input/Output (I/O) Modules/Interfaces………554
11.3.3 Programming Device………559
11.3.4 Racks and Chassis………559
11.4 Microprocessor of a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)………560
11.4.1 Principle of Operation of the CPU………561
11.5 Memory………561
11.5.1 Classification of Read Only Memory (ROM)………562
11.5.2 Memory Size………564
11.5.3 Memory Map………565
11.5.4 Memory Address………565
11.5.5 Input Image Table………568
11.5.6 Output Image Table………568
11.5.7 Timer/Control Memory………568
11.5.8 PLC Status Bits………572
11.5.9 Integer Memory………572
11.5.10 Floating Memory………572
11.6 Input Modules or Interfaces (Cards)………572
11.6.1 Typical Outputs from Sensors………573
11.6.2 Example of a PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors………573
11.6.3 Input ON/OFF Switching Devices………576
11.6.4 Input Analog Devices………577
11.6.5 PLC Input Instructions………580
11.6.6 Example of an AC Input Card and Ladder Logic………580
11.7 Output Modules/Interfaces/Cards………582
11.7.1 Output ON/OFF Devices………582
11.7.2 Output Analog Devices………582
11.7.3 Example of a DC Output Card and Ladder Logic………584
11.8 Sequence of Operations in a PLC………585
11.8.1 Scan………588
11.8.2 Importance of Logic Scan………588
11.9 Status of PLC………589
11.10 Event-driven Device………589
11.11 Ladder Logic Language………590
11.12 Simple Process Control Application by PLC………591
11.13 Simple Programming Examples………593
11.13.1 Jogging/Inching of an AC Motor………603
Answers to Multiple Choice Questions, True or False Statements,
and Problems………611–616
Index………617–624

FOREWORD
The field of ‘Electronics Engineering’ is characterised by rapid and continuous
evolution both in philosophy and technology. Training and development of
manpower in this sector is a matter of serious and thoughtful planning.
Among the tools needed for manpower development, the textbooks play a vital
role. Nowadays, there is no dearth of textbooks written for this purpose. Most of
the books are written on analytic themes to provide theoretical foundation.
Elegant pedagogic presentation of practical systems and techniques is very
difficult and as such very few textbooks covering these aspects are available.
Shri Biswanath Paul, a dedicated teacher with a brilliant academic career has
taken up the challenge and written Industrial Electronics and Control with a
motive to meet the requirements of students for a simplified and methodical
treatment of numerous topics in the field of power electronics.
I commend this book with great pleasure to all communities of students, teachers
and practising professionals in this discipline.
(Dr. P.K. Banerjee) Professor

Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering Department Jadavpur University Kolkata

Preface
The objective of this book is to provide a clear explanation of the semiconductor
electronic devices and circuits that are in wide use today in modern industry for
the control and conversion of electric power. It is designed to meet the needs of
diploma and degree level students for a textbook in the area of power
electronics, power conversion and control techniques utilising solid state power
devices. The majority of existing books do not meet the requirements of diploma
students for a simplified and methodical explanation of circuit operations. This
book covers the topics of power device characteristics, power conversion and
control techniques and their applications, as prescribed for diploma students
pursuing courses in electrical engineering, electronics and telecommunication
engineering, and instrumentation engineering. The material presented and the
style of delivery are designed to ensure that the students gain a thorough
understanding of the circuitry that uses power devices for a wide range of
applications in industry. For easy understanding, the book contains several
colour circuit diagrams and waveforms to help students assimilate circuit
operations better and faster.
The Third Edition of the book is folded into eleven chapters. Chapter 1
introduces the students to the different types of rectifiers, filters, multipliers,
voltage regulators (LM78xx series), 3524 PWM voltage regulator, and the
growing area of switched mode power supplies. Chapter 2 explains the different
types of differential amplifiers and current mirrors. Widlar and Wilson current
mirrors are also incorporated. Several typical examples are included to illustrate
stage-by-stage analysis of cascaded types of differential amplifiers. The hybrid
parameters are also discussed here to make understanding of the circuit
operation easier. Chapter 3 presents the basic structure of the operational
amplifier and analyses some typical applications of op-amps, both linear and
non-linear. Adder or summing amplifier in non-inverting mode, adder-
subtractor, instrumentation amplifier and precision rectifier are also included.
Filter circuits are also discussed in this chapter. Chapter 4 deals with
multivibrators, switching transistors, and timers. It gives numerous practical
applications of the 555 and 556 timers.
Chapter 5 describes how silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or thyristors
work. Their theory of operation is fully developed. Included are many typical
circuits illustrating various applications of SCRs. This chapter has an added
advantage of presenting a detailed study of other members of the ‘thyristor’
family such as the triac, diac, power diode, power BJT, power MOSFET, power
IGBT, and UJT. Some of the old electron tubes such as the gas-filled diode,
thyratron and ignitron are also dealt with here.
Armed with an understanding of structure and electrical characteristics of
power devices, the student will be able to thoroughly grasp the power electronics
applications presented in Chapter 6. Inverters, dual converters, choppers and
cycloconverters are analysed and their circuit operations explained in detail with
the help of neatly-drawn circuit and waveform diagrams.
Chapter 7 explains some schemes for speed control of dc and ac motors. It
also gives an overview of operation of stepper motors, synchros, servo systems,
and phase-locked-loop (PLL) control of speed of dc motors. Chapter 8 is
devoted to different aspects of heating and welding control applications using
thyristors. Chapter 9 is an overview of modern developments in the field of
optoelectronics and optical fibre and describes light-actuated devices.
Chapter 10 narrates ac power conditioners such as the uninterruptible power
supply (UPS), constant voltage transformer (CVT) and servo-controlled voltage
stabiliser. These types of ac voltage regulators are in wide use today with
computer systems.
Finally, Chapter 11 on Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) has been added
in the second edition. PLCs are industrially-hardened microcomputers that
perform discrete or continuous control functions in a variety of processing plant
and industry environments.
The book thus gives a fundamental, yet detailed education in the field of
industrial electronics and control. Every effort has been made to cover all typical
applications in use today in the industry. Multiple choice questions, true/false
statements, review questions and problems have been included at the end of each
chapter to reinforce the student’s understanding of concepts and mathematical
derivations introduced in the text.
It is hoped that both teachers and students will be benefited immensely from
the treatment of the subject matter in this book. Teachers/Readers/Professionals
are most welcome to send their valuable comments/suggestions to my e-mail id
[email protected].
BISWANATH PAUL
Acknowledgements
I appreciate the help of the many persons, who contributed to this book. In
particular, I am deeply indebted to Prof. S.R. Paul, former Head of the
Department, Electrical Engineering, North Calcutta Polytechnic, Kolkata, who
first instilled into me the idea of authoring this book. His daughter, Mousumi
Paul, my wife, stood by me through the preparation of the manuscript. My
gratitude to her is boundless.
I take great pleasure in acknowledging the generous assistance of my ex-
student, Sumit Mukherjee, who with a smiling face and untiring energy
shouldered the difficult job of drawing all the diagrams in the book.
No words can express my gratefulness to my son Subhajit and daughter
Debapriya, who had to forego my company on countless occasions. I am also
grateful to my sister, Dr. Dipika Paul, for her encouragement throughout this
project. My special thanks go to my elder brother, Somnath Paul, for his help in
typing the manuscript.
I also want to thank all my faculty colleagues and ex-students who contributed
valuable suggestions for improving the presentation of the material.
Finally, I am indebted to the staff at PHI Learning for their care and devotion
during the production of the book.
BISWANATH PAUL
Chapter 4
MULTIVIBRATORS, SWITCHING
TRANSISTORS, AND TIMERS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with two-stage regenerative amplifiers. Two amplifier stages
may be interconnected in such a fashion so as to process either two quasi-stable
states, or one stable state and one quasi-stable state, or two stable states. Such
circuits are called multivibrators. They find extensive applications in pulse
circuitry.
A multivibrator is a pulse generator circuit which produces a rectangular wave
output. It is basically a type of relaxation oscillator consisting of two stages of
resistance-coupled CE amplifiers, with the output of one fed back to the input of
the other. It generates
square waves or other non-sinusoidal waveforms such as rectangular and saw-
tooth. Multivibrators are classified as Astable or free-running, Monostable or
one-shot, and Bistable or flip-flop.
4.2 The ASTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR
The astable or free-running multivibrator as shown in Fig. 4.1 has two outputs Q
and and no input terminal. Both of its outputs are quasi-stable (i.e. half-stable).
Without the aid of any external triggering signal, the astable configuration
makes successive transitions from one quasi-stable state to the other. Though the
circuit requires no external pulse for its operation, it does require a dc supply-
voltage input. The astable multivibrator by continuously oscillating between its
two astable states, thus, generates a square wave on its own without any input
signal. It is, therefore, often referred to as a free-running multivibrator.
Fig. 4.1 Block representation of the astable multivibrator.

Constructional features A typical astable multivibrator circuit using
two similar transistors Q1 and Q2, with capacitive coupling between
them, is shown in Fig. 4.2(a). The output of one stage forms the input
of the other. There is no external trigger from any external source.
Each stage has two resistors and one capacitor.
For a symmetrical astable multivibrator: RB1 = RB2, RL1 = RL2, and C1 =
C2.
Fig. 4.2(a) Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled astable multivibrator.

Working principle
When the power supply voltage + VCC is applied, one transistor conducts more
than the other because of transistor mismatch (i.e. b, VBE). Assume that the
collector current of Q1 increases more rapidly than that of Q2. From the relation
VCE = VCC – ICRL, the output voltage of Q1 (i.e. vC1) will, therefore, go more
negative than the output voltage of Q2 (i.e. vC2). This negative voltage change
in vC1 is felt at the base of Q2 through the coupling capacitor C2, thus reducing
the forward bias on Q2. So the collector current of Q2 decreases and its output
voltage vC2 goes more positive. This positive voltage change in vC2 is felt at the
base of Q1 through the coupling capacitor C1, thus increasing Q1 base current
and hence its collector current. This regenerative feedback action saturates
transistor Q1 and cuts off Q2 instantaneously.
Thus vC1, the output of Q1 is approximately 0 V and vC2 @ + VCC. The
capacitor C1 charges through RL2 and the base-emitter junction of Q1 (since it is
ON) to approximately + VCC as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). But when Q1 conducts, a
path is also provided for C2 to discharge (which had previously charged up to +
VCC when Q2 was conducting) through Q1 and RB2 as shown in Fig. 4.2(c).
Since the emitter to collector resistance of Q1 (saturated) is very low, the
effective discharge time constant for C2 is RB2C2. The initial pulse of discharge
current from C2 through RB2 makes the base of Q2 suddenly –VCC which
causes Q2 to be cut-off.
Fig. 4.2(b) Charging path of capacitor C1 of Fig. 4.2(a).
Fig. 4.2(c) Discharging path of capacitor C2 of Fig. 4.2(a).
When the base voltage vB2 of Q2 has increased from –VCC to 0 V to a low
value of positive voltage, Q2 is brought out of cut-off to conduction. So, the
output voltage vC2 of Q2 falls and this negative voltage change is felt at the base
of Q1 through C1, thus reducing the forward bias on Q1. Therefore, the collector
current of Q1 will decrease and the output voltage vC1 will be more positive.
This positive voltage change in vC1 is felt at the base of Q2 through C2, thus
increasing Q2 base current and hence its collector current. This regenerative
feedback turns Q2 ON and Q1 OFF. The process is repetitive and instantaneous.
Hence, the square wave output is taken from either Q1 or Q2. The different
waveforms are shown in
Fig. 4.2(d).
Fig. 4.2(d) Waveforms of a collector-coupled astable multivibrator.

Rounded leading edges in the collector outputs The base voltage vB2
of Q2 is driven to –VCC during the interval T0 as shown in
Fig. 4.2(d), and the collector voltage vC2 cannot rise to +VCC, the
moment Q2 switches OFF. Since capacitor C1 cannot charge up
instantaneously to +VCC, the voltage vC2 rises to +VCC at the rate
determined by the charging period of C1 through RL2 in series with
the base to emitter resistance of Q1 as shown in Fig. 4.2(b). The
sudden increase in vC2 causes an overshoot of E' in vB1 because of
capacitive coupling through C1. This time constant represents the
exponential rise in voltage of vC2. The time constant here is of a
relatively small value. Hence, the rising edge of the collector voltage
(vC1 or vC2) is rounded.
Applications
As an astable multivibrator generates periodic square waveforms, it is used as a
clock in digital computers to synchronise all the operations in the system.
Switching time and frequency of oscillation The period T of a
complete cycle of the square wave is represented by T = T1 + T2 in
Fig. 4.2(d).
The base-emitter voltage of Q2 during the discharge of C2 is given by vB2 =
VCC – ID2 RB2
where ID2 is the discharging current for C2.
As the capacitor C2 is charged approximately to +VCC, the initial discharge
value of the capacitor current is given by ID2 = (VCC + VCC)/RB2
This current ID2 decays exponentially with a time constant of RB2C2.
Now,
where t = T2.
Assuming that transistor Q2 will switch OFF when vB2 = 0, therefore, 0 = VCC
– 2VCC
or 1 = 2
or
or
or t/RB2C2 = ln 2
The OFF time for Q2 is t = T2 = RB2C2 ln 2 = 0.69 RB2C2
Similarly, the OFF time for Q1 is t = T1 = RB1C1 ln 2 = 0.69 RB1C1
Therefore, the total time period of the square wave is given by T = T1 + T2 =
0.69(RB1C1 + RB2C2) Hence, the frequency of a collector-coupled
multivibrator (asymmetrical) is given by ………(4.1)
For a symmetric circuit: RB1 = RB2 = R and C1 = C2 = C.
Therefore, the time period and the frequency of oscillation are given,
respectively, by T = 1.38RC s………(4.2) and
f = 1/T = 1/(1.38RC) ………(4.3) According to Eq. (4.1), the frequency
may be varied by changing either the product RB1C1 or the product
RB2C2. By increasing the product, the frequency of oscillation is
decreased and vice versa. Hence the frequency of oscillation may be
changed by varying either the value of R or the value of C or both
[according to Eq. (4.2)].
EXAMPLE 4.1
A symmetrical astable multivibrator using bipolar junction transistors as shown
in
Fig. 4.2(a) has a time period of 5 ms, collector current of 5 mA, power supply
voltage, +VCC of 15 V, and b is equal to 50. Considering that transistors are
ideal and just saturate in the ON state, determine RL (RL1 = RL2 = RL), RB (RB1
= RB2 = RB) and C (C1 = C2 = C).
Solution According to the problem: Power supply voltage, VCC = 15 V
Collector saturation current, IC, sat = IC, on = 5 mA = IC
For a symmetrical astable multivibrator: RL1 = RL2 = RL, RB1 = RB2 = RB, C1
= C2 = C
Hence, the collector load is given by RL = VCC/IC = 15/(5 10–3) = 3 103 W =
Base saturation current is IB, sat = IB, on = IC, on/b = (5 10–3)/50 = 0.1 10–3
A = 0.1 mA RB should be such so as to provide this current. Now, IB, on =
VCC/RB
or RB = VCC/IB, on = 15/(0.1 10–3) = 150 103 W =
Time period is T = 1.38RBC
Hence, capacitance of the capacitor is C = T/1.38RB
= (5 10–6)/(1.38 150 103) = 24 10–12 =
4.3 MONOSTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR
A monostable multivibrator has one stable state and the other state is quasi-
stable. A triggering signal is required to induce transition from the stable state to
the quasi-stable state. But the circuit automatically returns to its stable state after
a fixed time delay which is adjustable. It has one input and two complementary
outputs as shown in Fig. 4.3. If it is assumed that no trigger is applied, the output
voltage remains at approximately 0 V
Fig. 4.3 Block representation of the monostable multivibrator.

(i.e. Q = 0). It remains in this stable state until a triggering pulse is applied to the
input terminal. When triggered, the circuit returns to its original state on its own.
It is for this reason that a monostable multivibrator is also known as a one-shot
or a univibrator.
Constructional features The circuit shown in Fig. 4.4(a) has two
similar transistors Q1 and Q2. The collector of Q1 is coupled to the
base of Q2 through the coupling capacitor C. On the other hand, the
output of transistor Q2 is coupled to the input of transistor Q1
through a potential-divider network (R1–R2) in which C1 is a small
speed-up capacitor. The speed-up capacitor C1 serves to speed up the
transition of the transistor. The resistor R forward biases the input of
transistor Q2.
Fig. 4.4(a) Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled monostable multivibrator.

Working principle The negative supply –VBB in conjunction with
resistors R1 and R2 reverse biases Q1 and keeps it at cut-off. The
transistor Q2 gets forward biased by +VCC and R and this leads it to
saturation. This constitutes the stable state of the multivibrator until a
trigger pulse is applied. The base-emitter voltage of Q2 (vB2) is
approximately 0.7 V. Assuming that
Vsat @ 0 V, the collector-emitter voltage of Q2 is, therefore, vC2 @ 0
V. Because Q1 is OFF, its base-emitter voltage is negative (– vB1)
and its collector-emitter voltage, vC2 @ VCC. The coupling capacitor
C is charged through RL1, base-emitter junction of Q2 (as it is ON)
and +VCC as shown in Fig. 4.4(b).
Fig. 4.4(b) Charging path of capacitor C for a collector-coupled monostable

multivibrator.
A negative triggering pulse of sufficient magnitude (through the triggering
circuit) applied to the base of transistor Q2, tends to turn Q2 OFF and makes the
collector-emitter voltage of Q2 rise to +VCC from Vsat. The rising output
voltage of Q2, reflected to the base of Q1, turns Q1 ON and capacitor C
discharges through R, collector-emitter junction of Q1 and +VCC as in Fig.
4.4(c). At the moment of discharging, –VCC is felt at the input of Q2. Until the
capacitor C is completely discharged, the transistor Q2 will, therefore, remain in
the cut-off state. This is the quasi-stable state of the multivibrator.
As soon as capacitor C is completely discharged, the power supply voltage
+VCC through R forward biases Q2 and keeps it at saturation which was the
previous state. This is the monostable state of the multivibrator.
The time duration of the quasi-stable state is T = 0.69RC ………(4.4) The
leading edge in the output waveform of transistor Q1 is rounded as the output of
this transistor is coupled to the input of transistor Q2 through capacitor C. But
the output of transistor Q2 is connected to the input of transistor Q1 through a
resistive attenuator
R1–R2. So the leading edge of the output waveform in transistor Q2 is sharp.
Figure 4.4(d) shows the different waveforms.
Applications
Monostable multivibrators are used in the (i) generation of pulse and extended
waveforms, and (ii) as a no-bounce switch to enter a binary 1 into the adder.
Fig. 4.4(c) Discharging path of capacitor C for a collector-coupled monostable

multivibrator.
Fig. 4.4(d) Waveforms of a collector-coupled monostable multivibrator.
EXAMPLE 4.2
In Fig. 4.4(a), RL1 = RL2 = RL = 1 kW, R1 = R2 = 20 kW, R = 60 kW, C = 100
pF, VCC = VBB = 5 V, b = 60. Determine the magnitudes of IC2, IB2, IB1, vB1
when Q1 is OFF, and the duration of the current pulse in RL.
Solution According to the problem: Collector power supply, VCC = 5 V
Base power supply, VBB = 5 V
Collector load, RL1 = RL2 = RL = 1 kW
Resistance of the potential divider circuit, R1 = R2 = 20 kW
Base bias resistance of transistor Q2, R = 60 kW
Capacitance of capacitor, C = 100 pF
Current gain of the transistors, b = 60
Assuming (R1 + R2) does not shunt the load RL2, Collector current of transistor
Q2 is given by IC2 = VCC/RL = 5/(1 103) =
Base bias current of transistor Q2 is obtained from VCC, IB2 = VCC /R = 5/(60
103) =
Base bias saturation current is given by, IB, sat = IC/b = 5/60 = 0.083 mA = IB2
Hence, the values of RL and R are satisfactory.
As vC2 = 0 (approximately), the base-emitter voltage of transistor Q1, vB1 =
–VBB {R1/(R1 + R2)}, turns Q1 OFF, so that vC1 = VCC as no current flows
through RL1 of Q1.
Now,
Thus Q1 is OFF.
Q1 is ON with vB1 = 0, i.e. when the triggering pulse is applied. Thus,
The time duration of the current pulse in RL, T2 = 0.69RC = 0.69(60 103) (100
10–12) =
EXAMPLE 4.3
The monostable multivibrator as shown in Fig. 4.4(a) is to have an output pulse
of 1 ms duration and 10 mA magnitude. Given b = 20, reverse bias of 2 V for
the OFF transistor, and when ON the transistors barely saturate. Determine the
elements RL (RL1 = RL2 = RL), R1, R2, R and C. Assume VCC = VBB = 6 V.
Solution According to the problem: For the ON transistor, VCC = 6 V and IC =
10 mA Collector load is given by RL = VCC/IC = 6/(10 10–3) = 600 W =
Since IC = 10 mA and b = 20, the base saturation current is given by IB, sat =
IC/b = (10 10–3)/20 = 0.5 10–3 = 0.5 mA Base current IB is derived from VCC
and R. Therefore, IB = VCC/R
or
0.5 10–3 = 6/R or R =
During trigger to keep Q1 ON,
or
As given in the problem, | vB1 | = 2 V and | VBB | = 6 V
For the normally OFF transistor Q1
or (R1 + R2)/R1 = – VBB/vB1

or 1 + R2/R1 = 6/2 or 1 + R2/11.4 = 6/2
Therefore, R2 =
The duration of the output pulse is T2 = 0.69RC
or 10–6 = 0.69(12 103)C or C = 120 pF
4.4 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

A bistable circuit is one which can exist indefinitely in either of the two stable
states, and which can be induced to make an abrupt transition from one state to
the other by means of an external excitation. A block diagram of the bistable
multivibrator is shown in
Fig. 4.5. The bistable multivibrator is also referred to as flip-flop, binary, and
Eccles-Jordan’s circuit. It has two inputs, labelled S and R and two outputs
labelled Q and .
Fig. 4.5 Block representation of the bistable multivibrator.

Assuming that Q is LOW (= 0), the bistable multivibrator remains in this state
until a triggering pulse is applied to input S, to make Q HIGH (= 1). The output
Q = 1 will remain in this state until a trigger input is applied to terminal R to
make Q = 0 once again. Thus the bistable multivibrator exhibits two stable dc
states, i.e. Q = 1 and Q = 0. It remains in one of these two states until a trigger
pulse is applied to either terminal S or terminal R to initiate the change from one
state to the other.
The name flip-flop conveys the idea of switching the states one way and then
the opposite way. The bistable multivibrator, therefore, does not oscillate
without the trigger pulse. On the other hand, it exhibits memory. Its output
depends not only on the present input, but also on the input terminal to which the
previous triggering pulse was applied. Such a circuit is referred to as a
sequential circuit.
Constructional features A collector-coupled bistable multivibrator as
shown in Fig. 4.6(a), basically, has two identical CE amplifier stages.
The output of each amplifier is direct coupled through RB1, RB2
(shunted by speed-up capacitors C and C, respectively) to the input of
the other amplifier.
For a symmetrical bistable multivibrator: RL1 = RL2, RB1 = RB2, and C = C.
Fig. 4.6(a) Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled bistable multivibrator.

Working principle
On application of power supply +VCC, because of mismatch of two transistors
Q1 and Q2, if IC2 increases, the voltage at the output vC2 of Q2 will decrease.
This in turn decreases the voltage at the input B1 of transistor Q1. This change in
voltage at the input of Q1 is amplified and inverted by Q1, resulting in the output
voltage vC1 to increase. Hence the voltage at the input B2 of Q2 becomes more
positive, and as a consequence the current IC2 is increased still further. These
events are repeated cyclically. The current IC2 continues to increase and the
current IC1 continues to decrease, the circuit moving progressively further away
from its initial condition. This action takes place because of the regenerative
feedback incorporated into the circuit, and will occur only if the loop gain of the
circuit is larger than unity. This phenomenon drives transistor Q2 to saturation
and Q1 to cut-off. In general, the base-emitter voltage of a transistor is
approximately 0.7 V. Here, the base emitter voltage of Q1 is negative ensuring
that it is cut-off as is shown in Fig. 4.6(b).
Fig. 4.6(b) Waveforms of the collector-coupled bistable multivibrator.

A bistable multivibrator remains in one of its stable states indefinitely until it
is induced to make a transition as a result of the triggering signal, such as a
pulse, applied from some external source. To change the state of the flip-flop, a
negative pulse to the SET input S is applied through diode D to the base of the
ON state transistor Q2. Transistor Q2 is now turned OFF because of the negative
trigger pulse and its collector voltage vC2 rises towards + VCC. The increase in
collector voltage is coupled through resistor RB1 to the base of Q1. Its base-
emitter voltage now becomes less negative and finally equals 0.7 V. Transistor
Q1 is, therefore, ON, and Q2 is cut-off. This is the other stable state of the
multivibrator. To make Q2 ON and Q1 OFF, a negative trigger pulse to the
RESET input R through the triggering circuit is applied to the input of transistor
Q1 which was the previous assumed condition.
Function of capacitors C and C

The transition time is defined as the interval during which conduction transfers
from one transistor to the other. The transition time may be reduced by
introducing small capacitances in shunt with the coupling resistors RB1, RB2 of
the bistable multivibrator. These capacitors assist the flip-flop in making abrupt
transitions between states, hence they are known as commutating, transpose, or
speed-up capacitors.
Applications
The bistable multivibrator is used in shift registers and counters. These are two
important devices employed in digital computers and systems. Shift registers are
used to store information such as data or an instruction. The counter, as its name
implies, counts pulses.
4.4.1 Types of Triggering Signals The triggering signal which is
usually employed to induce a transition from one state to the
other is either a pulse of short duration or a step voltage. This
pulse or step may be introduced in such a fashion so as to produce
either symmetrical or asymmetrical triggering. In asymmetrical
triggering, the triggering signal is effective in inducing a
transition in only one direction. Asymmetrical triggering, using
two triggering sources is found frequently where the binary (flip-
flop) is to be used as a generator of a gate whose width equals the
interval between the triggers. Asymmetrical triggering finds
extensive applications in logic circuitry, for example, registers and
coding circuits. In symmetrical triggering, each successive
coding circuits. In symmetrical triggering, each successive
triggering signal induces a transition, regardless of the state in
which the binary happens to be. Symmetrical triggering is used in
binary counting circuits.
4.4.2 Comparison of Multivibrators
Astable multivibrator Monostable multivibrator Bistable multivibrator
1. It has two outputs and no input terminal. It has two outputs and one input terminal. It has two outputs and two input terminals.
2. It has two quasi-stable states.

It has one quasi-stable state and one stable
state.
It has two stable states.
3. No external pulse is required to complete

a cycle.
An external pulse is required to complete
a cycle.
Two external pulses are required to complete
a cycle.
4. It is used as a clock in digital computers. It is used as a no-bounce switch It is used as a memory element.
EXAMPLE 4.4
Figure 4.6(a) has VCC = VBB = 5 V, IC, sat = IC, on = 10 mA, b = 20 and VBE,
off = – 1 V. Calculate RL (RL1 = RL2 = RL), R (RB1 = RB2 = R), and RB.
Solution According to the given problem: Collector bias supply, VCC = 5 V
Base bias supply, VBB = 5 V
Collector saturation current, IC, sat = IC, on = 10 mA Current gain, b =
20
Assuming Vsat = 0 and (R + RB) >> RL, collector load is given by RL = VCC/IC,
–3
on = 5/(10 10 ) =
Base saturation current is given by IB, sat = IB, on = IC, on/b = (10 10–3)/20 =
0.5 mA From the circuit diagram of Fig. 4.6(a)
Approximately, IB1 = (VCC/RB1) – (VBB/RB) (∵ vB1 << VCC) So, base
saturation current is given by IB, on = (VCC/R) – (VBB/RB) or 0.5 10–3 = (5/R)
– (5/RB) or 0.0001 = (1/R) – (1/RB) ………(4.5) For OFF transistor Q2,
or –1 = –5R/(R + RB) or R/(R + RB) = 1/5 ………(4.6) Solving Eqs. (4.5) and
(4.6),
Thus, R + RB = 7.5 + 30 = 37.5 kW which is 75 times RL. It satisfies the
condition,
(R + RB) >> RL.
EXAMPLE 4.5
In Fig. 4.6(a), VCC = VBB = 5 volts, b = 20, RL = 0.47 kW, R = 6 kW (RB1 =
RB2 = R),
RB =18 kW. Determine (a) the approximate value of the collector and base
currents for the ON transistor and the base voltage of the OFF transistor and (b)
the exact values of these currents and voltages, using VCE, sat = 0.3 V, VBE =
0.6 V.

Solution According to the given problem: Collector bias supply, VCC = 5 V
Base bias supply, VBB = 5 V
Load resistance, RL = 0.47 kW
Base bias resistance, R = 6 kW
Current gain, b = 20
The approximate value of collector saturation current is given by IC, on =
VCC/RL = 5/(0.47 103) =
The exact value of collector saturation current in RL is given by IC, sat = (VCC –
Vsat)/RL
= (5 – 0.3)/(0.47 103) = 10 10–3 =
From the circuit diagram of Fig. 4.6(a), the current through R and RB is given by
I = (VBB + VCE, sat)/(R + RB) = (5 + 0.3)/{(6 + 18) 103} = 0.22 mA where
VCE, sat = Vsat.
Hence, the exact value of collector current for the ON transistor is given by IC,
on = IC, sat – I = 10 – 0.22 =
The approximate value of base saturation current is
Hence, the exact value of base current of the ON transistor is given by
The base current can also be found in another way, IB, on = IC, on/b = 9.8/20 =
0.49 mA. This satisfies the previous part of the base current calculation.
The approximate value of base voltage of the OFF transistor is given by vB =
VBBR/(R + RB) = (5 6)/(6 + 18) = 1.25 V
Hence,
The exact value of base voltage of the OFF transistor is given by
Hence, the exact value of the base voltage of the OFF transistor is,
4.5 Timers
The heart of every digital system is the system clock which, indeed, provides the
heart beat without which the system would cease to function. Digital circuits
need a source of accurately defined pulses. The requirement is mostly for a
single pulse of given duration (i.e. a one-shot) or for a continuous train of pulses
with specified frequency and duty cycle. Instead of attempting to produce an
arrangement of standard logic gates to meet these requirements, it is usually
simpler and more cost effective to make use of one range of versatile integrated
circuits, collectively known as timers.
A monostable is the basic digital timing circuit that is used in a wide variety of
timing applications. Timer ICs are designed to generate accurate and stable R-C
defined timing periods, for use in a variety of monostable pulse generators and
astable square-wave generator applications. The best known timer ICs series is
the highly versatile 555 family of devices, which is available in both single (555)
and dual (556) bipolar packages as well as in CMOS forms (7555 and 7556).
The 555 timer IC was first introduced by Signetics in the late 1970s but is now
produced by many other IC manufacturers. The 555 timers have a number of
attractive features:
They can operate from a wide range of supply voltages.

They can source (supply) or sink (absorb) fairly high load currents.
They consume fairly modest supply currents.
They have an adjustable duty cycle.
They are TTL compatible.
They have high temperature stability.
They provide timings from ms to hours.
Timers are used for a variety of applications such as: (i) precision timing, (ii)
pulse generation, (iii) sequential timing, (iv) time delay generation, (v) pulse
width modulation,
(vi) pulse position modulation, and (vii) linear ramp generation.
4.5.1 Clock Waveforms Since all logical operations in a
synchronous machine occur in synchronism with a clock, the
system clock becomes the basic timing unit. The system clock
must provide a periodic waveform that can be used as a
synchronising signal. The symmetrical square wave shown in Fig.
4.7(a) is a typical clock waveform used in digital systems. It
should be noted that the clock need not be a perfectly symmetrical
square wave. It can be an asymmetrical waveform as shown in
Fig. 4.7(b). It can also be a series of positive or negative pulses,
Fig. 4.7(b). It can also be a series of positive or negative pulses,
considered as an asymmetrical square wave.
Fig. 4.7(a) Symmetrical square waveform.
Fig. 4.7(b) Asymmetrical waveform.

4.5.2 Basic Principle of Timer Circuits In electronic timing
circuits, including time delays, the action in one circuit can cause
a second circuit to operate at a desired time later on. The basic
timing elements in a timing circuit are the capacitor and resistor.
A capacitor takes time to charge and discharge, i.e. a capacitor is
capable of storing and releasing a charge of electrons.
When the switch is placed in position (0–1) as shown in Fig. 4.8(a), the
capacitor CT starts to charge through the resistor RT towards +V. At the
switching instant, the battery V sees only resistance RT in the circuit, that is, CT
acts as a short circuit. Hence, all the applied voltage V appears across RT and the
charging current iC shown in Fig. 4.8(b) is limited only by the size of RT as
there is zero voltage across capacitor CT. The charging current iC now causes a
voltage vC to build up across CT with the polarity as shown in
Fig. 4.8(a). This is a buckling voltage which opposes the battery voltage and,
thus, acts to reduce the charging current. At any instant of time after the start of
the charging interval, the active voltage which causes current to flow in the
circuit is (V – vC). It is apparent that when vC = V, the capacitor is fully charged
and the charging current iC ceases. The decay in voltage across the resistor, vR,
follows the decay of the charging current. Thus, at the end of the charging
interval, although the battery is still applied across the RT–CT circuit, the
charging current iC = 0, vR = 0, and vC = V. The time required to charge a
capacitor to 63.2% of the applied voltage is known as the time constant of the
circuit.
When the switch is thrown to position 0–2, voltage vC across capacitor CT
starts to discharge towards 0 V through resistance RT . Now, the current, i.e.
discharging current iD flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, the voltage vR
across RT has the opposite polarity as shown in the wave diagram. Eventually,
the capacitor CT discharges completely.
Time constant as an important parameter in timer circuits The rate of

capacitor discharge may be fast in the beginning, but it gradually
becomes slower as the capacitor discharges. The length of the time
required for the capacitor voltage to decrease approximately to one-
third of its starting value is given by the time constant, T = RC
[=RTCT in Fig. 4.8(a)]. This time constant RC is not equal to the
length of the actual time delay of the circuit. It shows as to how long
the capacitor voltage remains above one-third of its starting value. As
shown in Fig. 4.8(c), the capacitor voltage is exactly 0.368 times the
original voltage after the passage of time equal to RC seconds. At this
point the capacitor has lost 63.2% of its charge. When time equalling
3RC has passed, the capacitor voltage is merely 5% or 0.05 of its
starting value.
4.6 The LM555 IC TIMER

The LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or
oscillations. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting, if
desired. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by
an external resistor and a capacitor. For astable operation as an oscillator, the
free running frequency and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two
external resistors and a capacitor. The circuit may be
Fig. 4.8(a) and (b) Basic timing circuit: (a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms.
Fig. 4.8(c) Rate of capacitor discharge.
triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the output circuit can source or
sink up to 200 mA or drive TTL circuits. The 555 IC timer is available in 8 pin
dual-in-line (DIL) or in a circular metal CAN package. Some manufacturers use
the suffix C to indicate the commercial version for general purpose applications.
Functional block diagram In Fig. 4.9(a), a string of three equal
resistors (R = 5 kW) bridged between the supply voltage +VCC and
ground, provides reference voltages for the threshold comparator and
the trigger comparator. The reference voltages for the threshold
comparator and the trigger comparator are + (2/3)VCC and +
(1/3)VCC, respectively. The two comparators control the S-R flip-flop
which in turn controls the state of the output. The output of the S-R
flip-flop decides whether the discharge transistor would be in cut-off
state or go into saturation. A low power complementary output stage
is also connected to the output of the S-R flip-flop.
Pin functions
Pin 1 It is maintained at ground potential. The negative plate of the external
timing capacitor CT is connected to this terminal. The negative plate is normally
connected to the circuit common line when operated from positive supply
voltages.
Pin 2 This pin is termed trigger input. The inverting input of the trigger
comparator is connected to this pin. When a negative-going external trigger
pulse is applied to this terminal to initiate the switching state of the timer output,
the output of the trigger comparator goes high momentarily and sets the flip-
flop, i.e. Q = 1 and = 0.
Fig. 4.9(a) Internal block diagram of a 555 IC timer with pin notations.
Pin 3 It is referred to as the output terminal. In addition, an inverting output
buffer (high-current totem-pole transistor stage) is incorporated so that
considerable current can be sourced or sunk to/from a load. The input of the
buffer comes from the complemented output of the S-R flip-flop.
Pin 4 This pin is known as the reset input. When this terminal is grounded (or a
negative-going reset pulse is applied to this terminal), it inhibits the device, i.e.
prevents the timer from working. This action is performed through a transistor
Q2 as shown in Fig. 4.9(a). When the base terminal of the P-N-P transistor Q2 is
grounded, the collector-emitter junction gets saturated which in turn resets the
timer output to zero. It is tied to +VCC when the timer is working.
Pin 5 It is the control input. The voltage at this pin is maintained at + (2/3)VCC.
Pin 5 is connected to the inverting input of the threshold comparator and
bypassed to ground through a small capacitor of value 0.01 mF which provides
noise (RF signal or stray ac) filtering of the control voltage since this terminal is
a comparator input. In most applications, the control input is not used.
Pin 6 This is the threshold input, whose voltage changes when the capacitor
charges or discharges. It is compared with the control voltage + (2/3)VCC at pin
5. Pin 6 is connected to the non-inverting input of the threshold comparator.
Pin 7 The collector of the discharge transistor Q1 is connected to this pin. As the
timing capacitor CT discharges through this pin and the collector-emitter
junction of the discharge transistor, this pin termed the discharge pin. The
conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage.
Pin 8 Power supply +VCC is connected to this terminal. Hence it is called a
power supply pin.
4.6.1 Working Principle of the 555 IC Timer as in Monostable
Mode Assume that the output is HIGH without a trigger pulse
having been applied. This saturates the transistor Q1 and clamps
the capacitor voltage to ground. It also holds the output low at Pin
3. If a negative-going trigger pulse (slightly less than + (1/3)VCC)
is now applied to trigger Pin 2, the output of the trigger
comparator will become 1 (HIGH) momentarily. This, S = 1 and R
= 0 input condition sets the flip-flop, i.e. makes Q = 1 and
= 0. The output = 0 of the flip-flop cuts off the transistor Q1
and allows the timing capacitor CT to charge towards +VCC as
shown in Fig. 4.9(b). The charging path of the capacitor is shown
in Fig. 4.9(a).
When the capacitor voltage at Pin 6, i.e. Pin 7 (since it is directly connected) is
slightly more than + (2/3)VCC , the threshold comparator has a HIGH output.
The trigger pulse to the trigger input is maintained for a short time interval and
then returned to +VCC. Consequently, the output of the trigger comparator
changes from 1 to 0. So, now the
S = 0 and R = 1 input condition resets the flip-flop to Q = 0 and = 1. As soon
as goes HIGH, it turns on the transistor. This quickly discharges the timing
capacitor CT through the collector-emitter junction of the discharge transistor Q1
and clamps the capacitor voltage to ground which was the original and the stable
state. In practice, the capacitor CT discharges exponentially as shown by the
chain line in Fig. 4.9(b). The discharging path of capacitor CT is shown in Fig.
4.9(a). The charging time interval of capacitor CT from 0 V to + (2/3)VCC is the
quasi-stable state of the timer as in monostable operation. As a result, one
rectangular output pulse is obtained from the output terminal (Pin 3). The 555 IC
will only trigger on a negative-going edge of the trigger pulse. It is necessary
that the trigger input be returned to a voltage more than (1/3)VCC. A block
diagram of the 555 IC timer in its monostable arrangement is shown in Fig.
4.9(c). Isometric view and pinout diagram of the 555 IC timer are shown in Figs.
4.9(d) and (e), respectively.
Mathematical expression for duration of the high pulse in monostable
mode The timing capacitor CT has to charge through resistance RT.
The larger the charging time constant (RTCT), the longer it takes for
the capacitor voltage to reach + (2/3)VCC. In other words, the time
constant RT CT controls the width of the output pulse. The duration of
the output pulse width is given by, W = 1.1RTCT as shown below.
The basic switching equation that applies to an R-C circuit is v = vi + (vf – vi)
{1 – e–(t/RC)} ………(4.7a) where
v is the instantaneous capacitor voltage
Fig. 4.9(b) Waveforms of a 555 IC timer as in monostable mode.
Fig. 4.9(c) Block diagram of the 555 IC timer as in monostable mode.

Fig. 4.9(d) and (e) The 555 IC timer: (d) isometric view and (e) pinout diagram.
vi is the initial capacitor voltage vf is the target capacitor voltage t is the
charging time RC is the time constant.
In Fig. 4.9(a), the initial capacitor voltage is zero, the target capacitor voltage is
+VCC, and the final capacitor voltage reached is + (2/3)VCC. Now, from Eq.
(4.7a),
where t = W as in Fig. 4.9(b). Thus,
Therefore,
W = 1.1RTCT………(4.7b) 4.6.2 Working Principle of the 555 IC Timer
as in Astable Mode In Fig. 4.10(a), the resistor R1 (connected between
Pin 8 and Pin 7) and R2 (between
Pin 7 and Pin 6) are the timing resistors. Pin 2 is tied to Pin 6. When is
LOW, the timing capacitor CT charges through resistors R1 and R2
towards +VCC. The charging time constant is, TC = (R1 + R2)CT.
As the capacitor charges, the threshold voltage at Pin 6 increases. As long as
the capacitor voltage is more than + (1/3)VCC but less than + (2/3)VCC, the
outputs of both the trigger and threshold comparators remain 0 (i.e. S = 0 and R
= 0) resulting in the flip-flop output Q and the output at Pin 3 HIGH (1). When
the threshold voltage exceeds + (2/3)VCC, the threshold comparator has a HIGH
output. So, S = 0 and R = 1 input condition resets the flip-flop, i.e. Q = 0 and =
1. The output = 1 in turn saturates transistor Q1. Now, the timing capacitor CT
starts discharging from +VCC towards 0 V through R2 and the collector-emitter
junction of discharge transistor Q1. The discharging current path is shown in
Fig. 4.10(a). The discharging time constant is, TD = R2CT.
As long as the capacitor voltage is less than + (2/3)VCC but more than +
(1/3)VCC, the outputs of the threshold and trigger comparators are both 0. Such
a condition (S = 0
Fig. 4.10(a) Internal and external connections of a 555 IC timer as in astable

mode.
and R = 0) maintains the capacitor to discharge. When the capacitor voltage falls
slightly below + (1/3)VCC, the trigger comparator has a HIGH output.
Therefore, S = 1 and R = 0 condition sets the flip flop to Q = 1 and = 0. The
output = 0, in turn, cuts off transistor Q1. The capacitor will again charge from
+ (1/3)VCC towards +VCC as shown in Fig. 4.10(b).
Since the charging time constant is longer than the discharging time constant,
the output is asymmetric; the HIGH output state lasts longer than the LOW
output state. To specify how much asymmetric the output is, the duty cycle will
be used which is defined as the ratio of the HIGH duration pulse (or ON time) to
the HIGH duration pulse plus the LOW duration pulse (or OFF time).
Mathematically, the duty cycle is expressed as ………(4.8)
Fig. 4.10(b) Waveforms of a 555 IC timer as in astable mode.

or
D = (W/T) 100% ………(4.9) where
W = tON = time duration of the output in the HIGH state T = tON + tOFF =
time period of the output Figure 4.10(c) is a block representation of the 555 IC
timer as in astable mode. If R1 is replaced by a diode D or the diode D is
connected across R2 as shown in Fig. 4.10(d), the charging time constant
becomes equal to the discharging time constant which makes the output
symmetrical ( i.e. the duration of the HIGH pulse equals the duration of the
LOW pulse). In other words, the duty cycle becomes 50%.
In connection with timer circuits, another term mark to space ratio is used
which is defined as the ratio of the high duration of the output pulse (or ON
time) to the low duration of the output pulse (or OFF time). Mathematically, the
mark to space ratio (MSS) is expressed as MSS = tON/tOFF ………(4.10)
Mathematical expression for duration of the HIGH output pulse tON and of
LOW output pulse tOFF in astable mode In Fig. 4.10(b), the capacitor CT takes
time W to develop an upward rise in the charge. The capacitor voltage starts at +
(1/3)VCC and rises to + (2/3)VCC with a target voltage of +VCC. Substituting all
the values in Eq. (4.7), (2/3)VCC = (1/3)VCC + {VCC – (1/3)VCC}{1 –
}
Fig. 4.10(c) Block representation of a 555 IC timer as in astable mode.

Fig. 4.10(d) External connections of a 555 IC timer as in astable mode when the
duty cycle is 50%.
or 2/3 = (1/3) + (2/3){1 – }
or 2 = 1 + 2{1 –
or 0.5 =
Therefore, the duration of the HIGH output pulse is given by W = 0.693(R1 +
R2)CT = tON ………(4.11) The discharge equation is similar, except that R2 is
used instead of (R1 + R2). In
Fig. 4.10(b), the discharge time is (T – W), which leads to T – W = 0.693R2CT =
tOFF………(4.12) Hence, the time period is given by T = 0.693(R1 + R2)CT +
0.693R2CT………(4.13) The duty cycle is given by
Therefore,
………(4.14) The frequency of oscillation is given by
………(4.15) EXAMPLE 4.5
If R2 = 500 W, calculate the values for R1 and CT of a 555 IC timer, as shown in
Fig. 4.10(c), whose clock frequency and duty cycle are 1.5 MHz and 70%,
respectively.
Solution The time period of 1.5 MHz clock is T = 1/f = 1/(1.5 106) = 0.67 ms
The duty cycle is given by D = W/T = tON/T
or
Therefore, tON = 0.469 ms and tOFF = T – tON

= 0.67 – 0.469 = 0.201 ms Again, the duty cycle from Eq. (4.14) is
or
0.7 = (R1 + 500)/(R1 + 2 500) Therefore,
Now,
tOFF = 0.69R2C2
or
0.201 10–6 = 0.69 500C2
Therefore,
4.6.3 10 kHz IC Timer In Fig. 4.10(c) when R2 is very large

relative to R1, the operating frequency is determined mainly by
R2 and CT, an almost symmetrical square wave output develops
on Pin 3, and a nearlinear triangle waveform appears across CT.
The graph of Fig. 4.11(a) shows the consequent relationship
between the frequency and the CT –R2 values. If R2 >> R1, then
tON @ 0.693R2CT and tOFF @ 0.693R2CT.
Fig. 4.11(a) Relationship between CT, R2 and 555 astable frequency when R2 is
large compared to R1.
Therefore, the total time period and frequency are given, respectively, by T =
tON + tOFF = 1.386R2CT
and f = 1/T = 1/1.386R2CT
If R2 = 75 kW and CT = 100 nF, then the frequency of the 555 timer in astable
mode is f = 1/{1.386(75 103) (100 10–9)} = 10 103 Hz = 10 kHz 4.6.4
Disadvantages of the 555 IC Timers Unfortunately, when timing periods in
excess of tens of seconds are required, the humble 555 timer is somewhat limited
in accuracy. This limitation is directly attributable to
poor tolerance and excessive leakage currents associated with large-value
electrolytic capacitors.
An obvious solution to the problem is that of using a short-period time
standard (one that can be generated with a high degree of accuracy) and dividing
this period by using a chain of binary dividers to produce the desired output
period. The effort to overcome
this drawback led to the invention of long-period timers which are of the
following two types: Precision long-period timers. These timers have a single
division ratio. The 555 is used as a gated astable that generates clock signals
with fairly short cyclic periods (using non-electrolytic timing elements) and
these periods are effectively expanded by a factor through the divider stage,
which controls the 555 gating.
Programmable long-period timers. These timers have a division ratio that can
be varied by external electronic signals. The mA2240 ICs are used as
programmable long-period timers.
4.6.5 Parameter Values of the 555 IC Timer The following are the
parameter values of the 555 IC timer.
Parameter Value
Supply voltage range 4.5–16 V
Power dissipation (max) 600 mW
Threshold voltage + (2/3)VCC
Trigger voltage + (1/3)VCC
Reset voltage 0.7 V

Output rise/fall times 100 ns
Supply current (at VCC = 15 V) 10 mA
Maximum output source/sink current 200 mA
Timing accuracy, typical ± 1%
Drift with temperature 50 ppm/°C
Drift with supply voltage 0.1%/V
4.7 555 IC AS VOLTAGE-

CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR
Figure 4.11(b) shows a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). It is a free running
multivibrator which may be used to generate square and triangular waves; the
frequency of the generated waveforms is the linear function of a control voltage.
Hence it is called a voltage-controlled oscillator. The frequency is also a
function of an external resistor and a capacitor. The circuit is, therefore,
sometimes called a voltage-to-frequency converter because an input voltage
can change the output frequency.
Fig. 4.11(b) 555 IC as a voltage-controlled oscillator.
Pin 5 (control input) connects to the inverting input of the threshold
comparator. Normally, the control voltage is + (2/3)VCC because of the internal
voltage divider. In
Fig. 4.11(b), however, the voltage from an external potentiometer overrides the
internal voltage. In other words, by adjusting the potentiometer, the control
voltage Vcon can be changed.
Figure 4.11(c) illustrates the voltage across the timing capacitor CT which
varies between +Vcon/2 and +Vcon. If +Vcon is increased, it takes the capacitor
longer to charge and discharge; therefore, the frequency of the output decreases.
As a result, the frequency of the circuit can be changed by varying the control
voltage.
Fig. 4.11(c) Capacitor timing waveform of a voltage-controlled oscillator using

555 IC.
4.8 555 IC AS RAMP GENERATOR

When the pull-up resistor RT in the monostable circuit as shown in Fig. 4.9(a) is
replaced by a constant current source, a linear ramp is generated as shown in Fig.
4.12. A P-N-P current source produces a constant charging current of IC = (VCC
– VE)/RE, where
If VCC = 12 V, RE = 18 kW, R1 = 4 kW, R2 = 8 kW, and VBE = 0.7 V, then VE
= [{8/(4 + 8)} 12] + 0.7 = 8.7 V
and IC = (12 – 8.7)/(18 103) = 0.183 mA When a trigger pulse is applied to the
trigger input (Pin 2), the P-N-P current source forces a constant charging current
(maximum current) into the capacitor. Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor
is a ramp, the slope of which is, S = IC/CT.
If the capacitance CT = 0.015 mF, the ramp will have a slope of S = (0.183
10–3)/(0.015 10– 6) = 12.2 V/ms Figure 4.12 also shows the trigger and ramp
waveforms.
Fig. 4.12 555 IC as a ramp generator.
4.9 555 IC AS SCHMITT TRIGGER

The 555 IC timer can be made to function as a Schmitt trigger by connecting the
threshold input (Pin 6) and the trigger input (Pin 2) of the two comparators
together to a common input, as shown in Fig. 4.13, and applying the external
input signals directly to the common point. The inverting voltage and the non-
inverting voltage of the threshold and trigger comparators are + (2/3)VCC and +
(1/3)VCC, respectively. The comparator outputs drive the two inputs R and S of
the flip-flop.
Fig. 4.13 555 IC timer as Schmitt trigger.

When the input signal vin to the common input terminal rises above +
(2/3)VCC, the
R = 1 and S = 0 condition resets the flip-flop, resulting in LOW output state of
the timer. The timer output remains in this state until the input falls below +
(1/3)VCC. As soon as the input signal falls below + (1/3)VCC, the R = 0 and S =
1 condition sets the flip-flop, resulting in the HIGH output state of the timer
which remains there until the input signal rises above
+ (2/3)VCC again. The difference between these two trigger levels is called the
hysteresis value of the circuit, which has a value of + (1/3)VCC.
4.10 556 IC TIMER

The LM556 dual timing circuit which is housed in the 14 pin DIL package, is a
highly stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or
oscillations. The 556 is a dual 555. For each timing function, the timing is
provided separately by an external resistor and a capacitor. The two timers, thus,
operate independently of each other sharing +VCC and ground. They have the
same electrical characteristics as that of the standard 555. These circuits may be
triggered and reset on falling edges of the waveforms. The output structure may
sink or source 200 mA. Figure 4.14 represents the pinout diagram of the 556 IC
timer.
Fig. 4.14 Pinout diagram of the 556 dual timer.
4.11 741 OP-AMP AS an ASTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR
Figure 4.15 represents a free running or astable multivibrator circuit using a 741
op-amp. Presume that the op-amp output is initially at + Vsat and capacitor C1
charges through resistor R1. As soon as the voltage across C1 exceeds the
positive reference voltage,
Vref = {Vsat /(R2 + R3)}R3, developed by the potential divider circuit (R2–R3)
at the non-inverting input of the 741 op-amp, the output voltage switches over to
a negative value. Now, capacitor C1 first discharges and then recharges in the
opposite direction through R1 until its voltage is less than the voltage at the non-
inverting input of the op-amp. When the output voltage changes from a positive
to its negative value, the feedback voltage at the non-inverting input will be, –
Vref = {(– Vsat)/(R2 + R3)}R3. If the voltage across capacitor
C1 exceeds – Vref, the output of the op-amp again reverts to its positive voltage,
i.e. + Vsat. The cycle repeats itself as long as the power supplies are ON. Hence
a rectangular digital pulse will be obtained from the output of the op-amp
without any external pulse having been applied to the inputs of the op-amp.
Fig. 4.15 The 741 op-amp as an astable multivibrator.
4.12 741 OP-AMP AS a

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Figure 4.16 shows a single-shot or monostable multivibrator circuit using a
741 op-amp. The potential divider circuit R1–R2 maintains half the supply
voltage at the non-inverting input when R1 = R2. If switch S is open, capacitor
C1 charges through R3. As the charging voltage across C1 (at Pin 3) exceeds the
voltage at the non-inverting input, the output will become a positive value at
+Vsat. The single-shot can be triggered by closing and then opening the switch
S. Just at the instant of closing the switch, capacitor C1 discharges instantly and
the output will change to –Vsat. When the switch is re-opened, the capacitor
Fig. 4.16 The 741 op-amp as a monostable multivibrator.

recharges through R3. As soon as the capacitor voltage exceeds half the supply
voltage, the output voltage will again change to its original state at +Vsat. This is
the stable state of the monostable multivibrator.
4.13 741 OP-AMP AS A BISTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR
Assume that switch S is position ‘a’ as shown in Fig. 4.17 and the output is
initially positive, i.e. +Vsat. The output of the op-amp is fed back directly to the
non-inverting input of the amplifier. If switch S is changed to position ‘b’, the
output switches from a positive to a negative voltage, i.e. –Vsat. Again the
output will revert to its original state when switch S is thrown to position ‘a’.
Thus, a rectangular pulse will be obtained from the output terminal.
Fig. 4.17 The 741 op-amp as a bistable multivibrator.
4.14 SEQUENTIAL TIMER

Sequence control involves controlling the sequence in which certain events
occur. Sequential timers are used in sequential operation of machines and
automatic traffic control systems. Figure 4.18 shows the circuit diagram of a
sequential timer using 555 IC timers.
Principle of operation Assume that all 555 IC timers are initially
OFF. When switch S is closed, the first timer is triggered momentarily
and its output vout1 goes HIGH. After a time interval, T1 = 1.1R1C1,
the output of the first timer (vout1) goes LOW. Now, the LOW output
of the first timer triggers the second timer. After the elapse of a time
interval, T2 = 1.1R3C4, the output of the second timer goes LOW.
Similarly in this sequence, the output of the fourth timer (vout4) goes
LOW after a time interval, T4 = 1.1R7C10.
If the output of the last timer is fed back to the trigger input of the first timer,
the whole order repeat itself endlessly. The four timers can be used to control
four relays RLY1, RLY2, RLY3, and RLY4 and these switch in a sequence 1, 2,
3, 4, 1, . . .
Fig. 4.18 Circuit diagram of a sequential timer.
4.15 DIGITAL OR
PROGRAMMABLE TIMER
With the arrival of large-scale ICs, mainly because of the improvements in
metallic oxide semiconductor (MOS) technology, IC timers have been improved
upon as well. The digital or programmable timer is a classical example. The
programmable feature increases the value of the timer for computer-controlled
applications as well as for others.
The mA2240 programmable long-period timer IC is a special-purpose device
suitable for use in a very limited number of timing applications. Figure 4.19(a)
shows the block diagram with pin notations. The mA2240 is a development of
the basic 555 timer, incorporating an internal time base oscillator together with
an 8-bit binary counter chain housed in a
Fig. 4.19(a) Block diagram with pin notations of the mA2240 programmable
timer IC.
16-pin DIL package. The divider chain outputs are, in fact, open collector
transistors and these can, therefore, be connected together in a wired-AND
configuration to give division ratios of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 between
pins 1 to 8, respectively. The oscillator is controlled by an external RC timing
network and generates a cyclic waveform of period equal to RC seconds. The
device permits access to the counter chain such that the actual division can be
programmed in the range 1 to 255.
If several outputs are linked together, it will be necessary for all outputs to go
HIGH to enable the collective output to go HIGH. If any one or more of the
outputs should be LOW, then the collective output would be LOW too. This
arrangement provides a neat method of resetting the timer when the count
reaches a particular state determined by the eight divided outputs.
Principle of operation The timing cycle is initiated by applying a
positive-going trigger pulse to Pin 11. The trigger activates the time
base oscillator, enables the counter section, and sets all the counter
outputs to LOW state. The clock pulses with a period equal to RC
generated by the time base oscillator are counted by the binary
counter section. The timing cycle is completed when a positive-going
reset pulse is applied to Pin 10.
In the reset state, both the time base and the counter section are disabled and
all the counter outputs are in HIGH state. In most timing applications, one or
more outputs of the counter are connected back to the reset terminal when switch
S1 is closed [see
Fig. 4.19(b)]. Connected this way, the circuit will start the timing cycle when a
trigger is applied and automatically reset itself to complete the timing cycle
when a programmed count is complete. If none of the counter outputs is
connected back to the reset terminal (S1 open), the circuit will operate in its
astable mode after an input trigger.
Fig. 4.19(b) External connections of a mA2240 programmable/digital timer.

For example, if Pins 3, 6, and 7 are tied to the output bus, the total time delay
will be (4 + 32 + 64)T = 100T, i.e. the output of the circuit will switch HIGH on
the arrival of the hundredth clock pulse. As the output goes HIGH, it feeds a
reset signal to Pin 10 through R3 and this turns the time base oscillator off and
sets all eight divider outputs HIGH, thus completing the timing operation. In this
manner, the timing cycle can be programmed from 1 to 255T, where T = RC.
When power is applied with no trigger or reset inputs, the circuit reverts to its
reset state. The outputs of the binary counter are HIGH or in a nonconducting
state. Once triggered, the circuit is immune to additional trigger inputs, until the
timing cycle is completed or a reset input is applied. The time period of the time
base oscillator can also be modulated by applying a dc voltage to Pin 13. The
time base oscillator can also be synchronised by applying a sync pulse to Pin 12.
The time base output at Pin 14 is an open collector stage and requires a 20 kW
pull-up resistor to Pin 15 for the circuit operation. At reset, the time base output
is in HIGH state, and subsequent to triggering, it produces a negative-going
pulse train with a time period T = RC. The time base output is internally
connected to the binary counter and in some applications it may be used as an
externally generated clock pulse.
4.16 SWITCHING CIRCUITS

In practice it is often required to make or break an electrical circuit, it is thus
desirable and necessary that this ‘make and break’ should be very quick and
without sparking. Mechanical switches cannot be used for this purpose because
they have high inertia which limits their speed of operation. Also, sparking
occurs at the contacts during make-break operations, resulting in pitting of the
contacts. Thus, in many electronic systems, transistors are used as non-linear
elements, i.e. as controlled switches. A digital computer, for example, will use,
literally several thousand transistor switches. The speed with which the switches
operate is of great importance in digital systems.
Properties of an ideal switch An ideal switch should have the
following properties:
Instant turn-on and turn-off times

No power loss
High speed of operation (it means 106 make-break operations per second)
Noiseless operation
Sparkless operation
Zero ON-value resistance (RON = 0)
Infinite OFF-value resistance (ROFF = )
4.16.1 Transistor as a Switch In the case of a transistor, there is a

time delay between the leading edge of the input voltage pulse and
the time that the collector current takes to reach 90% of its
maximum value. This time is known as the turn-on time.
The time required for the collector current to decrease from IC, sat to 0.1 IC,
sat when input voltage goes negative is called the turn-off time.
The resistances of a switching transistor in the ON state (RON) and OFF state
(ROFF) approximate to very low and high values, respectively. So practical
switching devices (transistors, FETs etc.) are not really ideal in the sense that
they all have some finite values of
turn-on time
turn-off time
power loss
ON-value resistance
OFF-value resistance
The transistor, however, can be made to operate as a near-ideal switch by

designing the associated circuit so that the transistor is either in the cut-off
region or in the saturation region. When the transistor is cut-off, no collector
current (except leakage current ICEO due to minority carriers) flows and the
switch is open. When the transistor is in saturation state, maximum collector
current flows as the input circuit is biased sufficiently and the switch is closed.
The switch is controlled by the current applied to the base. The transistor
switching circuit is driven by an input pulse wave as shown in
Fig. 4.20(a). The input waveform makes a transition from voltage level – V1 to
V2 at time
t = 0, and after a time interval T it again makes a transition from V2 to – V1 as
shown in the figure. The transistor at –V1 is in cut-off state and at V2 in
saturation state.
Fig. 4.20(a) Transistor as a switch.
Saturation region
When the input voltage is made so much positive that saturation collector current
flows, the transistor is said to be in the ON condition. The voltage across the
collector-emitter junction is the saturation voltage, Vsat. Typically, Vsat for most
switching transistors is 0.1 V or less. In this region, a transistor may be
represented by the model of a closed switch in series with a battery of Vsat volts
as shown in Fig. 4.20(a). A transistor when ON is in saturation state and is
referred to as a saturated switch. If a transistor is ON and not in the saturated
region, it is referred to as a non-saturated switch. In the interest of greater
efficiency, transistors are generally operated as saturated switches.
The saturation collector current is given by IC, sat = (VCC – VCE, sat)/RL
………(4.16) Power loss in the saturation region is given by PL, sat = VCE, sat
IC, sat ………(4.17) The efficiency of the transistor as a switch in the saturation
region is high as the power loss is quite low due to small value of VCE, sat = 0.1
V = Vsat.
The resistance of the transistor in the saturation region is RON = VCE,
sat/ICE, sat ………(4.18) which is of very low value since VCE, sat is small as
may be seen from Fig. 4.20(b).
Fig. 4.20(b) Output characteristic curve of the switching transistor.
It may be seen that the collector current iC does not immediately respond to
the transition in the input wave. Instead, it takes a certain definite time td for the
current to rise to 10% of IC, sat as shown in Fig. 4.20(c). It is approximately
equal to the time required for the base-emitter voltage (emitter diode) to increase
from –V1 to about 0.7 V. (This happens because of the interelectrode
capacitance CBE of the transistor.) This time duration td is called the delay time.
Fig. 4.20(c) Collector current response to the driving input pulse.

Again, the collector current takes a certain rise time tr to rise from 10% to
90% of IC, sat. During this interval the transistor is operating in the active
region.
The total turn-on time tON is the sum of the delay time td and the rise time tr.
Therefore, tON = td + tr ………(4.19) Cut-off region
In this region, the transistor is considered to be OFF. It may be represented by
the model of an open switch as shown in Fig. 4.20(d). In switching a transistor
from ON to OFF (or from OFF to ON), it makes a transition through the active
region. A fast switching transistor makes this transition very rapidly. Power loss
in the cut-off region is given by PL, OFF = VCC ICEO ………(4.20) The
efficiency of the transistor as a switch in the cut-off region is high as the power
loss is quite low because of the small value of ICEO. The resistance of the
transistor in the cut-off region is given by ROFF = VCC/ICEO ………(4.21)
This is a very high value since ICEO is small.
Fig. 4.20(d) Transistor as an open switch.

As the input signal returns to its initial state at t = T [see Fig. 4.20(a)], the
output (collector) current again fails to respond immediately. The storage time ts
is the elapsed time from the trailing edge of the input pulse (t = T) to the point
where the collector current iC has dropped to 90% of IC, sat [see Fig. 4.20(c)].
The failure of the transistor to respond at the trailing edge of the driving pulse
for the time interval ts results from the fact that a transistor in saturation has a
saturation charge of excess minority carriers in the base. The transistor cannot
respond until this saturation excess charge has been removed.
Further, the time interval taken by the collector current to fall from 90% to
10% of IC, sat is called the fall time tf. The fall time is due to the fact that, if a
base current step is used to return the transistor from saturation to cut-off, the
transistor collector current must traverse the active region. The collector current
decreases along an exponential path because of the interelectrode capacitance
CCE.
The total turn-off time is the sum of the storage time ts and the fall time tf.
Therefore, tOFF = ts + tf ………(4.22) Propagation delay time of a transistor
The time taken by a transistor switch to respond to an input signal is called the
propagation delay time tpd. The propagation delay time is usually defined as the
elapsed time between the mid-points of the input signal transition voltage and
the output signal transition voltage as shown in Fig. 4.20(e).
Fig. 4.20(e) Propagation delay time of a transistor switch.

The propagation delay when the switch output falls from the HIGH state to the
LOW state is symbolized as tpd, HL or tpd– . Similarly the propagation delay,
when the switch output rises from the LOW state to the HIGH state is called tpd,
LH or tpd+. Usually tpd+ is greater than tpd– because of the inevitable
capacitance at the switch output.
4.16.2 Comparison of a Transistor and an SCR as a Switch
Though the switching operation of the SCR (thyristor) is covered
in Chapter 5, the following comparison between the transistor
and SCR as a switch is presented to highlight the comparative
demerits of the transistor.
Transistor SCR
There is no regenerative action in the transistor, it requires a continuous base current in order to The SCR needs only a gate pulse to turn
stay in the conducting state. it ON.
The SCR is used only as a switching

A power transistor is also required to operate in the active region in many applications.
device.
The internal power losses in an SCR are

The internal power losses in a power transistor are much higher.
much lower.
The ratings of SCRs are in the range of

The ratings of power transistors are in the range of a few watts to several hundred watts.
a few kWs.
4.17 ELECTRONIC TIME DELAY
CIRCUITs
These are used to alter the starting time of a control circuit or a load device. An
electronic delay timer is set for a specific delay setting. On being energised, the
timer delays the turn-on operation according to this delay setting. After the
predetermined delay time, the switching device closes the line thereby
energising the system load. For a specific time delay setting, the load device
remains off on application of electrical energy until the delay time has elapsed.
In electronic timers, switching is done using either SCRs or Triacs.
4.17.1 AC Operated Delay Timer The timing unit as shown in Fig.
4.21(a) operates from a 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply. When the SPDT
(single-pole double-throw) switch S is placed in position ‘a’,
autotransformer T supplies 32 V between lines 2 and 3; current
flows through diode D1 and it charges C1. A small current flows
through R4 and the control relay coil (CR), but not enough to
close the relay contact labelled ‘NO’ (normally open). Capacitor
C2 now charges through R2 and the variable resistance of
potentiometer P. As soon as the potential across C2 exceeds the
emitter potential of UJT, current flows through diode D2 and the
UJT. There is a sudden decrease in resistance within the UJT
between its emitter (E) and base-1 (B1). The energy stored in C2
forces a surge of current through UJT and the control relay coil
(CR), which is now large enough to energise the relay and thus
close the ‘NO’ contact. Although this surge soon ends as C2
discharges, the control relay coil is kept energised by the current
flowing through R4. So at the end of time delay as selected by
potentiometer P, the UJT is triggered and the ‘NO’ contact
connects 230 V across the external load.
Fig. 4.21(a) AC operated delay timer.
When switch S is returned to position ‘b’, capacitor C2 discharges through R3,
load, and the ‘NO’ contact—thereby turning off the UJT. At the start of each
timing operation, any charge on C2 is drained through R1 and switch contact S.
4.17.2 DC OPERATED DELAY TIMER USING 741 IC

The resistive attenuator circuit R1–R2 maintains the voltage at the inverting
input as shown in Fig. 4.21(b). In practice, R1 = R2, therefore, the voltage at the
inverting input is half the supply voltage. A fraction of the output voltage is fed
back to the inverting input through R4 for increasing the input impedance. The
non-inverting input is connected to
Fig. 4.21(b) DC operated delay timer using 741 IC.
the junction of R3 and C. If switch S is kept open, the capacitor C charges
through R3. When the capacitor voltage exceeds the voltage at the inverting
input, the output abruptly changes from 0 V to the positive line potential. The
voltage of reverse polarity at the output will appear if the external elements R3
and C are transposed. Time delays from a fraction of a second to several hours
can be obtained by a judicious selection of R3 and C. This time delay which is
independent of the supply voltage is equal to 0.69 R3C second, where C is in
farads.
4.18 UJT AS a RELAXATION

OSCILLATOR
Figure 4.22(a) shows a UJT relaxation oscillator which generates a trigger pulse
as is applied to the gate of an SCR. When power VBB is applied, the capacitor C
begins to draw
Fig. 4.22(a) UJT as a relaxation oscillator.

charging current exponentially through resistor R. The voltage across capacitor
C (vC) is the emitter voltage of the UJT. As soon as the capacitor voltage
reaches the peak point emitter voltage of the UJT, it is turned ON. The charging
time constant is RC. At this time, the UJT switches to its low resistance
conducting mode and the capacitor discharges exponentially through emitter (E),
base-1 (B1) and resistor R1. When the voltage across capacitor C drops to
approximately 2 V, the UJT turns OFF, and the cycle is repeated. The
discharging time constant is R1C. The voltage across R1(vB1) is applied to the
gate of an SCR. The waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.22(b).
Fig. 4.22(b) Waveforms of a relaxation oscillator using the UJT.
The frequency f of the relaxation oscillator depends on the time constant RC
and the characteristics of the UJT. For values of R1 ≤ 100 W, the period of
oscillation T is given approximately by T = 1/f = RC ln {1/(1 – h)}
where h is the intrinsic stand-off ratio. The values of h lie between 0.51 and
0.82. If R1 is replaced by a warning pilot lamp, it can be used as an overvoltage
detector.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Multivibrator circuits are basically two-stage amplifiers in which the output
of one stage is connected to the input of the other stage with (a) negative
feedback.
(b) positive feedback.
(c) either (a) or (b).
(d) none of the above.
2. A square-wave oscillator is (a) an astable multivibrator.
(b) a bistable multivibrator.
(c) a monostable multivibrator.
3. An astable multivibrator has (a) one stable state.
(b) two quasi-stable states.
(c) two stable states.
4. In a multivibrator, the nature of the external trigger which is applied at the
base of the nonconducting transistor is (a) always positive.
(b) always negative.
(c) either positive or negative.
(d) unpredictable.
5. The leading edge in the output of an astable multivibrator is (a) rounded.
(b) a step.
(c) either rounded or a step.
6. The time period of a symmetrical astable multivibrator is (a) 0.69RC.
(b) 1.38RC.
7. The frequency of oscillation of an astable multivibrator depends mainly on
the (a) R-C values of the circuit.
(b) b value of the transistor.
(c) width of the input pulse.
(d) collector load resistor.
8. In a free-running multivibrator, each stage remains cut off for 1 ms. The
frequency of oscillation is (a) 10 MHz.
(b) 5 MHz.
(c) 1 MHz.
(d) 0.5 MHz.
9. The monostable multivibrator has (a) no stable state.
(b) one stable state.
(c) one stable state and one quasi-stable state.
10. A bistable multivibrator has (a) no stable state.
(b) one stable state.
(c) two stable states.
(d) switches automatically from one state to another.
11. To use multivibrator as a memory element, one needs (a) a monostable
multivibrator.
(b) a bistable multivibrator.
(c) an astable multivibrator.
12. The time constant of an RC circuit is the time required to charge a
capacitor to (a) 36.8% of the applied voltage.
(b) 63.2% of the applied voltage.
(c) 50% of the applied voltage.
13. The duty cycle of a 555 IC timer is (a) adjustable.
(b) fixed.
(c) adjustable or fixed.
14. What is the maximum current that a 555 timer can source or sink under
any conditions?
(a) It can source or sink 100 mA.
(b) It can source 100 mA but sink 200 mA.
(c) It can source or sink 200 mA.
(d) None of the above.
15. A 555 IC timer circuit is used for (a) the measurement of time.
(b) converting voltage waveforms of different time constants.
(c) generating different pulses.
(d) designing an electronic clock.
16. A 555 IC timer has (a) three comparators.
(b) two comparators.
17. When the 555 IC timer is working, the reset pin (Pin 4) is tied to (a) +VCC.
(b) ground.
(c) either +VCC or ground.
18. In a simple timer (charging) circuit with input voltage V, the voltage vC
across the capacitor after one time period is given by (a) 0.368V.
(b) 0.632V.
(c) 0.328V.
(d) 0.25V.
19. Which one of the following is not an input or output of IC 555?
(a) Reset.
(b) Discharge.
(c) Clock.
(d) Trigger.
20. The longest feasible time delay that one can get from a 555 IC timer is (a)
about one day.
(b) 100 seconds.
(c) 30 to 35 minutes.
21. In a conventional one-shot 555 IC timer, the output on going HIGH stays
HIGH for a time period that is equal to (a) 0.69RC.
(b) the time taken by the timing capacitor to charge from 0 to (2/3)VCC.
(c) the time taken by the timing capacitor to discharge from (2/3)VCC to 0.
(d) the time taken by the timing capacitor to discharge from (1/3)VCC to
(2/3)VCC.
22. In a 555 IC timer as in monostable mode, the output pulse width is (a)
0.69RC.
(b) 1.1RC.
(c) 1.38RC.
(d) 2.2RC.
23. While designing IC 555s as astable and monostable circuits, which
capacitor type should be opted for as a timing capacitor?
(a) Ceramic disc.
(b) Paper.
(c) Electrolytic.
(d) Polyesterene.
24. With reference to the astable mode of operation of timer 555, which one of
the following statements is true?
(a) The reset terminal is always grounded.
(b) The trigger terminal is always shorted to the threshold terminal.
(c) The reset terminal is left open.
(d) The trigger input is left open.
25. In a conventional astable multivibrator, the timing capacitor charges and
discharges between (a) 0 and (1/3)VCC.
(b) 0 and (2/3)VCC.
(c) (1/3)VCC and (2/3)VCC.
(d) 0 and VCC.
26. In a conventional astable multivibrator using IC 555, the frequency of the
output waveform will be (a) 1.45/(R1 + 2R2)C.
(b) 1/(R1 + 2R2)C.
(c) 1.45/(R1 + R2)C.
(d) 1/1.1(R1 + 2R2)C.
27. If the value of the capacitor in a 555 timer astable multivibrator circuit is
doubled, the statement that the frequency doubles itself is (a) true.
(b) false.
(c) neither true nor false.
(d) meaningless.
28. The duty cycle of a timer circuit is (a) tON/tOFF.
(b) tOFF /tON.
(c) tON/(tON + tOFF).
(d) (tON + tOFF)/tON.
29. The mark-to-space ratio of a timer circuit is (a) tON/tOFF.
(b) tOFF/tON.
(c) tON/(tON + tOFF).
30. What is the minimum duty cycle that one can achieve with the astable
multivibrator?
(a) Approximately 50%, but slightly greater (b) Approximately 50%, but
slightly less.
(c) 50%.
(d) 25%.
31. Referring to Fig. 4.10(d), if diode D is to be ideal in a free-running
multivibrator configuration, then the timing capacitor CT must charge and
discharge during operation between (a) 0 and (1/3)VCC.
(b) (1/3)VCC and VCC.
(c) (1/3)VCC and (2/3)VCC.
(d) (1/4)VCC and (1/2)VCC.
32. What will be the duty cycle of the output waveform in Fig. 4.10(d)?
(a) 25%.
(b) 50%.
(c) 75%.
(d) None of the above.
33. A 10 kHz IC timer can operate in (a) bistable mode.
(b) monostable mode.
(c) astable mode.
(d) either of the above three modes.
34. A 556 IC timer is nothing but (a) an improved version of the 555 IC timer.
(b) another IC 555 timer made by another company.
(c) a pin-to-pin replacement of 555.
(d) a dual timer containing two independent 555 timers.
35. The voltage-controlled oscillator is (a) a frequency-to-voltage converter.
(b) a voltage-to-frequency converter.
(c) a current-to-frequency converter.
36. The mA2240 digital timer is (a) an 8-pin DIL package.
(b) a 16-pin DIL package.
37. In the mA2240 programmable timer, the bit of binary counter is (a) an 8-
bit counter.
(b) a 16-bit counter.
38. A series R-C circuit is fed from a dc source of 10 V. If R = 50 W and C = 2
mF, the current will be maximum (a) after 10 ms from turn-on.
(b) after 100 ms from turn-on.
(c) immediately after turn-on.
(d) after a small duration of 50 ms.
39. An ideal transistor switch has (a) infinite ON-value resistance.
(b) zero OFF-value resistance.
(c) no power loss.
40. The turn-on time of a transistor is (a) tON = td + tf.
(b) tON = ts + tf.
(c) tON = td + tr.
(d) tON = td + ts.
41. The turn-off time of a transistor is (a) tOFF = td + tf.
(b) tOFF = ts + tf.
(c) tOFF = td + tr.
(d) tOFF = td + ts.
42. When a UJT is used for triggering an SCR, the shape of the waveform of
the voltage obtained from the UJT circuit is (a) sine wave.
(b) saw-tooth wave.
(c) square wave.
TRUE OR FALSE STATEMENTS

Indicate whether the following statements are True or False.
1. An astable multivibrator has two inputs.
2. A free-running multivibrator generates square waves on its own.
3. An astable multivibrator does not require a source of dc power.
4. An astable multivibrator requires triggering pulses for its operation.
5. An astable multivibrator has one stable state.
6. The output of a free-running multivibrator switches automatically from one
state to another.
7. The two rising edges in the output waveform of an astable multivibrator are
rounded.
8. The time period of oscillation in an asymmetrical astable multivibrator is
1.38RC.
9. A univibrator has only one stable state and one quasi-stable state.
10. A one-shot multivibrator has two inputs and two outputs.
11. A monostable multivibrator does not need a trigger input.
12. A bistable multivibrator exhibits two quasi-stable states.
13. A univibrator is also referred to as a flip-flop.
14. The two leading edges in the output waveforms of a monostable
multivibrator are rounded.
15. The bistable multivibrator exhibits memory.
16. The bistable multivibrator does oscillate without a trigger pulse.
17. The monostable multivibrator is used as a clock in digital computers.
18. The commutating capacitors in a bistable multivibrator are used to increase
the transition time.
19. Bistable multivibrators are suitable for the construction of counters.
20. Transistors used for the construction of bistable multivibrators should
change over very quickly between cut-off and saturation conditions.
21. The rate of capacitor discharge in an RC circuit may be slow in the
beginning, but always becomes faster as the capacitor discharges.
22. The 555 IC timer is TTL compatible.
23. The 555 IC timer can be used for sequential timing.
24. The inverting output buffer of the 555 IC timer is a high current totem-pole
transistor stage.
25. The 555 IC timer has two comparators.
26. The 555 IC timer as in monostable mode is a digital timing circuit that is
used in a wide variety of timing applications.
27. The 555 IC timer can source or sink only fairly low values of load currents.
28. The 555 IC timer has poor temperature stability.
29. The delay generation is not possible with the 555 IC timer.
30. In most applications, the control input of the 555 IC timer is not used.
31. The 555 IC timer as in monostable mode will only trigger on a negative-
going edge of the trigger pulse.
32. The clock wave used in a digital system using a 555 IC timer is normally a
sine wave and it need not be a symmetrical square wave.
33. The basic timing elements in a timing circuit are capacitor and resistor.
34. The frequency of a voltage-controlled oscillator is the linear function of a
control voltage.
35. The 555 IC timer cannot be used as a Schmitt trigger.
36. A Schmitt trigger can be used for getting a square wave from a sine wave.
37. In a sequential timer, the sequence control involves controlling the
sequence in which certain events occur.
38. Once triggered, the programmable timer circuit is immune to additional
trigger inputs, until the timing cycle is completed or a reset input is
applied.
39. In an electronic delay timer, switching is done by an SCR or a triac.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) What is a multivibrator?
(b) Name the three classes of multivibrators.
(c) Name the types of multivibrators. (WBDEE 1999) (d) What are the
basic differences among the three types of multivibrators?
2. (a) WIth the help of a neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of an
astable multivibrator using transistors. (WBDEE 1998) (b) Discuss the
waveforms generated by the astable (free-running) multivibrator.
(c) What causes the rounded leading edge of the output?
(d) Explain how the frequency of oscillation can be varied.
3. (a) Obtain an expression for the time period of output of an astable
multivibrator.
(b) Explain, why the astable multivibrator is also called a free-running
multivibrator?
(c) Calculate the frequency of output waveform of an astable multivibrator
in terms of R and C.
4. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of the monostable (one-shot) multivibrator and
explain its operation.
(b) Discuss the waveforms generated by the monostable (one-shot)
multivibrator.
(c) What causes the rounded leading edge of one output and sharp edge of
the other?
(d) Explain how the time duration of the quasi-stable state in a one-shot
multivibrator can be changed.
(e) Why is monostable multivibrator regarded as one-shot multivibrator?
5. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a bistable (flip-flop) multivibrator using
discrete components and explain its operation. (WBDEE 1997) (WBDETC
2000) (b) Discuss its important uses. (WBDETC 2000) (c) What are the
different types of triggering signals?
6. (a) What is time constant of a timer circuit?
(b) Why is time constant so important in a timer circuit?
(c) What is the basic principle of a timer circuit?
7. (a) Draw a functional block diagram of the 555 IC timer and explain its
operation. (WBDEE 1997) (WBDEE 2000) (WBDETC 2000) (b) How can
a monostable multivibrator be built with a 555 IC timer?
(c) Calculate the value of high duration clock pulse (tH).
8. (a) The 555 IC timer can be used as an astable multivibrator. Explain its
operation with the pin diagram. (WBDEE 1999) (b) What is duty cycle?
(c) Derive the mathematical expressions for tH, tL, frequency of
oscillation, and duty cycle of an astable multivibrator. (WBDEE 1997)
(WBDETC 2000) 9. (a) Draw and explain the block diagram of the 555 IC
timer. (WBDETC 2000) (b) What is 1 kHz IC timer?
(c) Draw and explain the circuit to generate a clock signal of 10 kHz using
the 555 IC timer.
10. (a) Explain how the 741 op-amp can be used (i) as an astable multivibrator,
(ii) as a monostable multivibrator, and (iii) as a bistable multivibrator.
(b) What are the functions of a voltage-controlled oscillator and those of a
ramp generator?
11. (a) Why is Schmitt trigger called a squaring circuit?
(b) What is the function of the Schmitt trigger?
(c) Explain the circuit operation of the Schmitt trigger with waveforms.
Enumerate its application.
12. (a) Describe the operation of a sequential timer as in traffic control
applications.
(b) Draw the internal block and the pinout diagram of a digital timer.
(c) Explain the operation of a digital timer.
13. (a) What are the properties of an ideal switch?
(b) ‘Transistor is not an ideal switch for practical applications’. Discuss
this statement.
(c) Explain how the transistor can be used as a switching element?
(d) What is meant by the propagation delay of a transistor?
(e) Compare the transistor and the SCR as switching elements.
14. (a) What is an electronic delay timer?
(b) Draw the circuit diagram and give a write-up on the operation of an ac
operated delay timer.
(c) Describe the function of a dc operated delay timer.
(d) How can a UJT be used as a relaxation oscillator?
15. (a) Explain the working of an oscillator employing a UJT for triggering the
SCR. (WBDEE 2000).
(b) Draw the nature of the output waveform of the above oscillator.
(WBDEE 2000).
PROBLEMS
4.1 A symmetrical astable multivibrator as shown in Fig. 4.4(a) has a
frequency of
0.2 MHz and base amplitude of 0.1 mA, VCC = 15 V, hfe = 50. Assume
that transistors are ideal and just saturate in operation in ON state.
Calculate RL, RB, and C.
4.2 The symmetrical monostable multivibrator as shown in Fig. 4.4(a) is to
have an output pulse of 10 mA amplitude. Given C = 20 pF, VCC = VBB =
6 V, hfe = 20 and a reverse bias of 2 V for the OFF transistor, determine
the elements R1, R2, R, and the duration of the output pulse. Assume that
the transistors barely saturate in the ON condition.
4.3 A symmetrical bistable multivibrator as shown in Fig. 4.6(a) has the
following data: VCE = 0.3 V, VBE = 0.6 V, hfe = 20, VCC = VBB = 5 V,
RB = 18 kW, RL = 0.47 kW,
RB1 = RB2 = 6 kW. Determine the collector and base currents for the ON
transistor and the base voltage of the OFF transistor.
4.4 Determine the frequency of oscillation and the duty cycle for a 555 IC
timer in the astable mode. Given R1 = R2 = 1 kW and CT = 1000 pF.
Effect of source inductance
When source inductance LS is present, SCRs T1 and T2 in Fig. 5.25(a) do not
turn off immediately after SCRs T3 and T4 are triggered. Inductance LS
maintains the flow of current through the SCRs T1 and T2 for some time more
even though the supply voltage polarity has reversed. Therefore, the current will
shift only gradually from the pair of SCRs T1 and T2 to the pair of SCRs T3 and
T4. In other words, the effect of the source inductance on the performance of the
single-phase as well as three-phase full-wave converters is to make
discontinuous current as continuous. This duration is known as overlap period
m, and the output voltage during this period will be zero.
5.13.7 Single-phase Full-wave Half-controlled Bridge Rectifier (B-
2 Connection)
A half-controlled converter (semi-converter) will permit continuous control of
mean dc terminal voltage from maximum to virtually zero but the reversal of the
mean voltage is not possible. Thus, such a circuit will permit only quadrant-1
operation (i.e. it can operate only as a rectifier and not as an inverter). Apart
from its economic advantage over the full-controlled circuit (since the number of
SCRs required is less), the reactive power consumption is also less with the
semi-converters. (The excess power drawn during conduction in each half-cycle
is utilised in the load during the freewheeling period. Hence the ratio of the
power drawn from the input to the power consumed in the load will approach
more towards unity, i.e. less reactive power will flow.)
This circuit uses two SCRs and two diodes. There are three possible variations
of this circuit which are shown in Figs. 5.26(a), 5.26(b), and 5.26(c). The
relevant waveforms are shown in Fig. 5.26(d). Since the cathodes (anodes) of the
two SCRs (T1 and T2) are at the same potential in symmetrical configuration as
shown in Figs. 5.26(a) and 5.26(b), respectively, their gates can be connected
together and a single gate pulse can be used for triggering any of the SCRs.
However, the one which gets forward biased at the instant of triggering, will be
turned on. For the asymmetrical configuration, isolated gate signals have to be
used.
Fig. 5.26(a) Circuit diagram of a single-phase full-wave half-controlled
(common cathode) bridge rectifier (symmetrical configuration).
Fig. 5.26(b) Circuit diagram of a single-phase full-wave half-controlled

(common anode connection) bridge rectifier (symmetrical configuration).
For the circuit of Fig. 5.26(a), a triggering pulse at wt = a will turn on T1. The
load current iL, i.e. supply current iS, will be routed through T1 and D2. When
the supply voltage is negative beyond wt = p, the induced emf across the
inductive load drives current (which decays exponentially) through T1 and D1
until the firing of T2. The polarity of induced voltage changes its sign beyond wt
= p as shown in Fig. 5.26(a). The current freewheels through the load, T1, and
D1 from a to p + a. During this period the load may not receive dc power, the
supply current iS being zero.
At wt = p + a, as T2 is triggered, the load current iL, i.e. supply current iS, will
be routed through T2 and D1. At wt = 2p as the supply polarity reverses again,
D1 is turned off by reverse biasing and the load current iL freewheels through
T2-D2 until the firing of T1.
Fig. 5.26(c) Circuit diagram of a single-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge

rectifier (asymmetrical configuration).
Again, the load may not receive dc power, the supply current iS being zero
from 2p to 2p + a. The dc output voltage Vdc, rms value of load voltage Vload,
rms, and the ripple factor are the same as those of Eqs. (5.35), (5.30), and (5.31)
respectively.
For the circuit of Fig. 5.26(c), there is a saving in freewheeling diode, because
D1 and D2 together act as a freewheeling diode. The load current iL, i.e. supply
current iS, will be routed through T1 and D2 and T2 and D1 in the positive and
negative half-cycles, respectively, but the freewheeling of load current (iD = iL )
will always be through D1 and D2. At the onset of the negative half-cycle, the
conduction of D1 reverse biases T1 and turns it off. The load circuit shifts from
T1 to D1 and thus the load current (iL = iD) freewheels through D1 and D2.
Thus, the current through the conducting SCR becomes zero at the onset of
freewheeling at the reversal of supply polarity and the average current rating of
the SCRs will be less for the asymmetrical circuit in Fig. 5.26(c) compared to
that of symmetrical circuits shown in Figs. 5.26(a) and 5.26(b).
Referring to the waveforms of Fig. 5.26(d), it may be observed that no current
is drawn from the ac supply system, i.e. iS = 0 during the freewheeling period.
Although the output
Fig. 5.26(d) Waveforms of a single-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge

rectifier.
current iL is unidirectional, the direction of supply current iS will change when
the supply polarity gets reversed. The average dc output voltage (Vdc = VL ) will
be given by
………(5.36)
Therefore,
………(5.37)
The level of the output voltage Vdc, depends on the triggering angle a for full-
controlled and half-controlled bridges as shown in Fig. 5.27. For a pure
inductive load at a triggering
Fig. 5.27 Variation of output voltage Vdc with triggering angle a.
angle of a = 90°, the average value of voltage is zero while for a pure resistive
load the average value of voltage is zero if the triggering angle becomes 120°.
The output dc voltage will be maximum when a = 0°, i.e. the maximum dc
output voltage from Eq. (5.37) will be given by
Vdc, max = 2Vm/p
For symmetrical and asymmetrical configurations, the ripple frequency is twice
the input frequency.
5.13.8 Three-phase Full-wave Rectifier (M-6 Connection or Six-
pulse Double-star Circuit)
Figure 5.28(a) shows a six-phase double-star connection. Here the conduction
angle of each SCR is only 60° and thus this results in poor utility. The circuit,
however, produces low ripple and higher dc voltage compared to the bridge
connection for the same ac voltage. In this circuit, changeover of conduction
from one SCR to the other takes place only if the phase voltage of the incoming
SCR exceeds that of the outgoing one. At the onset of conduction of the
incoming SCR, the outgoing SCR gets reverse biased and, therefore, it
undergoes rapid commutation.
Referring to the circuit of Fig. 5.28(a) and the waveforms of Fig. 5.28(b), it is
seen that the triggering of T1 during PQ (when phase-R voltage is the highest)
brings the common cathode potential approximately to the same value as that of
phase-R. Obviously, all the
Fig. 5.28(a) Circuit diagram of a three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier (M-6

connection).
Fig. 5.28(b) Waveforms of a three-phase controlled rectifier (M-6 connection).

other SCRs are reverse biased. The voltages of phases R, Y, and B are out of
phase with respect to those of phases R, Y, and B. Thus, when the incoming
SCR T1 is turned on,
the outgoing SCR T6 will be turned off by line commutation. All other SCRs,
except T1,
being reverse biased during PQ cannot take any active part in the operation of
the circuit during this interval. The triggering sequence is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 1.
Though the ripples in the output wave will be lowered, their frequencies are
elevated compared to the single-phase circuits. The ripple frequency of output
voltage is six times the input frequency. The average output voltage (Vdc = VL)
is given by
………(5.38)
= (since Vm = V where V = rms voltage)
=
Therefore,
………(5.39)
where V is the rms voltage of the double-star circuit per phase.
The rms value (effective value) of the load voltage is given by
………(5.40)
Therefore,
………(5.41)
The ripple factor is given by
Therefore,
………(5.42)
5.13.9 Three-phase Full-wave Full-controlled Bridge

Rectifier (B-6 Connection)
This connection shown in Fig. 5.29(a) is specially suited for large dc power
drives. It causes full-wave controlled rectification and inversion such that there
exists no dc component in the source current. For the same triggering angle, the
ripple voltage in this circuit will be the least compared to all other connections
discussed so far. The changeover of conduction from one SCR to the other can
take place only if the phase voltage of the incoming SCR is more than that of the
outgoing SCR. Besides, the turn-on of the incoming SCR would obviously
reverse bias the outgoing SCR and thus turns it off by line commutation. A
bridge connected converter is used for a large number of applications because of
(i) low ripple, (ii) good transformer utilisation, (iii) low rectifier voltage
compared to the output voltage, and (iv) no dc magnetisation of the transformer
core.
Fig. 5.29(a) Circuit diagram of a three-phase full-wave full-controlled bridge
rectifier (B-6 connection).
Referring to Fig. 5.29(b), it is seen that T1 can be triggered anywhere during
the interval OPMS (when phase-R voltage is higher than those of phase-B and
phase-Y). Let T1 be turned on at point P (triggering angle a = OP). The return
path will be routed through T5 during the period from a to p/2 (during this
period the voltage of phase-Y is more negative) and through T6 during the
period from p/2 to point M, respectively. Prior to point P, T3 was conducting but
the turn-on of T1 will reverse bias T3 and turn it off. Since there are six SCRs,
one SCR will be triggered every 60°. It should be remembered that an SCR
conducts if the anode is at a positive potential with reference to its cathode. The
conduction pattern of the SCR has six modes and each SCR conducts over a
span of PM [for OP = 30°,
PM = p – (2 p/6) = 2p/3]. The firing sequence has been outlined in Table 5.1.
Assuming no overlap, only two SCRs will be conducting at a time.
Fig. 5.29(b) Waveforms of a three-phase full-wave full-controlled rectifier (B-6
connection).
Table 5.1 Firing sequence [Fig. 5.29(b)]
Mode 1 2 3 4 5 6
Conducting SCRs 5-1 1-6 6-2 2-4 4-3 3-5
Incoming SCR 6 2 4 3 5 1
Outgoing SCR 5 1 6 2 4 3
To maintain symmetry in the waveform of the input current, symmetrical

triggering as well as the firing sequence as given in Table 5.1 should be
followed. Referring to the table, it is seen that there are six identical modes of
operation in one complete cycle. Obviously, each mode will have a duration of
2p/6, i.e. p/3. The output voltage waveform is repetitive every p/3. The average
dc output voltage (Vdc = VL ) may be obtained by considering
mode 1 only, namely
Vdc = ………(5.43)
Therefore,
………(5.44)
where Vm is the maximum voltage per phase
The reference point from which triggering angle a is measured is the positive-
going
zero of VRY, i.e. point O, where OP = a and OM = OP + PM; PM + OP =
duration of
mode 1 + OP = (p/3) + a. The variation of output voltage Vdc as a function of
the triggering angle is indicated in Fig. 5.27. It is seen that the range of a
between 0 to p/2 indicates rectifier operation while a between p/2 to p indicates
inverter operation. The output voltage is maximum when a = 0°, and it is zero
when a = 90°. The output dc voltage is negative maximum at a = 180°, when
During inverter operation (i.e. for a = p/2 to p) the direction of the load current
remains unchanged but dc polarity is reversed such that power will be fed back
from the dc side (provided the load is replaced by a dc source) to the ac side. The
ripple frequency of the output voltage is six times the input frequency.
The rms value (effective value) of load voltage is given by
(5.45)
Therefore,
………(5.46)
Therefore,
………(5.47)
5.13.10 Three-phase Full-wave Half-controlled Bridge

Rectifier (B-6 Connection)
The circuit of Fig. 5.29(a) will be converted to a half-controlled (semi-converter)
B-6 connection when the bottom SCRs (T4, T5, and T6) are replaced by diodes
(D4, D5, and D6), respectively. It may be noted that the symmetrical
configuration is not used as it introduces unbalance in line currents on the ac
side. Figure 5.30(a) shows the three-phase full-wave, half-controlled rectifier
circuit.
Fig. 5.30(a) Circuit diagram of a three-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge

rectifier (B-6 connection).
Referring to the waveform of Fig. 5.30(b), it is seen that at point M the SCR
T1 is triggered at an angle OM = a, the load current through T1-D5 will continue
up to point N. Beyond point N, the voltage of phase-R with respect to that of
phase-Y is more positive. Diode D5 turns off owing to reverse biasing.
Therefore, freewheeling of load current will commence through T1 and D6 and
continue up to point P. As T2 is turned on at point P, T1 will be turned off by
reverse biasing. Load current is now routed through T2 and D6 and continues up
to point Q. Beyond point Q, the voltage of phase-Y is more positive with respect
to that of phase-B. Diode D6, therefore, turns off owing to reverse biasing.
Therefore, freewheeling of load current now commences through T2 and D4. It
will continue up to point S. The waveforms of Fig. 5.30(b) show the various
phase currents as well as the current through one diode.
For a semi-converter, reactive power input from the supply occurs only in the
positive half-cycles while for a full-controlled circuit such flow of reactive
power occurs both in the positive and negative half-cycles. Obviously, the power
factor for a semi-converter will be higher than that of a full-converter. Its ripple
frequency is thrice the input frequency. The average dc output voltage (Vdc = VL
) is given by
………(5.48)
Fig. 5.30(b) Waveforms of three-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge rectifier

(B-6 connection).
Therefore,
………(5.49)
where Vm is the maximum voltage per phase.
The rms value (effective value) of load voltage is given by
(5.50)
Therefore,
………(5.51)
Therefore,
………(5.52)
5.13.11 Three-phase Half-wave Diode Rectifier with Resistive

Load
In Fig. 5.31(a), each of the three-phase voltage vRN, vYN, and vBN is connected
to the resistance load RL through diodes D1, D2, and D3, respectively.
Conduction takes place through the diode which has the largest anode supply
voltage with respect to the neutral point N.
Fig. 5.31(a) Circuit diagram of a three-phase half-wave diode rectifier.
Principle of operation of a three-phase half-wave diode rectifier
At instant ‘a’ in Fig. 5.31(b), phase-R and phase-B are equally positive with
respect to the neutral point N. Before this instant, phase-B had the highest
potential and D3 was conducting. After the instant ‘a’, phase-R becomes greater
than phase-Y and phase-B, so the diode D1 must conduct.
When diode D1 conducts, the potential at point X assumes the same value as
that of phase-R neglecting the diode drop. The conduction of diode D1 takes
place at an angle of wt = p/6 and continues up to wt = 2p/3 till diode D2 takes its
place at the instant point ‘b’. At point ‘b’, the phase-Y is greater than phase-R
and phase-B, so diode D2 will start
Fig. 5.31(b) Waveforms of a three-phase half-wave diode rectifier.
conducting at wt = 5p/6. The conduction of diode D1 stops beyond wt = 5p/6.
The diode D2 will conduct in the similar way for 120° till its place is taken over
by D3. The diode D3 also conducts for 120°. It is apparent that neither the
voltage nor the current ever goes to zero in the load RL.
The average load voltage is given by
………(5.53)
Therefore,
Vdc = 1.17V………(5.54)
where V is the rms value of the transformer secondary voltage per phase.
The rms value of the voltage across the load is given by
………(5.55)
Therefore,
Vload, rms = 1.19V ………(5.56)
The load form factor is given by
= 1.19V/1.17V = 1.01
Hence the ripple voltage is approximately 18.5% of the output dc voltage and the
minimum ripple frequency is three times the supply frequency which is evident
from the output waveforms in Fig. 5.31(b).
The peak inverse voltage will occur when the maximum voltage appears
across the diode that is non-conducting. While one of the diodes is conducting,
the other two diodes are non-conducting, and the voltage across any one of the
non-conducting diodes is the line-to-line voltage of the transformer secondary.
The line-to-line voltage is V where
V is the rms value of the phase voltage. The peak inverse voltage is
5.13.12 Differences between Full-controlled Bridge and Half-

controlled Bridge Rectifiers
Full-controlled bridge rectifiers Half-controlled bridge rectifiers
It can operate as a rectifier and an inverter. It can operate only as a rectifier.
In the rectifier mode, the triggering angle changes from 0 to p/2 but for For rectifier operation the triggering angle changes from 0 to
the inverter operation the triggering angle varies from p/2 to p. p.
The flow of reactive power from the supply occurs in the positive as well The flow of reactive power from the supply occurs only in
as negative half-cycles. the positive half-cycle.
The power factor is low. The power factor is high.
Four SCRs for single-phase and six SCRs for three-phase circuits are Two SCRs and two diodes for single-phase and three SCRs
required. and three diodes for three-phase circuits are required.
5.14 TRIACs
A triac is a bilateral, bidirectional switching device with three-terminals. It can
be triggered either with positive or with negative pulses applied to the gate
terminal, depending on the potentials between the other two terminals called the
main terminals. Thus, the triac is an ac switch which can be made to conduct on
both alternations (half-cycles) of an ac voltage. The triac originates from two
words, tri and ac. Tri indicates that there are three-terminals, and ac tells us that
the device controls alternating current. A triac is equivalent to an inverse-parallel
connected pair of SCRs. It is a low-power device of the thyristor family.
Construction of the triac
The triac is a five-layer (N4-P1-N1-P2-N2) device (if moved diagonally from
N4 to N2) which may be considered to consist of an N2-P2-N1-P1 section in
parallel with a P2-N1-P1-N4 section as shown in Fig. 5.32(a). An additional
lateral N3 region serves as the control gate as it can be turned on by applying a
control voltage between the gate and the main terminal. The gate terminal makes
contact (ohmic) with both P2 and N3 type materials, thus allowing us to use
either a positive or a negative pulse as trigger currents. The characteristics of a
triac are similar to those of an SCR, both in the blocking and conducting states,
except for the fact that the SCR does not conduct in both directions. Due to this
disparity, the terms anode and cathode are not used for triac terminals. The two
main terminals are designated MT2 and MT1. Figure 5.32(b) shows the sectional
view and symbol of a triac.
Fig. 5.32(a) Construction of a triac.

Fig. 5.32(b) Sectional view and symbol of a triac.
Principle of operation of the triac
The triac is said to be positively biased when the main terminal 2 (MT2) is
positive with respect to the main terminal 1 (MT1). This leads to operation in
quadrant 1 as shown in Fig. 5.32(c). The triac operates in quadrant 3 when MT2
is negative with respect to MT1 and then it is said to be negatively biased. Like
the SCR, the triac remains in its OFF state until the breakover voltage is reached.
In its ON state, the voltage across the triac drops to a low value and the current is
limited by the parameter of the external circuit. In the third quadrant when the
voltage polarity across MT2 and MT1 is reversed, current through the triac is
also reversed.
5.14.1 Gate Triggering Modes of the Triac
Gate triggering of a triac in any of the four operating modes is as follows:
MT2 to MT1 voltage positive; gate to MT1 voltage positive—operation

in quadrant 1
Fig. 5.32(c) V-I characteristic curve of a triac.
MT2 to MT1 voltage positive; gate to MT1 voltage negative—operation

in quadrant 1
MT2 to MT1 voltage negative; gate to MT1 voltage negative—operation
in quadrant 3
MT2 to MT1 voltage negative; gate to MT1 voltage positive—operation
in quadrant 3
When the terminal MT2 is positive and the terminal MT1 negative, the triac can
be turned on by applying a positive voltage between the gate and MT1. This is
the recommended method of triggering the device. In this mode, the triac
behaves as a conventional SCR,
with four layers P1-N1-P2-N2 and the MT1 terminal connected to layer N2 as
shown in
Fig. 5.32(a).
The device can also be turned on by applying a negative signal to the gate. In
this case, the device is switched on by a method called junction gate operation.
Initially, the left-hand portion of the triac comprising layers P1-N1-P2-N3 is
turned on by the current flowing from terminal MT1 to the gate through the
junction P2-N3. Terminal MT1 acts like the cathode gate. When this left-hand
portion conducts, the potential of the left part of layer P2 in contact with N3 will
go up, and because of this potential gradient across layer P2, the current will
flow from left to right. This is similar to the conventional gate current, and the
right-hand part of the triac comprising P1-N1-P2-N2 will turn on. The junction
gate operation involves high switching losses, and therefore this form of gate
drive is not normally used.
When the terminal MT2 is negative and the terminal MT1 positive, the device
can be turned on by applying a positive voltage between the gate and the
terminal MT1. In this mode, the device is switched on by remote gate operation.
The four layers used for this operation are P2-N1-P1-N4. The reverse-biased
junction is formed by layers N1-P1; it will be broken by increasing the carrier
concentration in layer N1, assuming that the transistor is formed by layers N2-
P2-N1. Since the gate is made positive with respect to terminal MT1, the
transistor will be properly biased and a positive base current will flow into layer
P2. This will increase the emitter current and raise the carrier concentration in
layer N1, and thus lead to the breakdown of the reverse-biased junction. The
device will then turn on.
If the gate is negative with MT2 negative, layers N3-P2-N1 will form the
properly-biased transistor whose base drive is provided by the positive voltage
between MT1 and the gate. The device will then turn on because of the increased
current in layer N1. When MT2 is negative and MT1 is positive, the
recommended mode of triggering is by applying a negative voltage between the
gate and the terminal MT1.
Applications of the triac

Triacs find extensive use in the control of ac power in ac motors, heat control of
furnaces, control of lamp dimmers, etc. Triacs are also used in colour TV sets.
5.14.2 Choice between Triacs and SCRs
A triac is equivalent to two SCRs connected in antiparallel. It is, therefore,
possible to replace a triac by a suitable combination of SCRs as shown in Fig.
5.32(d). If a triac is replaced by two such SCRs in antiparallel, a greater dv/dt
can be tolerated. This is because each SCR conducts only in one direction, and
as long as one of them is conducting, the other is in the OFF state with a reverse
voltage applied to it. Since the device is initially OFF before a forward voltage
appears across it, the maximum permissible dv/dt is related to the static dv/dt
capability of the device. A triac, however, conducts in both directions, and so the
permissible dv/dt is related to the re-applied dv/dt rating which is lower than the
static rating. It is for this reason that SCRs are preferred over triacs for power
control of inductive circuits with motor loads.
Fig. 5.32(d) SCRs in antiparallel mode.

The SCRs are available in very high current and voltage ratings. Because of
the low current and voltage ratings of triacs, their application is mostly limited to
the control of domestic power and the control of small single-phase motors.
Many applications arise in which SCRs must be connected in antiparallel. In
this connection, with a suitable triggering circuit for each gate, both the positive
and negative halves of a sine wave may be controlled in conduction. The gates
of two SCRs are connected to a common point as shown in Fig. 5.32(d), which is
termed gate G of the triac.
Advantages of the triac over its antiparallel SCR pair
(i) The triac needs only one heat sink, though of a somewhat larger size.
Though an antiparallel SCR pair requires two heat sinks of slightly smaller
sizes, the total
space required is more in respect of SCRs because of the clearance
provided between the heat sinks.
(ii) A triac needs only one fuse for its protection and this also simplifies the
construction.
(iii) Triacs can be triggered with positive or negative polarity voltages.
(iv) In some dc applications, the SCR is required to be fitted with a parallel
diode to protect it against reverse voltage, whereas a triac can work without
a diode.
Disadvantages of the triac over its antiparallel SCR pair
(i) Triacs have low dv/dt rating compared with SCRs.
(ii) Triacs are available in only smaller ratings.
(iii) The trigger circuit in triacs needs careful design as the triac can be
triggered in either direction.
(iv) The reliability of SCRs is more than that of triacs.
5.14.3 Comparison of Triacs with Antiparallel SCRs
Many applications arise in which SCRs have to be connected back-to-back
(antiparallel). The schematic structure of SCRs in antiparallel as shown in Fig.
5.33 suggests that they have similar layers in common (P-N-P); it is, therefore,
possible to fabricate a single device as shown in Fig. 5.32(b).
Fig. 5.33 Antiparallel SCRs as a triac.

Triacs Antiparallel SCRs
A pulse is needed for a single pair of terminals

(MT2-G) for triggering the triac. The SCR pair needs an isolated pulse to feed two pairs of separate terminals.
The gate signal to the triac may be of either The SCR will be switched on only if the gate signal is positive with respect to the
polarity. cathode and the anode is also at positive potential.
The turn-on procedure of the triac is more The turn-on procedure of the SCR is less
versatile. versatile.
The turn-off procedure of the triac is less The turn-off procedure of the SCR is more versatile.
versatile.
Triacs are not available in high current ratings. The SCRs are available in high current ratings.
When high frequency and high dv/dt are involved,

When high frequency and high dv/dt are involved, antiparallel SCRs are suitable.
triacs are not suitable.
5.15 DIACs
A diac is a two-terminal, bidirectional triggering device which can be switched
from the OFF state to the ON state during either the positive or the negative
alteration of an ac input wave. The device essentially consists of two P-N-P-N
sections in antiparallel order as shown in Fig. 5.34(a). It has no gate terminal.
The diac is also analogous to an inverse-parallel connection of two SCRs, but
without the control gate. It is also called the trigger diode.
Fig. 5.34(a) Structure and symbol of a diac.

Principle of operation of the diac
The two P-N-P-N sections are P1-N1-P2-N2 with junctions J2, J3, and J4 and
P2-N1-P1-N3 with junctions J3, J2, and J1. With a positive voltage at MT1 with
respect to MT2, junctions J2 and J4 are forward biased, whereas J3 is reverse
biased. The junction J1 is also reverse biased, so no current can flow through it.
For a small electrode voltage, the current flow through the device is extremely
small as in an SCR. When the electrode voltage is increased, J3 tends to
avalanche and the current through the device increases. The current flow through
the device is, however, restricted to the right-hand side of the device because it
provides a smaller resistance compared to the left-hand portion, since junction J1
opposes any current flow through it and the current has to overcome the lateral
resistance of P1. As the current through the device increases, holes are injected
from P1 to N1 and they diffuse across N1 to be collected by J3. The holes
collected at the right-hand side of J3 are swept into region P2, and consequently
its potential with respect to region N2 and MT2 increases. But, at low current
level, the hole current flows parallel to J4 to reach MT2 because the lateral
resistance of region P2 is smaller than the resistance of J4. However, the device
current increases further owing to an increase in electrode voltage, the lateral
voltage drop becomes larger than that of the forward-biased junction J4 and the
device is switched on from the blocking state to the conducting state as in an
SCR.
When MT2 is made positive, a similar action takes place and current flows
from MT2 to MT1 through the left-hand portion of the device as shown in Fig.
5.34(a). The forward and reverse characteristics of the device are identical
because its construction is absolutely symmetrical. The graph in Fig. 5.34(b)
shows that only a very low leakage current (due to minority carriers) +IBO flows
in the diac as MT1 is made more positive than the main terminal, MT2 from 0 V
to +VBO. When the voltage across the diac has increased to + VBO, avalanche
breakdown occurs at the reverse-biased junction. The current through the diac
increases drastically at this point and is limited only by external resistance. It is
evident
Fig. 5.34(b) V-I characteristic curve of a diac.
that the device exhibits a negative resistance characteristic in the avalanche
region, i.e. the current through the device increases with the decreasing values of
applied voltage. The voltage across the device then drops to breakback voltage
VW. The value of breakover voltage for the commonly used diacs is about 32 V.
During the negative alteration of the applied voltage when MT2 is made
positive relative to MT1, the graph in Fig. 5.34(b) shows a symmetrical but
opposite current in the diac. When the applied voltage is less than +VBO (or
–VBO), the diac blocks the flow of current and effectively behaves as an open
switch. It is possible to replace a diac by a suitable combination of SCRs, i.e.
antiparallel SCRs as shown in Fig. 5.34(c). The two gates of antiparallel SCRs
are not connected to the external circuit.
Fig. 5.34(c) Diac as a combination of two SCRs in antiparallel mode.

Applications of the diac
Applications of the diac
Diacs are reliable and economical trigger devices for SCR control applications.
They are extensively used as triggers for triac ac control circuits such as lamp
dimmers, heat control of furnaces, motor speed control, and other similar
applications.
5.16 QUADRACs
A quadrac is a three-terminal device which is the combination of a diac and a
triac. This diac-triac combination is built on the same chip.
5.17 RECOVERY
CHARACTERISTIC
At low frequency and low current, the diode may be assumed to act as a perfect
switch. But at high frequency and high current, the recovery transient plays an
important role because it increases the power loss and gives rise to large voltage
spikes which may damage the device if proper precautions are not taken. In
power diodes, the recovery characteristic is much more important than the
forward transient characteristic because recovery losses get added to the forward
loss. Fast recovery diodes can, therefore, be used in high frequency circuits and
the rectifier efficiency is improved as well. Furthermore, fast recovery diodes
can handle large values of forward current without overheating.
5.18 FAST RECOVERY DIODEs

The use of freewheeling diodes becomes essential in the case of phase-controlled
rectifiers with either single-phase or three-phase supply, particularly with
inductive loads. The rectifier conduction may be either continuous or
discontinuous with inductive loads, depending upon the triggering angle and the
time constant of the load. The sudden change in the operating mode of the
rectifier without the freewheeling diode may cause a serious instability in the
closed-loop regulating system. This instability is eliminated by the use of the
freewheeling diode. The freewheeling diode reduces the current rating of the
SCR in the phase-controlled rectifier.
The freewheeling diode also prevents an SCR from losing control in a half-
controlled rectifier circuit with a highly inductive load. Any diode may be used
as a freewheeling diode, but fast recovery diodes are preferred because of their
low recovery losses, lower junction temperature and reduced di/dt imposed on
the SCR during the recovery of the rectifier unit. Moreover, the freewheeling
diode should recover to its non-conducting state before an SCR in the rectifier
unit begins to turn on. Otherwise, a high inrush of current will flow during the
recovery period of the freewheeling diode. This would virtually short-circuit the
SCRs and induce a very high di/dt on them. As a result, the SCRs and the
freewheeling diode may get damaged. The conventional diode, if used, will
induce high voltage transients because of holes storage and recovery
characteristics in conjunction with the circuit inductance. These high voltage
transients sometimes become fatal to other components. This effect is reduced
by the use of fast recovery diodes.
In a conventional diode, the forward voltage drop is directly proportional to
the thickness of the silicon and inversely to the carrier lifetime, but is more or
less independent of the resistivity of the material, whereas the peak inverse
voltage varies directly with the resistivity of the silicon. Reverse recovery time
also varies with the silicon thickness and the carrier lifetime. So when recovery
time is reduced, the forward voltage drop increases. The resistivity and thickness
of the silicon are chosen to make a compromise between the recovery time and
the forward voltage drop. When recovery time is reduced by reducing the carrier
lifetime, the reverse leakage current is increased, thereby increasing the reverse
power dissipation. Therefore, fast recovery diodes should be used at a lower
junction temperature.
Advantages of the fast recovery diode
The main advantage of the fast recovery diodes is that the junction heating
caused by recovery action is minimised and thereby power levels increased,
reducing the losses.
Applications of the fast recovery diode
The major field of application for fast recovery diodes is in the area of electrical
power conversion as freewheeling diodes, and in the areas of high frequency
rectification and power inversions.
5.19 POWER DIODES

Power diodes are manufactured in a wide range of current and voltage ratings.
Current ratings vary from a few amperes to several hundred amperes for a single
device. Similarly, voltage ratings extend from tens of volts to several thousand
volts. In addition to current and voltage ratings, an important parameter that
determines the selection of a power diode for a static power converter
application, is its reverse recovery time. A diode that has been in the conducting
state needs a short but finite time after the forward conduction has stopped
before it is able to recover its ability to block reverse voltages. Based on this
time duration, diodes are classified as fast recovery and slow recovery types.
Figures 5.35(a) and 5.35(b) represent the fast and slow recovery characteristic
curves, respectively.
Fig. 5.35 Power diodes: (a) fast recovery characteristic curve and (b) slow
recovery characteristic curve.
Construction of the power diode
The power diode consists of a silicon pellet with a single internal P-N junction as
shown in Fig. 5.36. It is typically fabricated by diffusing P-type impurity atoms
into one side of
Fig. 5.36 Junction structure and circuit symbol of a power diode.
a N-type crystal wafer of silicon. It has two terminals of which the anode makes
contact with the P-side surface of the pellet and the cathode with the N-side.
The area of the pellet, by and large, determines the current rating. The
resistivity of the starting material and its thickness are mainly responsible for the
voltage blocking capability of the device. For example, if the diode is fabricated
starting from N-type wafer on which the P-layer is formed by diffusion of P-type
impurities, its voltage ratings will go up with the purity level of the starting
wafer and its thickness. The impurity profile of the silicon pellet has a major
effect on both its ON-state forward voltage drop and reverse recovery time.
Types of power diodes
There are two types of packages commonly used for housing the diode pellet. In
the stud-type package shown in Fig. 5.37(a), the casing is of metal and it has a
threaded stud for easy mounting on a heat sink. The metal casing and the stud
constitute one terminal of the diode. The other terminal is brought out on the
side opposite to the stud, and is electrically insulated from the casing. The stud-
type diodes are available with either type of polarity for the stud—anode or
cathode.
Diodes with very large current and voltage ratings employ the disc package,
also known as hockey puck, as shown in Fig. 5.37(b). Here, the two terminals are
flat metallic surfaces separated by a ceramic insulator. The disc-type diodes are
mounted with at least one side in contact with a flat heat sink surface. For better
cooling, two separate heat sinks may be used—one on each side. Very large
power diodes are usually protected by fuses as a safeguard against circuit faults.
The normal types of fuses used in power circuits are incapable of protecting
power diodes. Special fast-acting fuses are available for power semiconductors.
Fig. 5.37 Types of power diodes: (a) stud-type package and (b) disc-type
(hockey puck) package.
Principle of operation of the power diode
The relative proportions of the electron and hole currents are decided by the
relative concentration of electrons on the N-side and that of holes on the P-side.
For example, if the N-side electron concentration is equal to the P-side hole
concentration, each current will be half the total current. If on the other hand, the
P-side has much larger density of holes compared with the density of electrons
on the N-side, as is often the case, a very large part of the total diode current at
the junction would be due to the flow of holes. As a result, in such a diode, there
will be an excess concentration of injected holes in the junction zone on the N-
side, while the diode is carrying current in its ON state. These excess holes,
which are minority carriers on the N-side, need a finite time to disappear before
the diode is able to block the flow of reverse current. If the diode is subjected to
reverse voltage before this, a reverse current will flow through it. During this
reverse current flow, holes will be pushed back to the P-side. The flow of the
reverse current will last until the excess of hole concentration has disappeared.
This will be due to some of the holes moving across to the P-side and the rest
recombining with electrons. From this, it may be expected that a shorter lifetime
for minority carriers (which implies a faster recombination rate) will shorten the
reverse recovery time of the diode, because this will result in faster
disappearance of excess minority carriers. The presence of gold atoms as an
impurity in the silicon has been found to shorten the lifetime of minority carriers.
Therefore, the diffusion of gold into silicon is a technique used to shorten the
reverse recovery time.
A trade-off exists between blocking voltage capability and reverse recovery
time. High resistivity silicon has a long minority carrier lifetime. Therefore, if a
high resistivity silicon wafer is used as the starting material to achieve a high
blocking voltage capability, the reverse recovery time is likely to go up. A trade-
off also exists between blocking voltage capability and ON-state forward voltage
drop. If a thicker and higher resistivity wafer is employed to achieve a higher
voltage rating, it will result in a higher forward voltage drop in the ON state. In
some power diodes, a lower resistivity N-region, called an N+ region, is formed
on the outer side of the high resistivity N-region. This helps to reduce the ON-
state voltage drop and also to make better electrical contact to the cathode
terminal.
Applications of the power diode
Diodes employed in static converters are essentially high power versions of
conventional low-power devices used in analog and digital signal processing
circuits.
5.19.1 Current Ratings of Power Diodes
Current ratings are, in general, based on temperature rise considerations.
Therefore, they are valid only if diodes are mounted on heat sinks of adequate
size to ensure that the internal temperature does not exceed the specified limit.
The data sheet of a power diode usually specifies the following ratings: (i) the
average current, (ii) the rms current, and (iii) the peak current. It is important to
ensure that none of these ratings is exceeded in actual operation.
5.19.2 Voltage Ratings of Power Diodes
For high power diodes, the data sheet usually specifies two voltage ratings: (i)
the repetitive peak reverse voltage and (ii) the non-repetitive peak reverse
voltage. The non-repetitive parameter is specified to indicate the capability of a
diode to withstand an occasional overvoltage surge that may occur because of a
circuit fault.
5.19.3 Protection of the Power Diode (Snubber Circuit)
A snubber circuit for a power diode serves to protect it from damage that can
arise because of an overvoltage spike occurring during reverse recovery. A
typical snubber circuit for a power diode consists of a resistance in series with a
capacitor connected across the diode as shown in Fig. 5.38. During the decay of
the reverse recovery current, the capacitor serves to limit the voltage spike. The
energy stored in the inductance of the reverse recovery current loop serves to
charge the capacitor, thereby reducing the overvoltage spike. The resistance R
dissipates some of this energy, and, if suitably chosen, will damp out oscillations
in the circuit.
Fig. 5.38 Snubber circuit for the power diode.

5.20 POWER TRANSISTORS OR POWER BJTS
Power transistors are available both in the N-P-N and the P-N-P format. But the
available current and voltage ratings are higher for N-P-N devices. Because of
the greater mobility of electrons compared with holes, an N-P-N device can be
fabricated on a smaller chip area to provide the same performance as that of an
equivalent P-N-P device.
Construction of the power transistor
Figure 5.39(a) shows the junction structure of a double-diffused N-P-N power
transistor. In the fabrication of this device, the starting material is an N-type
silicon wafer. First a P-layer is formed, by diffusion of impurities, on one side of
the wafer. This is the base layer. A second diffusion, after masking the base
terminal area, creates an N-zone, which is the emitter layer. Electrical contacts
are made by forming layers of metal by vapour deposition and these are
indicated by hatched lines in Fig. 5.39(a). The three external terminals of
the device, which are collector (C), base (B), and the emitter (E), make contact
with the appropriate zones in the pellet through these metal deposition areas.
Figure 5.39(b) shows the triple-diffused construction employed in some high-
power transistors. In this construction, an additional low-resistivity N-region
labelled the N+ layer (high impurity concentration) is formed on top of the
collector layer by means of a third diffusion. This is done primarily to provide a
low resistance ohmic contact between the collector and the collector metal layer
with good mechanical properties.
Fig. 5.39 Construction of BJT power transistors: (a) double-diffused structure

and circuit symbol and
(b) tripple-diffused structure.
Principle of operation of the power transistor
When a transistor is used as a controlled switch, the control current input is
provided at the base terminal. The control circuit is connected between the base
and the emitter as shown in Fig. 5.40(a). The power terminals of the switch are
the collector and the emitter. The manner in which the switching is achieved
may be explained with reference to the output characteristics of the transistor as
shown in Fig. 5.40(b).
Fig. 5.40 Power transistor as a controlled switch: (a) circuit diagram and (b)
output characteristics.
OFF-state of the power transistor
If IB is made zero, the value of IC is negligibly small. This is the OFF-state of
the switch. This is also called the cut-off condition of the power transistor. For
negative values of VBE as well, there is no base current, and the transistor
remains OFF. But the reverse voltage capability of the base-emitter junction is
quite small, and it is important to ensure that this is not exceeded.
ON-state of the power transistor
Assuming that in Fig. 5.40(a), VCC = 150 V, RL = 30 W initially and IB = 0.6 A.
The voltage VCE across the switch and the current IC through it must be given
by a point on the characteristic curve for IB = 0.6 A. A second relationship, VCE
= VCC – IC RL resulting from the application of the Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
the power circuit loop, is used to locate this point. This relationship is given by a
straight line called the load line. The load line corresponding to RL = 30 W is
shown as AB in Fig. 5.40(b). It is drawn by choosing two points on it that satisfy
the above output voltage equation. These are usually chosen as the one for IC =
0 for which VCE = VCC (point A) and the other for VCE = 0 for which IC =
VCC/RL (point B). The intersection of the output characteristic and the load line
gives the current through the switch and the voltage across it. The characteristics
for all the different values of IB overlap near the y-axis, along a near vertical
line, indicated in Fig. 5.40(b) as the saturation line. The voltage across the
transistor VCE, sat is observed to be very small. This is the ON-state of the
transistor switch, and VCE, sat is the unavoidable small forward voltage drop
across the switch in its ON state.
Applications of the power BJT
Power bipolar junction transistors are widely used for signal processing, both as
discrete devices and in integrated circuits. High power discrete devices with
individual current ratings of several hundred amperes and voltage ratings of
several hundred volts are presently available, and such devices are widely used
as static switches in power electronic converters.
5.20.1 Snubber Circuit (Switching-aid Circuit) of the Power BJT
Snubber circuit, also called the switching-aid circuit, is used for the purpose of
limiting the stress on static semiconductor switching devices during switching
transitions. The circuit as shown in Fig. 5.41(a) consists of a capacitor C, a diode
D and a resistor R. When the
Fig. 5.41(a) Turn-off snubber circuit for the junction transistor (BJT).
transistor is in the ON-state, the voltage across it, and therefore across the
switching-aid circuit, is nearly zero. The purpose of the capacitor-diode
combination is to slow down the rate of rise of voltage across the switch during
the turn-off switching transition. This happens because during this time the diode
turns on and the capacitor starts charging. In the OFF-state of the transistor, the
capacitor remains charged to the full blocking voltage. It discharges during the
next ON switching of the transistor. The resistor R limits the peak value of the
discharge current through the transistor. Each time the transistor is turned on, the
total energy stored in the capacitor is dissipated in the resistor. Therefore, the
power dissipation in R is proportional to the switching frequency and to the
square of the blocking voltage.
5.20.2 Switching Characteristic of the Power Transistor
A typical waveform of the collector current for power BJTs during turn-on and
turn-off transitions is shown in Fig. 5.41(b).
Fig. 5.41(b) Switching characteristics of a power BJT.
The instants of time marked on the figure have the following significances:
t0 is the instant at which the turn-on switching is initiated by the arrival

of the base current pulse.
t1 is the instant at which the collector current has risen to 10% of its final
value. The delay time of the power BJT is (t1 – t0).
t2 is the instant at which IC, sat reaches 90% of its final value. The rise
time is
(t2 – t1).
t3 is the instant at which turn-off switching is initiated. This is typically
done by the application of a small reverse voltage to the base, to speed up
the transition, resulting in a reverse base current pulse of short duration
because of the excess of minority carriers in the base region. This reverse
base current lasts until the excess carriers are swept out of the base
region. The collector current continues to flow without any significant
decrease for a short time after t3, because of these stored excess minority
carriers. The storage time is (t4 – t3).
t4 is the instant at which the collector current has fallen to 90% of its ON-
state value.
t5 is the instant at which the collector current has fallen to 10% of its ON-
state value. The fall time is (t5 – t4).
EXAMPLE 5.7
In the circuit of Fig. 5.42, the power BJT is being used as a static switch to
switch a resistance load of 10 W in a 220 V dc circuit. The parameters of the
BJT are, hFE = 15, VCE, sat = 2 V, and VBE = 0.7 V.
(i) Determine the minimum value of the driver output voltage VBB necessary
to drive the switch to obtain the maximum current in the load. Determine
also the power dissipation in the switch under this condition.
(ii) If VBB falls to 80% of the value determined in (i), what will be the change
in the load current and the change in the power dissipation in the
transistor?
(iii) A transient overvoltage spike occurs in the circuit because of external
causes, resulting in VCC going up from 220 V to 250 V for a short interval.
Since the current is limited by IB , assume that there is no significant
change in IC . What will be the power dissipation in the device under this
condition?
Fig. 5.42 Example 5.7.

Solution (i) The ON-state current of the transistor is given by
IC, ON = (VCC – VCE, sat)/RL
= (220 – 2)/10 = 21.8 A = IC1 (Supposed)
The minimum base current is given by
IB = IC, ON/hFE
= 21.8/15 = 1.45 A
The minimum value of VBB necessary to ensure satisfactory ON-state is given
by
VBB = IBRB + VBE
= (1.45 5) + 0.7 =
The collector power dissipation is
PC = IC, ON VCE, sat
= 21.8 2 = 43.6 W
The base power dissipation is given by
PB = IBVBE
= 1.45 0.7 = 1.015 W
The power dissipation in the switch is
P = PC + PB
= 43.6 + 1.015 = = P1 (Supposed)
(ii) According to the problem,
0.8VBB = IBRB + VBE
or
0.8 7.95 = (IB 5) + 0.7
or
IB = 1.132 A
The collector current of the transistor is given by
IC = hFE IB
= 15 1.132 = 16.98 A = IC2 (Assumed)
The change in the load current is, therefore, given by
IC1 – IC2 = 21.8 – 16.98 =
The collector power dissipation is
PC = ICVCE, sat
= 16.98 2 = 33.96 W
The base power dissipation is
PB = IBVBE
= 1.132 0.7 = 0.79 W
Total power dissipation in the switch is
P = PC + PB
= 33.96 + 0.79 = 34.75 W = P2 (Assumed)
The change in power dissipation is, therefore, given by
DP = P1 – P2
= 44.615 – 34.75 =
(iii) If IC, ON remains limited to the value of 21.8 A and because IB is
unchanged when the voltage goes up to 250 V, the new value of VCE will be
given by
VCE = (VCC – IC, ON RL )
= 250 – (21.8 10) = 32 V
The new value of the collector power dissipation is
PC, new = IC, ONVCE, sat
= 21.8 32 = 697.6 W
The new value of the total power dissipation in the transistor is, therefore, given
by
PT, new = PC, new + PB
= 697.6 + 1.015 =
5.21 POWER MOSFETs

The power MOSFET is a high-power version of the low-power metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Relatively recent developments
in technology have resulted in the production of high-power devices, with large
voltage and current capabilities. Individual devices with typical ratings of tens of
amperes and hundreds of volts are presently available. Both N-channel and P-
channel devices are being made, but the
N-channel devices are available in higher ratings. The P-channel device works in
exactly the same way as an N-channel device, only with the voltage polarities
and current directions reversed.
Construction of the power MOSFET
Power MOSFETs are fabricated in the form of arrays. This means that a single
power MOSFET is in reality a parallel combination of thousands of individual
cells, each being a MOSFET in itself. The number of cells on a silicon pellet
may be as high as 1000 on an area as small as 1 mm2. The MOSFET has three
external terminals, called drain (D), source (S) and gate (G). The drain and
source are the power terminals of the switch. The gate is the control terminal.
The control voltage to implement turn-on is applied between the gate and the
source terminals. The direction of the forward current flow in an N-channel
device is from the drain to the source. This results from the flow of electrons
from the source to the drain.
The N-layer on the top constitutes the drain as shown in Fig. 5.43(a). This
layer is actually made up of an outer N+ layer of low resistivity (higher
concentration of carriers) and an inner N– layer of high resistivity (low impurity
concentration). The inner high-resistivity region serves to give a high voltage
capability, while the outer low-resistivity region serves to make a strong low
resistance electrical contact with the drain surface metal deposition.
Adjacent to the N– zone is a relatively large P island as shown in Fig. 5.43(a).
Inside the P island are again N+ islands. The source metal deposition covers a
good part of the N+ islands and also the middle part of the P island between the
N+ islands. The gate terminal does not make any electrical contact with the
silicon pellet, because of the presence of a layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2), which
is an insulator, between the silicon surface and the gate. The gate zone is over
the P island between the N– drain region and the N+ source region. A
conducting polycrystalline silicon layer, deposited over the gate zone, on the
silicon dioxide layer, serves as the gate layer. Polycrystalline silicon layer gives
better performance than the deposited metal layer. Figure 5.43(b) shows the
symbol of MOSFET.
Principle of operation of the power MOSFET
If the drain terminal D is made positive with respect to the source S without gate
voltage, no current can flow from the drain to the source because the junction
between the N– drain region and the P island is reverse biased. Only a small
reverse leakage current flows which is negligibly small. This is the OFF state of
the power MOSFET.
A positive voltage applied to the gate with respect to the source creates an
electric field which pulls electrons from the N+ zone into the P zone
immediately near the gate.
Fig. 5.43 N-channel power MOSFET: (a) junction structure and (b) circuit
symbol.
In this way an N-channel is created linking the source N+ region and the drain
N– region as shown in Fig. 5.44(a). This N-channel now provides the path for
flow of current from the drain to the source. If the positive potential on the gate
is not of sufficient magnitude to create a channel, no current will flow.
Therefore, there is a threshold value for the gate-source voltage VGS , below
which the switch will be completely OFF. Above this threshold value, the
channel cross-sectional area will increase with increasing gate-source voltage.
There is a limit to the maximum current flow through the channel for a given
value of VGS , without appreciable voltage drop. If the drain-source voltage is
increased, a steep increase in current flow takes place initially. Later, the current
reaches a saturation value IDS , which is limited by the size of the channel, that
is, by VGS. There will be no further significant increase in current for that
particular value of VGS. Once the saturation value is reached, any further
increase in VDS will only cause increased voltage drop across the device and
increased power dissipation in it, without increase in current. These statements
are evident from the output characteristics as shown in Fig. 5.44(b), which show
the relationship between the drain current ID and the drain-source voltage VDS
for different values of VGS. In the case of most power MOSFETs, a VGS value
of +12 V to +15 V will be adequate to turn the switch fully on.
Integral reverse diode of the power MOSFET
The integral reverse diode or the body diode of the power MOSFET with
reference to the junction structure in Fig. 5.43(a) shows that if the source is made
positive with respect to the drain, there is a direct path for current flow across the
junction between the P region and the drain N– region, which becomes forward
biased under this condition. Therefore, the device functions like a power diode in
this direction. This integral antiparallel diode is an advantageous feature for most
switching applications of the power MOSFET.
Fig. 5.44 N-channel MOSFET: (a) current paths in the ON-state and (b) the
output characteristics.
Applications of the power MOSFET
The power MOSFET is widely used in analog and digital signal processing
circuits both in discrete and integrated circuit (IC) forms. A power MOSFET can
be used either as a static switch or for analog operations. In static power
converters, power MOSFETs are invariably used as static switches.
MOSFET
This circuit protects the power MOSFET from excessive stresses during
switching transitions. Such a circuit is similar to that for the power transistors.
The charging current flows through the interelectrode capacitance between the
drain and the gate during turn-off switching. This charging current increases the
gate potential and leads to a spurious turn-on and damages the device. Therefore,
the turn-off transition is an interval during which the device may be overstressed
because of the excessive dv/dt. The components of the snubber circuit can be
suitably chosen to limit the dv/dt.
5.21.2 Switching Characteristics of the Power MOSFET
The typical waveforms of both drain-source voltage VDS and gate-source
voltage VGS are shown in Fig. 5.45, approximated to linear shapes.
The turn-on delay td(ON) is the time interval taken by the gate-source
voltage VGS to rise to 10% of its final value or the time interval taken by the
drain-source voltage VDS to fall to 90% of its initial OFF-state value.
The rise time tr is the time interval during which the drain-source voltage
VDS falls from 90% to 10% of its initial OFF-state value. During this time, the
drain current rises between the corresponding limits.
The turn-off delay td(OFF) is the time interval during turn-off switching
taken by the gate-source voltage VGS to fall to 90% of its final OFF value.
The fall time tf is the time interval during which drain-source voltage VDS
rises from 10% to 90% of its final OFF-state value. During this time, the drain
current falls between the corresponding limits.
Fig. 5.45 Switching characteristics of a power MOSFET.
The turn-on and turn-off time periods are given, respectively, by
tON = td(ON) + tr
and
tOFF = td(OFF) + tf
Power MOSFETs, in general, have shorter switching times than those of other
power semiconductor switches. The actual values of tON and tOFF depend on
the device ratings.
5.22 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)

The IGBT is a voltage-controlled switch. It has no integral reverse diode unlike
the power MOSFET. When such a diode is needed for freewheeling in any
circuit application, a separate antiparallel power diode has to be used along with
the IGBT. The IGBT has no significant reverse voltage blocking capability. The
maximum reverse voltage it can withstand is typically well below 10 V. IGBTs
with a voltage rating of 1200 V and current rating of 600 A are available.
Construction of the insulated gate bipolar transistor
A typical IGBT cell as shown in Fig. 5.46 is comparable with the structure of an
N-channel power MOSFET. In the IGBT, there is an additional P+ layer over the
N+ drain layer of the power MOSFET structure. This P+ layer constitutes the
collector of the IGBT. The adjacent N-region consists of an N+ layer and an N–
layer. The N+ layer serves to achieve better performance, but does not materially
change the operating principle of the device. The two layers N+ and N– are
collectively treated as a single N-layer.
The collector and emitter are the power terminals of the IGBT switch. The
base terminal of the conventional BJT is replaced by the insulated gate terminal
in the IGBT. The switching control voltage for the IGBT is applied across the
gate and the emitter and this controls the switching of the IGBT.
Fig. 5.46 Junction structure and symbol of a typical IGBT.

Principle of operation of the insulated gate bipolar transistor
A positive voltage is applied to the collector with respect to the emitter. The
current flows through the N-channel in an IGBT cell when a positive voltage
applied to the gate-emitter terminal is greater than the threshold voltage. The N-
channel so created in the IGBT as shown in Fig. 5.47(a) connects the N+ emitter
zone of the IGBT to the middle N region. The top P+ zone, the middle N-region
and the lower P island constitute a P-N-P transistor. The top P+ region functions
as the emitter of this P-N-P transistor under the normal circuit polarities. A
circuit model on this basis is drawn in Fig. 5.47(b). The middle N region
constitutes the base of the P-N-P transistor.
Fig. 5.47 Insulated gate bipolar transistor: (a) current flow path in ON-state and
(b) circuit model in ON-state.
When a channel is formed by the application of a gate voltage, the current
flows through the top P+ zone, the middle N-region and the channel to the
emitter terminal. This current flowing through the channel serves as the base
current for the P-N-P transistor that causes emitter current in this transistor,
resulting in large-scale injection of holes across the top P-N junction. These
injected holes are responsible for the conductivity modulation of the middle N
zone. Now, there are two current-flow paths to the emitter terminal. One is
through the middle N zone and the channel. The other is across the collector
junction of the P-N-P transistor and through the lower P zone. The resistances,
Rmod (modulated by carrier injection from the top P+ zone) and RC in these two
paths are shown separately in the Fig. 5.47(b).
Applications of the IGBT
The IGBTs are widely used as switches in the static power converters.
Switching characteristics of the IGBT
The switching characteristics of the IGBT are similar to those of the power
MOSFETs.
5.23 LOSS OF POWER IN SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The I2R loss, i.e. the power loss in semiconductor devices can be divided into
four parts:
Forward current conduction loss
This loss is the major component of total power loss in a semiconductor device.
The mean forward current multiplied by the forward voltage drop across the
semiconductor device is the average power dissipated in the device. To maintain
the silicon temperature well below 120°C, the heat generated in the
semiconductor device must be removed fast with the help of heat sinks.
Forward leakage power loss
When a semiconductor device is in forward blocking mode, i.e. when a forward
voltage is applied to the anode terminal with respect to the cathode, there is a
forward leakage current. This loss is the integration of the product of forward
voltage and forward leakage current. It is comparable to the conduction loss.
Turn-off power loss
The turn-off power loss arises during the time of decay of reverse current
according to the product of the instantaneous values of the reverse current and
reverse voltage, and may reach high peak values up to several kilowatts. Since
these turn-off power losses occur during each turn-off process, their share in the
total power loss increases with the increasing rate of repetition. At power
frequency, the turn-off loss is negligible. As the operating frequency increases,
the turn-off power loss cannot be neglected. The turn-off power loss can be
calculated accurately by
………(5.57)
The turn-off power loss can be considerably reduced by lowering the value of
the reverse current and the rate of growth of reverse voltage. This can be
achieved by a proper damping circuit. The range in which turn-off power losses
occur is shown in Fig. 5.48.
Fig. 5.48 Waveforms showing the range of turn-off power losses.
Turn-on power loss
The turn-on power loss is rather higher than the turn-off power loss. Because the
switching process takes a finite time, there is a relatively high voltage across the
device while a forward current flows. The switching loss (i.e. the loss during the
transition period when the device goes from ON-state to OFF-state and vice
versa) at higher operating frequencies will be greater than that at lower
frequencies.
5.24 COMPARISON BETWEEN POWER MOSFET, POWER
TRANSISTOR AND POWER IGBT
Power MOSFET Power Transistor Power IGBT
It is a current- It is a voltage
It is a voltage-operated device.
controlled device. controlled-device.
It needs an
A small current is
appreciable value
required at its control
A negligible current is required at its control terminal to maintain it in the ON-state. of control current
terminal to maintain it
for keeping it in the
in the ON-state.
ON-state.
Its switching speed

is comparatively
Its switching speed is
Its switching speed is high. lower than that
very high.
of the power
MOSFET.
A fast recovery
The IGBT has no
The internal structure is such that there exists a diode path in the reverse direction diode of adequate
integral diode. A
across the main terminals of the switch. In effect, it is a parallel combination of two rating in
separate antiparallel
static switches—a controlled switch for forward current flow and an uncontrolled antiparallel across
power diode has to be
diode switch for reverse currents. Such a combination of switches is very frequently the power
used along with the
required in static converters in which the diode serves to provide a freewheeling transistor is used
IGBT for the purpose of
current path. for freewheeling
freewheeling.
action.
The current and The current and voltage

The current and The current and voltage
voltage ratings are
The current and voltage ratings are low. higher than those ratings are well above
of power those of power
MOSFETs. MOSFETs.
ON-state voltage
drop is lower than ON-state voltage drop is
ON-state voltage drop is comparatively higher than that of power transistors.
that of power maximum.
MOSFETs.
5.25 UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A unijunction transistor (UJT) or P-N transistor is a two-layer P-N device with
three-terminals. It is a unidirectional triggering element. Possessing only one
P-N junction, the UJT is a versatile semiconductor device that exhibits negative
resistance characteristics. This means that an increasing emitter current results in
a decreasing voltage between the emitter (E) and base-1 (B1) terminals. In other
words, when the device is triggered, the emitter current increases regeneratively
until it is limited by emitter power supply.
Construction of the UJT
The UJT is fabricated on an N-type silicon bar with ohmic contacts of gold film
for the two base terminals as shown in Fig. 5.49(a). The emitter section, a highly
doped P-type material, is deposited between the base-1 (B1) and base-2 (B2)
regions. The P-type material is placed at a point closer to B2 than B1. The N-
type silicon semiconductor region comprising the base material is lightly doped.
The resulting small number of free electrons will support only a small current
between the two base terminals. Without the emitter, the dc resistance across this
N-type material from base-1 to base-2 is approximately 4700 W to 9000 W for
the 2N2160 type UJT. The P-N junction acts as a silicon diode connected to two
base regions. The device is also called the double-based diode because the two
terminals are taken from the same section of the diode.
Fig. 5.49(a) Structure and symbol of a UJT.
Equivalent circuit of the UJT
The interbase resistance RBB of the N-type silicon bar appears as two resistors
RB1 and RB2 where RBB = RB1 + RB2 as shown in Fig. 5.49(b). The relative
values of RB1 and RB2 depend on where the P-type emitter material is located
along the N-type bar. When the interbase voltage VBB is applied between B2
and B1, a portion of the power supply voltage VBB appears between the points C
and B1 as shown in Fig. 5.49(b). When there is no emitter current IE, the voltage
to the junction point of RB1 and RB2 with respect to B1 is given by
Fig. 5.49(b) Equivalent circuit of a UJT.

………(5.58)
The ratio RB1/RBB = h is called the intrinsic stand-off ratio of a UJT. The value
of h lies between 0.51 to 0.82. Therefore,
VCB1 = hVBB
Principle of operation of the UJT

If an external emitter voltage VE is applied to the emitter terminal E with respect
to B1, no current flows through the emitter as long as the emitter voltage is less
than VCB1. If VE < hVBB, the emitter junction is reverse biased resulting in a
small reverse leakage current. However, if VE > hVBB, the emitter junction gets
forward biased, emitter current flows and holes get injected from the emitter into
the high resistance N-type bar. These holes are attracted to base-1 (B1) and
repelled by base-2 (B2). This results in an increase in the conduction of the
region between the junction C and the base-1 (B1). This sudden increase in the
number of available carriers quickly decreases the resistance of the RB1 portion
of the UJT so that current, once started, flows easily between E and B1. Thus the
conductivity of RB1 is modulated or varied by the flow of emitter current. This
phenomenon is known as conductivity modulation.
The increase in conductivity, in turn, decreases the voltage drop between the
points C and B1. Consequently, this increases the forward bias of the P-N
junction. The emitter current IE, therefore, increases. This process continues
until the valley point with the coordinates IV and VV , is reached as shown in
Fig. 5.49(c). This current IV is so large that no further increase in the
conductivity of the region between the junction C and the base-1 (B1) is
possible. Hence beyond this valley point the UJT behaves as a conventional
forward biased junction diode. The emitter voltage at the peak point in the
characteristic is given as, VP = hVBB + VD, where VD is the inherent base
voltage drop. Between VP and VV , increase in IE is accomplished by a
reduction in the emitter voltage VE. This is the negative resistance region of the
UJT. Beyond the valley point, increase in IE is accomplished by an increase in
VE. This is known as the saturation region. At points to the left of VP, the
emitter–base 1 is reverse biased, and there is no emitter current. This is called
the cut-off region.
Fig. 5.49(c) VE–IE characteristic curve of a UJT.
Applications of UJT
UJTs are extensively used in oscillator, pulse and wave sensing circuits as well
as in delay timer circuits. This device is also used to apply a sudden pulse of
power to energise a relay or to fire an SCR.
5.26 Electron Tubes

Electron tubes can be used to transform electrical quantities such as current or
voltage, in waveform, magnitude and frequency, and also to convert radiant
energy into electricity and vice versa. An electron tube refers to a device in
which the work space bounded by a gas-tight envelope is highly rarefied
(evacuated) or filled with a suitable medium (a vapour or a gas) and depends for
its operation on the electrical phenomenon that takes place in a vacuum or a gas.
A vacuum refers to a state of a gas, notably air, under a pressure which is lower
than the atmospheric pressure. Electron tubes may be classified into vacuum
tubes in which the current flow is constituted solely by electrons moving in a
vacuum, and gas-filled (or simply gas) tubes which depend for their operation on
an electric discharge in a gas (or a vapour).
In gas-filled tubes, the pressure may be 10–3 mm of Hg and higher. A
substantial proportion of the moving electrons collide with the gas molecules
and ionize them. In fact, this ionisation is only a part of the more general process
known as a gaseous discharge. Argon, helium, krypton, neon, hydrogen, and
xenon gases are used in gas-filled tubes. The basic types of gas-filled tubes are
stabiliser diodes, thyratrons, mercury-arc tubes, etc. Thyratrons and mercury-arc
tubes are both switches, carrying unidirectional current. They are bulky and
fragile, and have large power losses between electrodes because of the forward
conducting drop of 10 V for the thyratron and about 50 V for the mercury-arc
tube.
Glow discharge
It is a self-maintained discharge. As its name implies, this discharge has a soft
glow of light like that of smouldering charcoal. The current density in a glow
discharge is units or tens of milliamperes per cm2 and there is a space charge
markedly affecting the electric field between the electrodes. For a glow
discharge to take place, the voltage must be tens or even hundreds of volts. The
discharge is maintained by the emission of electrons from the cathode which is
bombarded by ions.
A plasma is a heavily ionised gas in which the positive ions and the negative
electrons are roughly equal in number. In a plasma, the haphazard (thermal)
motion of particles prevails over their ordered motion. Still, the electrons move
towards the anode and the ions towards the cathode.
5.26.1 Gas-filled Diode
Gas-filled diode is the name used to describe a partially evacuated electron tube
containing a small amount of inert gas such as helium, neon, argon, krypton or
xenon at a suitable pressure typically 10–3 mm of Hg or higher. Ionisation of the
gas is responsible for the flow of current in such diodes. Large plate currents
may be obtained if the plate voltage is sufficiently high to impart ion-producing
velocities to the electrons. Once ionisation occurs, the plate current is much
larger than it would be for a corresponding space-charge controlled vacuum
diode, for a given plate-cathode potential. Gas-filled diodes are usually classified
as (i) cold-cathode type and (ii) hot-cathode type.
In a cold-cathode type gas-filled diode, the ionisation of gas is caused by the
energy from natural sources such as cosmic rays or radioactive particles in air.
Usually filled with neon gas in combination with other gases, cold-cathode
diodes utilise field emission to obtain ionisation of the gas. In the symbol of the
cold-cathode type, a dot in the circle indicates the presence of the gas.
A hot-cathode type gas-filled diode consists of a thermionic (hot) cathode, a
plate and a small amount of liquid mercury that vaporises when the cathode is
heated. When the plate voltage is applied, the vapour ionises and sustains a
heavy current. So the cathode must be pre-heated for 1-2 minutes before the
plate voltage is applied in order to permit the mercury to be completely
vaporised.
Construction of the cold-cathode gas diode
A cold-cathode gas diode consists of two electrodes, cathode and anode,
mounted very close to each other in an envelope filled with some inert gas at low
pressure. Figure 5.50(a) shows a cold-cathode gas diode. The anode here is
shown in the form of a thin wire and the cathode is a cylindrical metallic surface
with oxide coating. The anode is always kept at a positive potential with respect
to the cathode.
Principle of operation of the cold-cathode gas diode
The conduction in a gas-filled diode passes through three successive discharge
phases such as (i) townsend discharge, i.e. discharge, in a gas owing to
ionisation which is not a result of the applied voltage, (ii) glow discharge, and
(iii) arc discharge.
Fig. 5.50(a) Construction of cold-cathode gas diode and its symbol.

At low anode voltage, the tube conducts a very small current (1 mA) owing to
the ionisation of gas molecules by the natural sources. The conduction up to the
point B as shown in Fig. 5.50(b) is known as Townsend discharge which is non-
self maintained discharge because it requires an external source to cause
ionisation. In this part of the conduction, no visible light is associated.
Fig. 5.50(b) Characteristic curve of a gas-filled diode.

The tube fires at some critical voltage such as point B and the voltage across
the tube drops (from point B to point C) and remains constant irrespective of
plate current. Glow is seen in the gas and on a portion of the cathode. This part
of the conduction is known as glow discharge. In this region, an increase in
supply voltage causes more current to flow resulting in enhanced voltage drop
across the external series resistance. Hence a constant voltage drop occurs across
the gas-filled diode. Ionisation enhances because of the increase in current and
the glow covers a greater part of the cathode surface. The ionised gas path
between the cathode and the anode has a greater area of cross-section. As
resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section, the resistance of
the gas-filled diode decreases. Hence the voltage across the gas-filled diode
remains constant from point C to point D as shown in Fig. 5.50(b).
After the glow discharge, voltage across the tube no longer remains constant.
If the supply voltage is now increased, the circuit current increases and the
voltage across the gas-filled diode starts to rise again. This stage of conduction
(from point D to point E) is known as abnormal glow. If the current density is
further increased, the discharge becomes an arc. This is known as arc discharge.
Applications of the cold-cathode gas diode
Applications of the cold-cathode gas diode
Gas-filled diodes are used in many industrial electronic circuits where large
values of average current ranging from 1 A to 100 A are required.
5.26.2 Thyratrons
The term thyratron takes on its origin from the Greek word Thyra which means
door, thus implying that the tube can be opened and closed like a door, with the
aid of a control grid. It is a gas-filled triode with a thermionic cathode. The gas
pressure is kept high enough to create plasma with normal plate voltage.
Thyratrons may have three or more electrodes. In a three-electrode glow-
discharge thyratron, the anode and cathode are supplemented by a third
electrode, called the grid as shown in Fig. 5.51(a). The grid of the thyratron
exercises a more limited control than it does in vacuum triodes. Glow-discharge
thyratrons are usually miniaturised and use neon or argon or their mixture as the
filling gas. They are able to operate over an ambient temperature range of –
60°C to + 100°C. Their service life is several thousand hours. The operating grid
and anode voltages range from tens of volts to 100-300 volts. The time required
for the grid to regain its control action after the anode current ceases, depends on
the deionisation time and usually is of the order of tens or hundreds of
microseconds.
Fig. 5.51(a) Electrode structure of a negative control thyratron.

Principle of operation of the thyratron
The grid of the thyratron exercises one-way control over conduction and only
serves to fire the tube at the instant when it acquires a critical voltage. As the
grid exercises no control over conduction, the discharge in a thyratron can be
discontinued only by reducing the anode voltage to a value at which no
discharge can be sustained, or by opening the anode circuit. The thyratron tubes
can control loads from a few milliamperes to several amperes. The thyratron’s
plate-cathode resistance is very low when the tube is in the conducting state.
The grid of the thyratron controls the point at which the tube fires, or the point
at which the gas in the tube ionises. When the grid voltage is made sufficiently
negative the electrons emitted from the cathode do not acquire the necessary
velocity to ionise the gas, and the plate current is virtually zero. As the negative
grid potential is reduced, the electrons acquire more speed and energy. A point,
called the critical grid voltage, is reached,
where ionisation occurs and a large plate current flows. In other words, the
control grid voltage is that negative grid voltage for a given plate potential at
which ionisation of the
gas starts. As soon as the tube fires, the plate current assumes the full value,
limited
only by the external resistance in series with tube. Once ionisation takes place,
the
grid loses control and the flow of plate current does not stop. The plate current
can be stopped only by reducing the plate voltage to zero, or to a negative value.
After the conduction ceases, the grid regains control and determines the start of
the next
conduction. The device is operationally comparable to the solid-state silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR). The conduction period can be lengthened or
shortened by shifting the
firing point.
It is necessary to restore the tube to the non-conducting state for the next firing
action. This can be done using the reversing polarity of ac supply. During the
negative half-cycle, the plate current ceases to flow and plasma disappears. The
average plate current depends upon the point in the positive half-cycle of plate
voltage at which the tube fires and, therefore, is governed by the grid voltage.
The grid voltage may be varied to change the average plate current and the tube
may thus be used to operate a relay in the plate circuit of the thyratron.
Action of the grid after firing of a thyratron
When conduction starts in a thyratron, positive-ion sheaths are formed around
the cathode and the negative grid, while the remaining space in the tube is filled
with plasma in which the numbers of positive and negative ions are equal and
whose potential is almost constant and nearly equal to the plate voltage. Since
the grid is negative, it repels electrons and attracts positive ions which cluster
around the negative grid forming a sheath. Under the equilibrium conditions, the
total positive charge of all the positive ions in the sheath equals the negative
charge on the grid owing to the applied negative voltage. Thus within the sheath,
the net charge is zero. Hence the field of the negative grid does not extend
beyond the positive ion sheath. Thus through the plasma, the flow of positive
ions and electrons takes place from the cathode and the anode, respectively,
without the influence of the grid. It is assumed that the thickness of the sheath
around the grid wires is small compared with the spacing between the wires so
that the flow of positive ions and electrons takes place without appreciable
hindrance. If the grid is highly negative or the current density in the plasma is
reduced to a very small value, then the sheaths of two adjacent wires may
overlap and extinguish the arc.
The firing characteristic forms the boundary between the conduction region
and the non-conduction region as shown in Fig. 5.51(b). For any fixed plate
voltage, as the grid
Fig. 5.51(b) Firing characteristic of a thyratron.

voltage is gradually increased (i.e. made less negative) starting from a high
negative value, conduction starts when the grid voltage attains the value given
by the curve. Alternatively, for a fixed grid voltage, as the plate voltage is
gradually increased from a low value, conduction starts when the anode voltage
reaches the value given by the curve.
Applications of the thyratron
Thyratrons are useful in switching and in fast-acting relay applications because
of their firing action. They are used as controlled rectifiers for controlling the dc
power fed to the load and in motor control circuits. They are also used in saw-
tooth sweep generators for TV and radar applications.
5.26.3 Ignitron (Mercury-pool Tube)
It is a mercury-arc rectifier with a pool-type cathode. A pointed electrode, called
the ignitor, dipped into a mercury pool, as shown in Fig. 5.52(a), is utilised to
trigger the mercury-vapour discharge in the tube at the desired instant. The
mercury pool is used as a cathode and, therefore, it requires no heating power.
The anode and the ignitor are made of graphite material and silicon carbide or
boron carbide (i.e. semiconductor material), respectively. The metal water jacket
and the tube wall are electrically connected to the mercury-pool cathode as
shown in the cut-way view of Fig. 5.52(a). The ignitor is a rectifier—it produces
electrons from only one element, the mercury pool—so its electrons can flow
only in one direction from cathode to anode.
Principle of operation of the ignitron
To initiate an arc, an auxiliary voltage of about 200 V sends a heavy current
(about 30 A) from the ignitor tip to the cathode, thus forming a cathode spot on
the surface of the pool. Electrons emitted from this bright spot are immediately
ionised. This results in an arc between the cathode and the main anode, if the
anode is positive at this instant of time. It is necessary to start the arc at the
beginning of each period of conduction.
If the load current flowing through the ignitor and into the arc is large enough
(20 A to 40 A), the top of the ignitor rod becomes much more positive than the
mercury pool, and thus it attracts the electrons newly released by the arc. These
moving electrons ionise the particles of mercury vapour in the space in between;
the positively charged ions are attracted to the cathode with such force that they
dislodge huge quantities of electrons from the mercury pool by secondary
emission. These electrons now may pass directly from the mercury pool to the
large anode.
Fig. 5.52(a) Cut-way view and symbol of an ignitron.
The arc so created continues for the remaining part of the cycle during which
the anode remains positive with respect to the cathode. When the anode becomes
negative, the arc extinguishes and the tube deionises rapidly. Ignitrons are
capable of carrying plate currents from 10 A to 5000 A. Available sizes of
ignitrons can handle currents from 40 A to 10,000 A, per pair of tubes.
Potential distribution curve of the ignitron
Figure 5.52(b) shows the potential distribution in the arc of an ignitron. The
three parts of the arc are (i) cathode sheath, (ii) plasma, and (iii) anode sheath.
The positive ions surrounding the cathode form the cathode sheath. The
electrons emitted from the cathode move to the plasma while the positive ions
from the plasma move to the cathode. In the cathode sheath, the voltage drop is
about 10 V. A voltage drop of nearly 4.5 V is required to liberate electrons while
the remaining drop of 5.5 V accelerates the electrons to cause ionisation.
Fig. 5.52(b) Potential distribution in the arc of an ignitron.
A plasma is a heavily ionised gas in which the positive ions and the negative
electrons are roughly equal in number with a potential gradient of about 0.05
V/cm.
The region surrounding the anode is called the anode sheath. It has more
electrons and a high potential gradient. The electronic space charge surrounding
the anode obstructs the motion of electrons from plasma to anode. The large
voltage drop in the anode sheath is responsible for a high voltage in the arc at
high currents. At high currents the voltage drop rises owing to an increase in the
anode drop, whereas at lower currents the voltage drop rises owing to an
increase in the cathode drop.
Applications of the ignitron
Ignitrons are used in heavy-duty industrial rectifier services and are extremely
well suited for resistance welding. A pair of ignitrons connected back-to-back to
switch one side of an ac circuit feeding a transformer load is used for spot
welding.

1. A P-N-P-N diode is a
(a) negative resistance device.
(b) current controllable negative resistance device.
(c) voltage controllable device.
(d) controlled rectifier.
2. A P-N-P-N diode is fabricated from
(a) silicon only.
(b) germanium only.
(c) germanium or silicon.
(d) gallium arsenide.
3. In a P-N-P-N diode, breakover voltage is marked by
(a) a sudden increase in current.
(b) a sudden decrease in current.
(c) the diode getting burnt off.
4. A P-N-P-N diode is
(a) a two-terminal device.
(b) a four-terminal device.
(c) a three-terminal device.
5. An SCS is a
(a) P-N-P-N diode with three-terminals.
(b) P-N-P-N diode made from germanium.
(c) P-N-P-N diode having contacts to both the inner layers.
6. Which of the following P-N-P-N devices has two gates?
(a) SCS
(b) Diac
(c) Triac
(d) UJT
7. An SCR has
(a) four layers.
(b) three-terminals.
(c) two layers.
(d) all of the above.
8. An SCR can be constructed by sandwiching two transistors.
(a) one of the P-N-P type and the other N-P-N type.
(b) both of the P-N-P type.
(c) both of the N-P-N type.
9. An SCR
(a) is the same device as an SCS except for their current and voltage
ratings.
(b) has higher ratings for breakover voltage, holding current, holding
voltage, etc. than those for an SCS.
(c) is another name for the SCS.
(d) is none of the above.
10. Thyristors have an edge over silicon-controlled switches as they
(a) have lower switching times.
(b) have higher breakover voltages.
(c) are cheaper.
(d) have larger values of holding current and holding voltage.
11. An SCR may be turned off by
(a) reducing its anode-cathode voltage.
(b) removing the gate voltage pulse.
(c) reducing the current below the holding value.
12. An SCS may be switched on by a
(a) positive pulse at its anode.
(b) negative pulse at its cathode.
(c) positive pulse at its cathode gate G2.
(d) positive pulse at its cathode gate G1.
13. An SCS has
(a) four layers and three-terminals.
(b) three layers and four terminals.
(c) two anodes and two gates.
(d) an anode, a cathode and two gates.
14. An SCR can be operated
(a) only on reverse-biased condition.
(b) only on forward-biased condition.
(c) both on forward and reverse-biased conditions.
(d) without any biasing.
15. The number of gates in a silicon-controlled switch is
(a) one.
(b) three.
(c) four.
(d) two.
16. In the forward-biased condition of an SCR
(a) two out of the three junctions are reverse biased.
(b) one out of the three junctions is reverse biased.
(c) all of the three functions are forward biased.
(d) all of the three junctions are reverse biased.
17. In the reverse-biased condition of an SCR
(a) two out of the three junctions are reverse biased.
(b) one out of the three junctions is reverse biased.
(c) all of the three junctions are reverse biased.
(d) all of the three junctions are forward biased.
18. The moment an SCR starts conducting, it
(a) allows only a small amount of current to flow initially through the
device.
(b) acts like a short-circuited device.
(c) acts like an open-circuited device.
(d) lets a heavy voltage drop to take place across the device.
19. An SCR is a
(a) semiconductor device.
(b) gas-filled diode.
(c) gas-filled triode.
(d) vacuum tube with four electrodes.
20. When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode in an SCR, the
number of blocked P-N junctions is
(a) 1.
(b) 2.
(c) 3.
(d) 4.
21. The number of P-N junctions in a thyristor is
(a) 1.
(b) 2.
(c) 3.
(d) 4.
22. An SCR is used for control in
(a) dc circuits only.
(b) ac circuits only.
(c) both ac and dc circuits.
23. If the gate current of an SCR increases, the forward breakdown voltage
will
(a) decrease.
(b) not be affected.
(c) increase.
(d) become zero.
24. A thyristor can be termed
(a) dc switch.
(b) ac switch.
(c) either dc switch or ac switch.
(d) square-wave switch.
25. SCRs are normally turned on by
(a) applying VAK > VBO at IG = 0.
(b) applying a gate voltage.
(c) applying a voltage with high di/dt.
(d) increasing the temperature.
26. Thyristors include
(a) UJTs and DIACs.
(b) BJTs and FETs.
(c) PUTs and UJTs.
(d) PUTs and TRIACs.
27. Which of the following P-N-P-N devices does not have a gate terminal?
(a) Triac
(b) SCS
(c) SUS
(d) Diac
28. If the gate current of an SCR is increased, the forward breakdown voltage
will
(a) increase.
(b) decrease.
(c) not be affected.
(d) become infinite.
29. After firing an SCR, the gate pulse is removed. The current in the SCR will
(a) remain the same.
(b) immediately fall to zero.
(c) rise up.
(d) rise a little and then fall to zero.
30. An SCR conducts an appreciable current when the
(a) gate is negative and the anode is positive with respect to the cathode.
(b) anode and the gate are both negative with respect to the cathode.
(c) anode and the gate are both positive with respect to the cathode.
(d) anode is negative and the gate is positive with respect to the cathode.
31. An SCR can be turned off by
(a) reversing the anode voltage.
(b) reducing the anode current below the holding value.
(c) both (a) and (b).
32. Holding current in a P-N-P-N diode is
(a) the normal operating current.
(b) the current corresponding to breakover voltage.
(c) the minimum current to keep the device ON.
33. An SCR turns off when the anode current falls below the
(a) forward current.
(b) holding current.
(c) trigger current.
(d) cut-off current.
34. The minimum current required to maintain an SCR in the ON-state (with
gate open) is termed
(a) holding current.
(b) latching current.
(c) leakage current.
(d) valley current.
35. In a thyristor, the ratio of latching current to holding current is
(a) 12.8.
(b) 1.0.
(c) 2.5.
(d) 6.0.
36. The turn-off time of SCRs will normally be of the order of
(a) 1 ms.
(b) 2 ms.
(c) 50 ms.
(d) 1 s.
37. The value of turn-on time of commonly used SCRs is approximately
(a) 100 ms.
(b) 150 to 200 ms.
(c) 50 ms.
(d) 10 ms.
38. Pulse gate triggering is achieved by means of
(a) an L-C circuit.
(b) a UJT relaxation oscillator circuit.
(c) a diac-triac circuit.
(d) a rheostatic arrangement.
39. The most commonly used method for triggering an SCR is the
(a) radiation triggering process.
(b) voltage triggering process.
(c) gate triggering process.
(d) thermal triggering process.
40. R-C triggering is preferred over resistance triggering because it
(a) provides a larger value of the triggering angle.
(b) provides accurate triggering.
(c) causes quick triggering.
(d) protects the device from getting damaged.
41. The duration of the pulse in a pulse triggering system for SCRs should be
at least
(a) 60 ms.
(b) 40 ms.
(c) 20 ms.
(d) 10 ms.
42. For thyristors, pulse triggering is preferred over dc triggering because
(a) the gate dissipation is low.
(b) the pulse system is simpler.
(c) the triggering signal is required for a short duration.
(d) of all of the above.
43. A series-capacitor commutation is also known as a current commutation
process because at the time of commutation the
(a) current flowing through the device is made equal to zero.
(b) forward current flowing through the device is reduced to less than the
level of holding current of the device.
(c) current flowing through the device is made the maximum.
(d) same current is flowing through the device as well as the load.
44. The condition for underdamped oscillations in a series capacitor circuit is
(a) R > 4L/C.
(b) R = 4L/C.
(c) R2 > 4L/C.
(d) R2 < 4L/C.
45. A parallel-capacitor commutation circuit should be so designed such that
the value of circuit recovery time is
(a) equal to the turn-off time of the main capacitor.
(b) less than the turn-off time of the main SCR.
(c) more than the turn-off time of the main SCR.
(d) either equal to or less than the turn-off time of the main SCR.
46. A snubber circuit is used in the SCR control circuits to overcome the
effects of
(a) transients in the dc supply.
(b) corona.
(c) electromagnetism.
(d) heating caused by the high voltage ac supply.
47. The function of a snubber circuit connected across an SCR is to
(a) suppress dv/dt.
(b) increase dv/dt.
(c) decrease dv/dt.
(d) keep transient voltage at a constant value.
48. For an SCR, the dv/dt protection is achieved through the use of
(a) R-L in series with the SCR.
(b) R-C across the SCR.
(c) L in series with the SCR.
(d) R-C in series with the SCR.
49. In the case of a series string of SCRs, the transient voltage is balanced by
using
(a) balancing resistors.
(b) shunt capacitors.
(c) big inductors.
(d) auxiliary SCRs.
50. Two identical SCRs are placed back-to-back in series with a load. If each
SCR is triggered at 90°, the reading of a dc voltmeter across the load will
be
(a) peak voltage.
(b) zero.
(c) peak voltage/p.
51. During forward blocking of two series connected SCRs, the thyristor with
(a) high leakage impedance will have lower voltage across it.
(b) high leakage impedance will have higher voltage across it.
(c) low leakage impedance will have higher voltage across it.
(d) low leakage impedance will have lower voltage across it.
52. In the case of inductive circuits, retriggering of an SCR is avoided by using
(a) an auxiliary SCR.
(b) a big inductor.
(c) a capacitor.
(d) a freewheeling diode.
53. A freewheeling diode is used in a controlled rectifier circuit in the case of
(a) a resistive load.
(b) an inductive load.
(c) a capacitive load.
54. A single-phase half-wave controlled bridge uses
(a) two SCRs.
(b) one SCR.
(c) four SCRs.
(d) six SCRs.
55. In a single-phase full-converter, for continuous conduction, each pair of
SCRs conducts for
(a) p – a.
(b) p.
(c) a.
(d) a – p.
56. A single-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge uses
(a) one SCR.
(b) two SCRs.
(c) four SCRs.
(d) two SCRs and two diodes.
57. A single-phase full-wave fully-controlled bridge uses
(a) four SCRs.
(b) two SCRs.
(c) six SCRs.
58. In a single-phase semi-converter, for continuous conduction, a
freewheeling diode conducts for
(a) a.
(b) p – a.
(c) p.
(d) a – p.
59. For a three-phase half-wave diode rectifier, the ratio of the average output
voltage to per phase maximum ac voltage is
(a) 0.955.
(b) 0.827.
(c) 1.654.
(d) 1.169.
60. In a three-phase half-wave rectifier, if the input phase voltage is 200 V, the
PIV required for each diode will be
(a) 400 V.
(b) 345 V.
(c) 490 V.
(d) 200 V.
61. In a normal three-phase SCR controlled rectifier, an SCR cannot be fired
during the first
(a) 10° of its anode voltage.
(b) 30° of its anode voltage.
(c) 45° of its anode voltage.
(d) 90° of its anode voltage.
62. In a three-phase half-wave rectifier, each diode conducts for a duration of
(a) 120°.
(b) 60°.
(c) 45°.
(d) 30°.
63. In a three-phase half-wave rectifier, each SCR conducts for a duration of
(a) 180°.
(b) 60°.
(c) 120°.
(d) 30°.
64. In a three-phase full-wave fully-controlled bridges rectifier, each SCR
conducts for a duration of
(a) 120°.
(b) 60°.
(c) 45°.
(d) 30°.
65. As the number of phases in a multi-phase rectifier is increased, the
(a) output will increase.
(b) output will become more smooth.
(c) output will decrease.
(d) diodes will require high PIV.
66. In a three-phase full-converter, the output voltage pulses are at a frequency
equal to
(a) the supply frequency, f.
(b) 2f.
(c) 3f.
(d) 6f.
67. The effect of source inductance on the performance of single-phase and
three-phase full-converters is to
(a) reduce the ripples in load current.
(b) make discontinuous current as continuous.
(c) reduce the output voltage.
(d) increase the load voltage.
68. A triac is a
(a) three-layer two-junction device.
(b) two-layer two-junction device.
(c) four-layer three-junction device.
(d) two-layer three-junction device.
69. A triac has
(a) one terminal.
(b) two terminals.
(c) three-terminals.
(d) four terminals.
70. A triac can be triggered
(a) only by the positive half-cycle of the supply.
(b) only by the negative half-cycle of the supply.
(c) both by the positive as well as the negative half-cycles of the supply.
(d) by none of the above.
71. A triac can be considered as a combination of
(a) two diodes.
(b) two transistors.
(c) two SCRs.
(d) one diode and one SCR.
72. Which one of the followings is not a characteristic of the triac?
(a) Five terminals
(b) Bilateral conduction
(c) Negative resistance
(d) Four P-N junctions
73. Triacs are used in
(a) colour TV sets.
(b) black and white TV sets.
(c) tape recorders.
(d) audio systems.
74. A triac is a
(a) three-terminal bidirectional switch.
(b) three-terminal unilateral switch.
(c) two-terminal switch.
(d) two-terminal bilateral switch.
75. A triac is
(a) a bidirectional thyristor.
(b) another name for the high-power thyristors.
(c) a combination of two P-N-P-N diodes.
76. A triac can be triggered into conduction by
(a) only positive voltage at either of its main terminals.
(b) either positive or negative voltage at its gate.
(c) either positive or negative voltage at either of its main terminals.
(d) both (b) and (c) above.
77. Which one of the followings is not a characteristic of the triac?
(a) Gate current
(b) Holding current
(c) Peak point voltage
(d) Latching current
78. A diac is a
(a) one-terminal device.
(b) three-terminal device.
(c) two-terminal device.
(d) four-terminal device.
79. A diac can be turned on
(a) both by positive and negative half-cycles of the supply.
(b) only by the negative half-cycle of the supply.
(c) only by the positive half-cycle of the supply.
(d) by none of the above.
80. The value of the breakover voltage for the commonly used diacs is about
(a) 18 V.
(b) 32 V.
(c) 56 V.
(d) 100 V.
81. A diac is used to
(a) protect a triac.
(b) commutate a triac.
(c) trigger a triac.
(d) increases the efficiency of a triac.
82. Which of the following is a three-layer device?
(a) Diac
(b) Triac
(c) SCS
(d) UJT
83. A diac is equivalent to a
(a) pair of SCRs.
(b) pair of four-layer SCRs.
(c) diode and two resistors.
(d) triac with two gates.
84. The normal way to turn on a diac is by
(a) gate current.
(b) breakover voltage.
(c) either of the above.
85. A diac is equivalent to a
(a) triac with two gates.
(b) diode and two resistors.
(c) pair of SCRs.
(d) pair of four-layer SCRs.
86. A diac-triac built on the same chip is called a
(a) thyratron.
(b) thermistor.
(c) quadrac.
(d) ignitron.
87. Thyristors are basically
(a) triacs.
(b) SCRs.
(c) both SCRs and triacs.
(d) all P-N-P-N devices.
88. Which of the following semiconductor devices can be used in an enhanced
mode?
(a) UJT
(b) NPN transistor
(c) JFET
(d) MOSFET
89. The gate-source voltage of a power MOSFET to switch it on will be
(a) +5 V.
(b) +8 V.
(c) +20 V.
(d) +12 to +15 V.
90. In the case of JFETs and MOSFETs,
(a) both types of devices require negative gate voltage for operation.
(b) the JFET requires positive voltage and the MOSFET requires negative
voltage.
(c) the JFET requires negative gate voltage and the MOSFET requires
positive voltage.
(d) both require none of the above.
91. The IGFET is a
(a) square-law device.
(b) half-power device.
(c) 3/2 power law device.
(d) linear device.
92. When a UJT is used for triggering an SCR, the waveform of the voltage
obtained from the UJT circuit is a
(a) sine wave.
(b) square wave.
(c) saw-tooth wave.
(d) trapezoidal wave.
93. Which one of the following is not a characteristic of the UJT?
(a) Gate current
(b) Intrinsic stand-off ratio
(c) Negative resistance
(b) Peak-point voltage
94. For a UJT employed for the triggering of an SCR, the stand-off ratio, h =
0.65,
dc voltage source is 20 V. The UJT would trigger when the emitter voltage
is
(a) 12.8 V.
(b) 13.1 V.
(c) 10 V.
(d) 5 V.
95. In a UJT, with VBB as the voltage across two base terminals, the emitter
potential at peak point is given by
(a) hVBB.
(b) hVD.
(c) hVBB + VD.
(d) hVD + VBB.
96. Which of the following statements is true for a UJT?
(a) A UJT is turned off by decreasing VBB to zero.
(b) A UJT acts like an N-P-N transistor.
(c) A UJT can be turned on gradually.
(d) The triggering voltage of a UJT is independent of its stand-off ratio.
97. A UJT exhibits a negative resistance region
(a) before the peak point.
(b) between the peak and the valley points.
(c) after the valley point.
(d) in respect of both (a) and (b).
98. The thyratron is operationally comparable to the
(a) triac.
(b) diac.
(c) SCR.
99. Conduction in a cold-cathode gas-filled tube is started by
(a) natural sources.
(b) thermionic emission.
100. A cold-cathode tube is usually used as a
(a) diode.
(b) triode.
(c) tetrode.
(d) pentode.
101. A gas-filled cold-cathode diode is used as
(a) a rectifier.
(b) an amplifier.
(c) a voltage-regulating tube.
102. In a gas-filled tube, the gas used is
(a) neon.
(b) argon.
(c) helium.
103. A cold-cathode gas-filled diode is also known as a
(a) phanotron.
(b) thyratron.
(c) glow tube.
(d) grid glow tube.
104. The anode-cathode voltage at which a gas-filled diode fires is known as
the
(a) ionisation voltage.
(b) critical voltage.
(c) deionising voltage.
(d) normal voltage.
105. A cold-cathode gas-filled diode emits light during
(a) the glow discharge region.
(b) the arc discharge region.
(c) the townsend discharge region.
106. A thyratron can be used as a controlled rectifier by
(a) changing the anode current.
(b) changing the grid voltage.
(c) using different gas pressures in the tube.
107. A thyratron cannot be used as
(a) a rectifier.
(b) a switch.
(c) an amplifier.

Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The thyristor is a current-controlled device.
2. The thyristor is a member of the semiconductor family.
3. The SCR can be considered as a power switching device.
4. The SCR is a bidirectional device.
5. Power loss in a thyristor is much less than that in a transistor.
6. The V-I characteristics of SCRs, SCSs, SUSs and LASCRs are similar in
shape.
7. The LASCR is a unilateral device.
8. Germanium cannot be used for fabrication of a controlled rectifier.
9. A positive or negative gate pulse can turn an SCR on.
10. The silicon controlled rectifier can be turned on by a pulse at the gate and
turned off by reducing the anode current below a specified holding current
value.
11. The finger voltage of a thyristor is always less than its ON-state voltage.
12. The value of latching current of a thyristor is slightly more than the value
of its holding current.
13. The more the value of the gate current, the later will be the firing of the
device.
14. The more the value of the firing angle of the device, the more is its
conduction period.
15. It is not desirable to operate an SCR in the reverse-biased condition.
16. The V-I characteristic of an SCR is alike in both the first and third
quadrants.
17. While conducting, the resistance of an SCR is very high.
18. The gate loses its control after a thyristor has started conducting.
19. In an SCR, the turn-off time is more than the turn-on time.
20. The characteristics of triacs are similar to two SCRs connected in
antiparallel and having two gate terminals.
21. An SCR can be considered to be constructed by sandwiching two P-N-P
transistors.
22. According to the two transistor analogy, for an SCR to develop
regenerative action, the sum of the current gains of the two transistors
should approach unity.
23. In the forward-biased condition, an SCR can be triggered by applying a
small positive pulse at its gate.
24. The response of a transistor is faster than that of a thyristor.
25. An ac gate triggering is preferred over dc gate triggering.
26. Thyristors connected in series or parallel form a unit which is known as the
string.
27. For achieving the highest string efficiency, it is essential that all the
thyristors connected in the string have identical characteristics.
28. Series connection of thyristors is used for the purpose of high current
operation.
29. In a series-connected thyristor string, the major problem is the unequal
current distribution among the connected thyristors.
30. The device having the lesser value of leakage will have the larger share of
voltage in the case of a series-connected thyristor string.
31. The transient voltage sharing in a series-connected thyristor string is
balanced by using the proper value of inductors.
32. Parallel connection of thyristors is used for the purpose of high voltage
operation.
33. In parallel-connected thyristors, equal current sharing can be achieved by
employing the forced current sharing method.
34. The method of switching off a thyristor is known as commutation.
35. Natural commutation process can be adopted for both ac and dc
applications.
36. Forced commutation process is only meant for ac applications.
37. Auxiliary commutation is a type of forced commutation process.
38. External pulse commutation is a type of natural commutation process.
39. For successful commutation, a reverse voltage should be applied across the
thyristor for a duration smaller than the turn-off time of the device.
40. Series capacitor commutation is also known as the current commutation
process.
41. In a parallel capacitor commutation circuit, the main thyristor is connected
in parallel with the load.
42. Parallel capacitor commutation is also known as the complementary
commutation process.
43. In a parallel capacitor commutation circuit, the capacitor charging current
flows through the load.
44. In a parallel capacitor commutation circuit, the voltage up to which the
capacitor is charged may be inadequate for turning off the device
especially in the case of high current applications.
45. In an external pulse commutation process, the duration of the drive applied
at the base of the pulse transistor must be sufficiently large to cause turn-
off.
46. In an external pulse commutation process, the pulse transistor must not be
driven into saturation to cause turn-off.
47. In an external pulse commutation circuit, the transistor can be replaced by
a pulse transformer.
48. The self-commutation process is also known as the voltage-commutation
process.
49. The self-commutation process generates a continuous process of switching
on and off the thyristor.
50. In an auxiliary commutation circuit, the rating of the auxiliary thyristor is
much higher than that of the main thyristor.
51. The auxiliary commutation process is also called the current-commutation
process.
52. In high-power application, diodes are connected in series to increase the
reverse blocking capabilities.
53. In high-power application, diodes are connected in parallel to increase the
current carrying capabilities.
54. A single-phase half-wave controlled bridge is the simplest and cheapest
form of the bridge.
55. A single-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge requires a separate
freewheeling diode.
56. A single-phase full-wave full-controlled bridge formed by a bridge rectifier
consisting of four diodes and one SCR does not require a separate
freewheeling diode.
57. A single-phase full-wave full-controlled bridge can also be formed by
means of four SCRs.
58. A single-phase full-wave full-controlled bridge requires a separate
freewheeling diode.
59. A three-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge requires a separate
freewheeling diode.
60. A MOSFET is a current-controlled device with a very low input
impedance.
61. The IGBT is a voltage-controlled device and is inherently faster than the
BJT.
62. The IGBT depicts a high impedance gate.
63. The current flow through a triac can be controlled in either direction.
64. The triac is a bidirectional semiconductor device.
65. The triac has a control terminal.
66. The SCR is more efficient than the triac.
67. As compared to SCRs, triacs are available in much higher power ratings.
68. The diac is a unidirectional semiconductor device.
69. The diac does not have any control terminal.
70. The diac in its construction, resembles the bipolar transistor.
71. The diac is also known as a bidirectional avalanche diode.
72. The doping levels at the two junctions of a diac are different.
73. The V-I characteristics of the diac are alike in both the first and third
quadrants.
74. The diac during its conduction state exhibits negative resistance
characteristics.
75. A relaxation oscillator using a UJT generates square waves.
76. A UJT relaxation oscillator is a non-sinusoidal oscillator.
77. A UJT relaxation oscillator is used for triggering an SCR.
78. A UJT does not exhibit the transistor action and, therefore, cannot be used
as a switch.
79. From the peak point to the valley point, a UJT has a negative resistance
characteristic.
80. Reverse-biased leakage current is sufficient for the conduction of a UJT.
81. A UJT after reaching the valley point goes to its saturation state.
82. The critical grid voltage of a thyratron is defined as the negative grid
voltage, for a given plate potential, at which ionisation of the gas starts.
83. The main reason for using a large grid cylinder around the thyratron
cathode is to hold the heat inside.
84. A thyratron should not be used if the anode current is less than 1/10 A.
85. The grid has the same ability to start a thyratron as it has to start a vacuum
tube.
86. In a tube containing mercury or gas, anode current flows only as long as
the grid remains above the critical grid potential.
87. A thyratron has twice as much voltage drop (anode-cathode) when passing
twice as much anode current.
88. While conducting, a thyratron has about ten times as much voltage drop as
an SCR.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) Explain the constructional details of an SCR. Sketch its schematic
diagram and symbol.
(b) Define latching and holding currents as applicable to an SCR. Show
these currents on the static volt-ampere characteristic curve of an SCR.
(c) Describe the effect of gate current on the forward breakover voltage of
an SCR. (WBDEE 1999)
2. (a) Briefly explain the different methods of turning on of an SCR.
(b) Can a forward voltage be applied to an SCR soon after its anode current
has fallen to zero? Explain. (WBDEE 1999)
3. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase half-wave SCR controlled
rectifier circuit using a resistive load.
(b) Obtain an expression for the average load voltage in terms of the source
voltage and firing angle of the above circuit. (WBDEE 1999)
4. (a) Draw a two-transistor representation of the SCR and describe the
conditions for its conduction. (WBDEE 1998)
(b) Draw the volt-ampere characteristic of an SCR and discuss the different
methods of triggering the SCR into conduction. (WBDEE 1998)
5. (a) Explain the constructional features and working principle of the silicon
controlled rectifier.
(b) Discuss the following with reference to an SCR:
(i) Breakdown voltage, (ii) Forward current rating, and (iii) Effect of gate
current on trigger voltage. (WBDIT 1998)
6. (a) How does an SCR differ from an ordinary rectifier?
(b) Why is an SCR always turned on by a gate current?
(c) It is said that, “Once an SCR starts conducting, the gate loses control
over it.” Justify this statement.
(d) Explain the action of the SCR as a switch and discuss some
applications of SCRs.
7. (a) Explain with a circuit diagram the self-commutation process and
mention the applications of this process.
(b) Explain the gate triggering process of firing an SCR.
8. (a) Define turn-on and turn-off time periods of an SCR.
(b) State the various ways of triggering an SCR and briefly describe any
one of them.
9. (a) What is the maximum and minimum value of the turn-off time of the
SCR?
(b) What is the difference between forced and natural turn-off of an SCR?
(c) How is class D turn-off more versatile?
(d) Why is natural commutation not possible in dc circuits?
(e) Why is parallel capacitor commutation also known as complementary
commutation?
10. (a) With a neat circuit diagram, explain how regulated dc supply can be
obtained using two SCRs and a centre-tap transformer.
(b) Also discuss the problems that may arise because of the inductive load
and explain how they can be overcome.
11. (a) With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the working principle of a
single-phase full-wave half-controlled bridge rectifier using two SCRs and
two diodes.
(b) Why is a separate freewheeling diode not needed in the case of a
single-phase full-wave, half-controlled bridge rectifier?
12. (a) Explain the construction and characteristics of (i) the diac and (ii) the
triac. Draw the SCR crow-bar protection circuit. (WBDEE 1998)
(b) What is the difference between an SCR and a triac? (WBDEE 1999)
(c) State some important applications of the triac and the diac.
(d) Is it possible to replace a triac by a suitable combination of SCRs?
Explain, only if this replacement is possible.
13. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase full-wave SCR controlled
rectifier circuit. Obtain the expression for the dc output voltage. (WBDEE
1998)
14. (a) Briefly describe the basic structure of a power transistor.
(b) Explain the principle of operation of the IGBT and its advantages over
the power transistor. (WBDETC 1999)
15. (a) Explain the construction and working principle of the SCR.
(b) Draw a two-transistor analogy of the SCR and explain the condition for
conduction.
(c) Explain the methods adopted for the protection of SCRs against
overloads. (WBDETC 1999)
16. (a) What is meant by commutation?
(b) Briefly explain the difference between the self and natural commutation
of an SCR.
(c) Briefly discuss the commutation circuits of the SCR. (WBDETC 1999)
17. Draw the circuit diagram of a single-phase full-wave control rectifier with
resistive and inductive loads. Explain its principle of operation with the
help of waveforms. (WBDETC 1999)
18. (a) What are the different types of power diodes?
(b) Explain the following terms in connection with power diodes:
(i) Reverse recovery time (ii) Reverse recovery current
(c) Explain why it is necessary to use fast recovery diodes for high-speed
switching. (WBDETC 1998)
19. (a) Draw the volt-ampere characteristic of an SCR. Indicate the different
regions in the characteristic curve.
(b) Briefly explain the commutation circuits of the SCR.
(c) What is the purpose of the di/dt protection in the case of an SCR?
(WBDETC 1998)
20. (a) Explain with a neat circuit diagram and voltage waveforms the
principle of operation of a three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier.
(b) Deduce the expression for the average dc voltage and the ripple factor
for the above circuit. (WBDETC 1998)
21. (a) Explain with the help of a diagram the principle of operation of a full-
wave controlled rectifier circuit with inductive and resistive loads.
(b) Explain the function of a freewheeling diode. (WBDETC 1998)
22. (a) Briefly explain the construction and volt-ampere characteristic of the
IGBT. What are its advantages over power BJTs and MOSFETs.
(b) Discuss how the firing pulses for an SCR can be generated using a time
delay circuit. (WBDETC 1997)
23. (a) Draw and explain with the help of waveforms the operation of a three-
phase rectifier circuit with resistive load.
(b) Discuss the suitability of the polyphase rectifier compared to the single-
phase rectifier in relation to (i) rectified voltage and (ii) ripple factor.
(WBDETC 1998)
24. (a) Explain with the help of a diagram the construction of a UJT.
(b) What is the difference between the UJT and the conventional bipolar
transistor?
(c) Explain the working principle of the UJT and mention its important
applications.
(d) Define the intrinsic stand-off ratio of the UJT.
25. (a) Describe the construction and working of a thyratron.
(b) Draw the firing characteristics of a thyratron.
26. (a) Explain the theory of tubes using mercury-pool cathodes.
(b) What is the difference between a thyratron and an ignitron?
PROBLEMS
5.1 The SCR in Fig. 5.53 has a latching current of 300 mA. Neglect the
forward voltage drop across the SCR from the instant of commencement of
the gate pulse. Determine the minimum duration of the gate pulse
necessary to ensure turn-on.
Fig. 5.53
5.2 The SCR in Fig. 5.54 has a holding current of 150 mA. When it was turned
on, resistance R was at a low value. Now if R is progressively increased, at
what value of R will the SCR turn off? Neglect the ON-state forward drop.
Fig. 5.54
5.3 The transistor in the circuit of Fig. 5.55 has the following data:
VCE, sat = 1.5 V; hFE = 50; VBE, sat = 1.8 V.
(a) Determine the minimum value of Vin necessary to ensure a satisfactory
ON-state.
(b) Determine the total ON-state power dissipation in the switch and
calculate the values of its collector dissipa tion and base dissipation
components.
(c) A transient overvoltage spike occurs in this circuit because of external
causes, resulting in VCC going up from 100 V to 150 V for a short
interval. Since the collector current is limited by IB , assume that there is
no significant change
in IC. What will be the power dissipation in the device under these
conditions?
Fig. 5.55
5.4 The specified di/dt for an SCR in Fig. 5.56 is 50 A/ms. The inductance L is
included in the circuit for the purpose of protecting the SCR from damage
owing to excessive di/dt. Find approximately the minimum value of L
required.
Fig. 5.56
5.5 The SCR in Fig. 5.57 has a dv/dt rating of 500 V/ms. Determine the
minimum value of C needed to avoid erratic turn-on when the power
circuit is energised by closing the switch S.
Fig. 5.57
Chapter 6
INVERTERS, DUAL CONVERTERS,

CHOPPERS, AND
CYCLOCONVERTERS
6.1 INVERTERS
Inverters perform the task of converting dc power to its ac equivalent at a desired
output voltage and frequency, statically, i.e. without any rotating machines or
mechanical switches. AC output voltage is made by using transistors or SCRs as
switches. For low and medium power outputs, transistorised inverters are
suitable but for high power, SCRs are used. Simple inverter circuits with fewer
components produce a non-sinusoidal output waveform. It is possible to obtain a
near sinusoidal output voltage by adding circuit complexities. Inverter circuits
with large harmonic content are cheaper to build but circuits with reduced
harmonic content are costlier because of the need for more components.
Basically, all rectifier circuits can be made to operate as inverters with some
modification. The controlled rectifier circuit with inductive load and values of
the triggering angle beyond 90° acts as an inverter. Inverters on the basis of
commutation can be classified into two types.
1. (a) Line-commutated inverters

2. (b) Forced-commutated inverters
Applications of inverters
Inverters are used in the following systems:
Variable speed ac motor drives
Aircraft power supplies
Induction heating
Uninterruptible power supply
HVDC (high voltage direct current) transmission
Regenerative dc/ac drives.
6.2 LINE-COMMUTATED
INVERTERS
For values of the triggering angle greater than 90°, the average value of the
output voltage is negative. In other words, the energy is transmitted from dc side
to ac side. Such an operation is called inversion and the converter is then
referred to as a line-commutated inverter. In the line-commutated circuits, as the
ac voltage available across the device passes through natural zero, the device is
customarily turned off. However, such type of inverter circuits can only operate
into an ac system where the voltage waveshape is maintained relatively
independent of the circuit operation. The following assumptions are made in the
analysis of the line-commutated converters.
The dc current is assumed to be constant over each cycle.

The current is continuous at all times between the ac and dc terminals.
If the triggering of one set of the SCRs is delayed, the other set must
continue its conduction.
When the ac source reverses its polarity, the forward bias on the SCRs to
maintain conduction will be supplied by the inductor in the circuit.
6.2.1 Single-phase Line-commutated Full-controlled Inverter A

line-commutated converter can be used either as a rectifier or as
an inverter depending on the triggering angle a. In the inverter
mode, the flow of power is from the dc side to the ac side. If the
triggering angle a for the bridge circuit is more than p/2, the dc
output voltage will be negative. Thus, if such a dc source of
negative polarity is connected to the output terminals, it will feed
back power to the ac system through the controlled circuit. Since
the switching elements of the converter are unidirectional, the
direction of current flow through them cannot change. This in
effect means that the direction of current at the output terminals
cannot change and must be the same as that of the rectification
mode. Therefore, for reversed power flow, the dc source must be
connected with a reversed polarity as shown in Fig. 6.1(a). In the
case of ac circuits, when the ac line voltage passes through the
natural zero, the SCR is turned off. So this type of inverter is
called the line-commutated inverter.
Fig. 6.1(a) Single-phase full-controlled bridge rectifier.

The voltage at the dc terminals will not be a perfect dc, but will have a
significant amount of ac ripple. An iron-cored inductor Ld which is used as a
filter, brings this ripple component down to acceptable limits. This inductor must
be capable of handling the full-rated dc current of the inverter without magnetic
saturation.
Principle of operation of the line-commutated inverter The SCR pair
T1-T2 can be triggered at any instant during the positive half-cycle of
the input. On being triggered, the pair of SCRs T1-T2 will reverse
bias the other pair T3-T4 and turn it off. For the triggering angles
greater than p/2, the dc output voltage vdc will be negative and the
input power factor angle will be more than p/2. Thus the dc power
output vdciT1-T2 or vdciT3-T4 and the ac power input (viniL cos a)
will also be negative. This means
that power will flow from the dc side to the ac side through the bridge
circuit. The output power factor will be leading. The reactive power
will increase as the triggering angle a approaches p/2.
In Fig. 6.1(b), since the smoothing inductor is very large, current iT1-T2 or
iT3-T4 in the steady state will be pure dc. Therefore, even when the input
voltage polarity is reversed, the current will continue to flow through the SCR
pair T1-T2 till the other pair T3-T4 is triggered symmetrically in the negative
half-cycle. The load current iL will then shift from the SCR pair T1-T2 to the
other SCR pair T3-T4. This is referred to as line commutation. Current
iT1-T2 or iT3-T4 flows through the load in same direction. However, the current
on the input side will flow in the reverse direction when the SCR pair T3-T4
conducts, that is, the input current iL will be a rectangular ac wave. The output
voltage is shown by hatched lines in Fig. 6.1(b). In this mode of operation, the
available ac line voltage is used for commutation. Hence, the bridge circuit can
also be referred to as a line-commutated inverter. In the bridge circuit, the
conversion from ac to dc or dc to ac is also known as the two-quadrant
operation of the converter circuit. In a line-commutated converter performing
Fig. 6.1(b) Waveforms of single-phase full-controlled bridge rectifier.
as a rectifier, the reactive power is lagging (inductive) and for the inverter
operation it is leading (capacitive). The average value of the output current is
given by (VS – vdc)/RL = iT1-T2 = iT3-T4 = iL………(6.1) where VS is the dc
source voltage.
The dc source voltage is more negative than vdc for forcing current iT1-T2 or
iT3-T4 through the bridge. Hence, the SCRs can be turned on in such a way that
the conduction for each ac phase occurs when the segment of that ac phase
voltage waveform has the reverse polarity. The use of the reversed polarity of the
dc source voltage makes the SCRs forward-biased so as to conduct in opposition
to the instantaneous ac voltage. In this way, power flows in the reverse direction
on the ac side. The triggering angle is limited to a value (p – g), where g is called
the margin angle, and corresponds to the safe minimum time required for proper
turn-off of the outgoing SCRs. The half-controlled bridge cannot operate in the
inversion mode.
The average dc output voltage (neglecting source inductance and assuming a
large Ld) is given by Vdc =
= ………(6.2) where Vm is the peak value of the ac input

voltage.
The fundamental rms value of the alternating line current iL is given by
………(6.3) Thus, the reactive power input is given by
………(6.4) Effect of source impedance When the source

impedance LS is present, the SCRs T1 and T2 in Fig. 6.1(a) will not turn off
immediately after the SCRs T3 and T4 are triggered. Inductance LS will
maintain the current flow through the SCRs T1 and T2 for some more time, even
though the supply voltage polarity has been reversed. Therefore, the current will
shift gradually from the SCR pair T1-T2 to the other SCR pair T3-T4. This
duration is known as the overlap period m, and during this period the output
voltage will be zero as shown in Fig. 6.1(b).
If the ac source inductance LS is neglected, the output current will be
rectangular. With source inductance LS, the current waveform will be distorted
and the power factor angle will also change. The average dc output voltage is
then given by ………(6.5) where is the dc
equivalent voltage drop because of the presence of source inductance LS.
If m is the overlap angle between the phases, then the average dc output
voltage is given by ………(6.6) For rectifier
operation (when a < p/2), the SCR will experience a reverse voltage for a period
(p – m – a) after the commutation has taken place. For inverter operation as well,
the reverse voltage will appear for the same period. Since a for this operation is
more than
p/2, the duration for which the SCR is reverse biased, will be less in the case of
an inverter than that in the case of a rectifier. Hence, the triggering angle a will
be limited to a value such that the angle (p = m – a) is enough for proper
commutation.
Applications of the line-commutated inverter The operation of a line-
commutated bridge circuit as a rectifier and as an inverter can be
conveniently used to provide an electrical link for bidirectional power
conveniently used to provide an electrical link for bidirectional power
flow between two ac systems. One important application of this link is
in the high voltage dc transmission.
6.2.2 Three-phase Line-commutated Full-controlled Inverter or
Six-pulse Converter Figure 6.1(c) is the circuit diagram of a three-
phase full-controlled inverter or six-pulse converter, and Fig.
6.1(d) shows the waveforms for a triggering angle a = 5p/6 = 150°.
If the triggering angle a is approached beyond 90°, a source of
negative voltage would be available to supply the energy to the ac
lines. This is possible only when a negative voltage (– VS) is
connected to the output with proper polarity.
Fig. 6.1(c) Three-phase full-controlled bridge inverter or six-pulse converter.

It may be seen that with a greater than 90°, an SCR in the bridge circuit
conducts longer during the negative part and, therefore, the average output
voltage is negative. It could be well said that power flows from the dc side to the
ac side and the bridge converter is inverting. With source inductance LS, the
average dc output voltage is given by ………(6.7)
Fig. 6.1(d) Waveforms of a three-phase full-controlled bridge inverter.
If m is the overlap angle between the phases, then the average dc output
voltage is given by ………(6.8) Applications of
the line-commutated full-controlled bidirectional converter The three-phase full-
wave bidirectional converter can be used in dc motor drives with regenerative
capability. It is also used in the speed control of slip-ring induction motors. This
converter also finds applications in high voltage dc transmission systems.
6.3 FORCED-COMMUTATED
INVERTERS
In the forced-commutated circuit, some external means are needed to forcefully
turn off the device. Inverter circuits based on this principle are known as force-
commutated inverter circuits. Compared to line-commutated circuits, forced-
commutated circuits independently provide an ac output of variable frequency
and thus have much wider applications. But as the device has to be turned off
forcefully, it involves many more electronic circuits than those used by the line-
commutated inverters. Depending on the connections of the SCRs and the
commutating components, the forced-commutated inverter circuits can be
further classified into: (a) Parallel-capacitor commutated inverters (b) Series-
commutated inverters.
6.3.1 Single-phase Parallel-capacitor Commutated Inverter
(Resistive Load) Parallel inverters having a capacitor connected
in parallel with the load are a well-known class of forced-
commutated inverter circuits. The capacitor connected in parallel
with the load is used to turn off the conducting SCR by applying
reverse voltage across it. This is referred to as impulse or voltage
commutation. An inductor L is also connected to prevent excessive
capacitor current during the switching interval from one SCR to
the other, as shown in Fig. 6.2(a). This circuit uses a centre-tap
transformer. The two SCRs are never allowed to conduct
simultaneously as in that case there would not be any induced
voltage across the transformer (the two voltages VA and VB with
respect to the centre-tap point C are equal but opposite in
direction). This condition would destroy the SCRs.
Fig. 6.2(a) Single-phase parallel-capacitor commutated inverter.
Principle of operation of the single-phase parallel-capacitor
commutated inverter Initially, SCR T1 is triggered, resulting in flow of
current through inductor L and portion CA of the transformer
primary winding. This current accompanied by its magnetic flux will
rise in portion CA of the transformer primary. Since this flux is
common to both halves
of the transformer winding, the source voltage V would be induced in
portion CB of the transformer primary and the commutating capacitor
C would have a voltage of 2V across it. The SCR T2 has to withstand
this voltage. This state continues for the half period till T2 is
triggered. As soon as T2 is turned on, the commutating capacitor C
causes a voltage of 2V to appear across T1 as a reverse bias and thus
turns it off. The commutating capacitor discharges and recharges
through the transformer in the opposite direction to 2V. Capacitor C
and the primary winding of transformer form a tank circuit. When T1
is OFF and T2 ON, the supply voltage V applied across portion CB of
the transformer primary results
in a change of polarity so that there is an alternating current in the
transformer. At the next trigger pulse, T1 will again be turned on and
T2 off. Thus, if trigger pulses
are periodically applied to the alternate SCRs, an approximately
rectangular voltage wave will be obtained at the secondary winding of
the transformer. The waveforms are shown
in Fig. 6.2(b).
Fig. 6.2(b) Waveforms of the parallel-capacitor inverter.

Advantages of the parallel-capacitor commutated inverter (i) It is the
simplest form of a forced-commutated circuit.
(ii) Reasonable sinusoidal output can be obtained by the use of an output filter.
Disadvantages of the parallel-capacitor commutated inverter (i) The
values of L and C are large and, therefore, the circuit is not suitable
to handle large powers.
(ii) The circuit is suitable for a fixed load only and, therefore, the output
waveform changes owing to variations in load.
(iii) The circuit is not designed to accommodate voltage changes; the
performance of the inverter is thus adversely affected.
Inverter with inductive load
If the turn-off time of SCRs in an inverter is negligible compared with half the
time period, the output waveform is almost a square wave. If the load of such an
inverter is inductive, the current waveform becomes progressively more
triangular for high inductive loads, i.e. when the load inductance is much larger
than the resistive part. The load inductance behaves like a generator for some
period of the output waveform and can feed back energy to the supply.
In Fig. 6.2(c), it is observed that the current from the dc supply is also periodic
and some part of the waveform is negative signifying an energy flow into the
supply source. With the increasing value of the load time constant (= L/R), the
average current of the supply decreases and for a purely inductive load the input
current waveform becomes symmetrical about the zero line and the average
current becomes zero.
Fig. 6.2(c) Voltage and current waveforms due to inductive load in the inverter.
Feedback diodes are incorporated in the circuit to provide a return path for the
current back to the supply. Apart from this, the feedback diodes also help to
prevent the load voltage from increasing towards its no-load value.
6.3.2 Single-phase Parallel Inverter with Feedback Diodes In Fig.
6.2(d), SCRs T1 and T2 are the main load carrying SCRs. The
commutating components are L and C. Diodes D1 and D2, called
feedback diodes, permit the load reactive power to be fedback to
the dc supply. These feedback diodes help in returning the
current to the supply and prevent the no-load voltage from
increasing.
Principle of operation of the single-phase parallel inverter with
feedback diodes If T1 conducts, neglecting the small voltage drop
across L, the supply voltage V will
appear across portion OA of the transformer primary winding as
shown in Fig. 6.2(d).
By transformer action, terminal B will be at a potential of +2V with
respect to terminal A. Thus, the commutating capacitor C will get
charged to twice the supply voltage, i.e. 2V,
the polarity of which is shown. The primary current iT1 flows through
OA of the primary winding, SCR T1, inductor L, and negative supply.
The load voltage will be positive (i.e. the point P of the secondary
winding is positive with respect to the point Q) and of magnitude V if
the ratio of turns PQ and OA is unity. The current through the load
will have a magnitude iL flowing downwards.
Fig. 6.2(d) Single-phase parallel inverter with feedback diodes.
At the end of the half-period, SCR T2 is triggered. Capacitor C will
immediately apply a reverse voltage of 2V across T1 and turn it off. When T1 is
turned off, capacitor C will discharge through SCR T2, inductor L, diode D1,
and a portion of the transformer primary winding NA. Thus, the energy stored in
the capacitor will be fed back to the load through the transformer coupling of the
windings NA and PQ. During this period, the potential of point N will be fixed
by the DC input supply and the load voltage will still be positive but more than
V. As long as the capacitor voltage is more than the voltage at point N, diode D
will remain forward biased. The current will now flow through a portion of the
transformer winding ON and diode D1 to the negative input terminal. The
discharging current of the capacitor is more than the load current. As the
potential of point N increases sufficiently to reverse bias D1, the capacitor will
no longer discharge through SCR T2 and point N will not get connected to the
negative supply terminal. At this instant, the polarity of the inductor L changes.
The current through inductor L will flow through diode D2, a portion MB of the
transformer primary, and SCR T2. In other words, the energy trapped in inductor
L will be fed back to the primary as well as to the secondary winding of the
transformer. The current which was earlier flowing through the portion ON of
the transformer primary, will now flow from point M to point B through SCR T2
and diode D2. The load reactive energy will be returned to the DC supply.
The point M is now connected to the negative supply terminal, the load
voltage polarity will reverse and be more than V. Also, the capacitor C will be
charged in the opposite direction to slightly greater than twice the supply
voltage. The current through the load will have a magnitude iL flowing upwards.
The SCR T2 will stop conducting after all the energy in the commutating
inductor L has been completely dissipated.
Immediately following the commutation of SCR T1, energy is transferred
from the capacitor and the inductor to the load. During this period, high
frequency oscillations will be superimposed on the normal rectangular waveform
of the load voltage. After this transient period, only the diode D2 will continue to
conduct. This will cause application of a reverse voltage across SCR T2 and
thereby help in turning it off. When the load current becomes zero, diode D2 will
be blocked and SCR T2 will have to be triggered again to reverse the direction
of the load current. When SCR T2 starts conducting, the load voltage will again
equal the supply voltage V.
If the diodes are connected to points A and B instead of N and M,
respectively, then the load voltage waveform will be rectangular. But such a
connection will require the energy trapped in the commutating components to be
dissipated as heat in the SCRs and diodes, thereby necessitating the derating of
the components. Thus, the efficiency of the circuit can be increased by
connecting the diodes to the points N and M.
6.3.3 Single-phase Series Inverter In a series inverter circuit
shown in Fig. 6.3(a), capacitor C is connected in series with the
load. This circuit uses class A type of commutation and is called
bilateral series inverter
Fig. 6.3(a) Single-phase series inverter circuit.
because load current iL flows in both the directions. Commutating components L
and C form an underdamped circuit. This circuit is excited by triggering the
SCR, the current in the circuit passes through a zero value after it has reached
the maximum. When the forward current of the SCR touches zero, the device
will go into the blocking state. This method of turn-off is called resonant turn-
off since the forward current is made zero by the resonant circuit and is also
known as current commutation. It is also referred to
as self commutation as no other SCR needs to be fired for commutating the
conducting SCR.
Principle of operation of the series inverter Assume that the load is
resistive and the initial voltage of the capacitor C is V with the
polarity as shown in Fig. 6.3(a). When SCR T1 is triggered, a series
R-L-C resonant circuit is connected across the dc voltage V and the
capacitor voltage will start building up along with the current. The
current iT1 = iL will reach its maximum value when the capacitor
voltage vC is V (i.e. the capacitor C discharges from – V to zero and
recharges to +V) and after which the load current starts decreasing
till it reaches zero. When the load current approaches its maximum
value, the induced voltage in the inductor opposes the flow of current
(according to the Lenz’s law). After the load current has reached a
maximum value, the induced voltage in the inductor changes its
polarity. Eventually, the capacitor charges approximately to 2V and
the load current starts falling towards zero. To make the circuit
underdamped, the condition R2 < 4L/C must be satisfied. The time
period of oscillations is given by ………(6.9) The output
frequency is given by ………(6.10) where tOFF is the

time period between the turn-off of one SCR and the turn-on of the
other SCR. At point ‘a’, the load current iL is zero as shown in Fig.
6.3(b) and SCR T1 will be turned off. If the current remains at zero for
a sufficiently long time, SCR T1 will regain its blocking capacity. The
time duration ‘ab’ is the OFF period when the load is open-circuited.
So, the capacitor will maintain the voltage vC to 2V. At point ‘b’, SCR
T2 is triggered. As SCR T1 had already been turned off, tOFF
(duration ‘ab’) should be more than the turn-off time that SCR T1
requires. Capacitor C will now discharge from 2V through SCR T2
and the underdamped series circuit. Load current iL = iT2 will flow in
the opposite direction, which again becomes zero at point ‘c’. SCR T2
will then be turned off. A similar operation will occur when SCR T1 is
turned on. The current pulse will be sinusoidal. Variable frequency
output can be obtained by changing the OFF time.
If the load is inductive, its inductance can be considered as a part of the
commutating inductance L since both are connected in series. No separate
feedback diodes are required for inductive loads as in parallel inverters.
Generally, it is possible to obtain a close sinusoidal output from the circuit when
the condition XL = XC is met. The inverter operating frequency will then be
Fig. 6.3(b) Voltage and current waveforms of a series inverter.
Disadvantages or limitations of the series inverter The basic series
inverter circuit suffers from a number of disadvantages as listed
below: (a) SCR T2 can only be triggered when SCR T1 is OFF and
vice versa, otherwise a dead short circuit will take place across the dc
supply and prevent commutation of SCRs. As a result, the circuit will
not operate as an inverter. This limits the maximum possible output
frequency of the inverter to the resonant frequency, i.e. ringing
frequency ………(6.11) (b) For output frequencies much
lower than the resonant frequency, the distortion in the load voltage
waveform is high. This is because the OFF time is large in
comparison with the duration of conduction of the SCRs.
(c) High ratings for the commutating components are required because they
carry the load current continuously and the capacitor supplies the load
current during every alternate half-cycle.
(d) The power flow from the dc source is not continuous. This is because
current is supplied to the load, only when SCR T1 is triggered. Therefore,
the dc supply has to have a large peak current rating, resulting in a high
ripple content in input current.
EXAMPLE 6.1
Determine (i) the time period of oscillations and (ii) the resonant frequency of a
series inverter which has an output frequency of 50 Hz. The time period between
turn-off of one SCR and turn-on of the other SCR is 0.012 s.
Solution The output frequency of a series inverter is given by
where tOFF is the time period between the turn-off of one SCR and the turn-on
of the other SCR and T is the time period of oscillations. Therefore,
Again, the time period of oscillations is given by T = p/fr where fr is the resonant
frequency. Therefore, 0.016 = p/fr or
EXAMPLE 6.2
A series inverter operating under resonant condition has a frequency of 2 kHz.
Calculate the value of the capacitor if an inductor of 6 mH is connected in the
circuit.
Solution The operating frequency is given by
or
Therefore, the value of the capacitor,

EXAMPLE 6.3
Calculate the output frequency of a series inverter in which inductance,
capacitance, and load resistance are 5 mH, 1 mF, and 100 W, respectively. The
time period between the turn-off of one SCR and the turn-on of the other SCR is
0.2 ms. If the load resistance varies between 50 W and 125 W, find the output
frequency range.
Solution The resonant frequency is given by
The time period of oscillations is given by T = p/fr = p/10,000 = 3.14 10–4 s =
0.314 ms The output frequency is given by
When the load resistance, R1 = 50 W, the resonant frequency is given by
The time period of oscillations is given by T = p/fr = p/(13.23 103) = 0.237 10–
3 s = 0.237 ms The output frequency is given by
When the load resistance, R2 = 125 W, the resonant frequency is given by
The time period of oscillations is given by T = p/fr = p/(6.614 103) = 0.475 10–
3 s = 0.475 ms The output frequency is given by
Hence the range of output frequency is between

6.4 VOLTAGE-SOURCE
INVERTER
A voltage-source inverter is a constant voltage source which supplies ac to the
output. The output voltage is maintained constant independent of the load. For
this purpose a large capacitor is connected at the dc input side of the inverter.
The input is from a dc voltage source. A series or parallel inverter is known as
voltage-source or voltage-control inverter. The output voltage can be
controlled by changing any of the following parameters: (i) The power factor of
the circuit (ii) The frequency of the inverter (iii) The pulse width
6.5 CURRENT-SOURCE
INVERTER
This type of inverter functions as an ac constant current source on the output
side. It is also called a dc-link inverter. Figure 6.4 shows a current-source
inverter which is usually a bridge inverter. A large inductor L is used to maintain
constant current. The inductor also smoothens the fluctuations in current caused
by the switching of SCRs to reverse the direction of current flow through the
load. Capacitor C acts as a commutating element and improves the power factor
of the load and is connected in parallel to the inductive load. The two SCR pairs
T1-T4 and T2-T3 when triggered produce positive and negative half-cycles,
respectively.
Principle of operation of the current-source inverter When the SCR
pair T1-T4 is triggered, capacitor C charges through T1, C, and T4 to
the dc supply voltage V. At the same time, load current iL = iT1-T4
passes through T1, load, and T4 as shown in Fig. 6.4. This constitutes
the positive half-cycle of the output.
When the other SCR pair T2-T3 is triggered, capacitor C discharges through
T2, C, and T3 and recharges through the same path to the opposite polarity. At
the instant of discharging, capacitor C provides positive voltage to the cathode of
T1 and negative voltage to the anode of T4 which immediately turn these SCRs
off. The load current iL = iT2-T3 passes through T2, load, and T3. The direction
of the load current iL = iT2-T3 is now opposite to that of iL = iT1-T4. This
constitutes the negative half-cycle of the output. When the SCR pair
T1-T4 is triggered again, the voltage across the capacitor turns off the SCRs T2
and T3 immediately.
Applications of current-source inverters The current source inverters

are used for (i) high frequency application in induction heating, and
(ii) power transfer from solar cells.
Fig. 6.4 Circuit diagram of a current-source inverter.
6.5.1 Differences between Voltage-source and Current-source

Inverters
Voltage-source Inverter Current-source Inverter
The output voltage is maintained constant and is independent of the It provides a constant current output.
load.
A large inductor is connected in series with the dc input

A large capacitor is connected at the dc input side of the inverter.
voltage.
A series resonance or tank circuit is required. No resonant circuit is required.
6.6 THREE-PHASE FORCED-

COMMUTATED BRIDGE
INVERTERs
Three-phase inverters are used to convert dc input voltage into symmetrical
three-phase ac voltage. The bridge configuration in Fig. 6.5(a) is ideally suited
for generating a polyphase output. Output transformers, such as those provided
for the parallel inverters, are not required for this circuit. The trigger circuit for
the inverter is often obtained from a ring counter. In this method, a maximum of
three SCRs conduct at a time and each SCR conducts for p radians in every
cycle of the output. This is called the 180°-mode operation. In the other method,
each SCR conducts for 2p/3 radians in every cycle of the output and is called the
120°-mode operation. Both these methods employ class D type commutation.
The triggering frequency of the SCRs will decide the output frequency. The
control of the output voltage is obtained by varying the dc input voltage.
Fig. 6.5(a) Three-phase forced-commutated bridge inverter.

Principle of operation of the three-phase forced-commutated bridge
inverter The SCRs are triggered in a sequence to produce positive
phase sequence output voltages VRY, VYB, and VBR at the output
terminals R, Y, and B. The voltages of the incoming and the outgoing
SCRs are +V and 0, respectively. From Fig. 6.5(b) it can be seen that
T1 conducts from 0° to 180°, and T4 conducts from 180° to 360°. This
condition depends on T1 being commutated prior to triggering of T4.
If there is a time delay in the turn-off of T1, a short circuit can be
caused between the positive and negative supply rails through T1
and T4.
Figure 6.5(c) shows the load connections for the 0°–60° time interval, with
SCRs T1, T3, and T5 conducting. The two windings (i.e. phase-R and phase-B)
of the star-connected load are always in parallel, and one winding (i.e. phase-Y)
is in series with the parallel pair. Thus as a voltage divider, the parallel pair
drops (1/3)V while (2/3)V is dropped by the single winding. Figures 6.5(d),
6.5(e), 6.5(f), 6.5(g), and 6.5(h) indicate the subsequent conduction intervals
together with their conducting SCRs.
The line-to-line voltage output of the inverter is given by Vrms =
………(6.12) =
The output power for a balanced star-connected load will be given by
………(6.13) From Fig. 6.5(b),
VRN = V/3 when 0 wt p/3

= 2V/3 when p/3 wt 2p/3
= V/3 when 2p/3 wt p Substituting these values in Eq. (6.13), the output
power is given by P = 2V2/3R………(6.14)
Fig. 6.5(b) Waveforms of a three-phase six-step inverter or forced-commutated
inverter.
Fig. 6.5(c), (d), (e), (f), (g) and (h) 6.7 FUNCTIONAL CIRCUIT BLOCKS OF
A LINE-COMMUTATED CONVERTER
The input to the static converter block (SC) which contains the switching
elements, is a three-phase ac as shown in Fig. 6.6(a). The control circuit block
(CC) provides the triggering pulses to the SCRs inside the block (SC). The
triggering angle a is adjusted by varying the control voltage, VC. The triggering
circuit also needs the timing inputs from the ac supply, because it has to have the
reference instants in every ac cycle with respect to which the triggering angle
delays are to be implemented. The timing reference instants are obtained from
the timing transformer block (TT) which provides a low voltage replica of the
input ac waveform to the triggering circuit.
Fig. 6.6(a) Functional blocks of a typical line-commutated converter.

The output voltage at the terminals A and B is not a perfect dc, but has a
significant amount of ripple. A filter which is an iron-cored inductor L is used to
bring this ripple component well within the acceptable limits.
6.7.1 The Inversion Mode of Operation If all the switching
elements in a converter are SCRs, the same converter can be used
as a rectifier as well as an inverter. For the inverter mode, the
flow of current is from the dc side to the ac side. To supply power
from the dc side to the ac side, a dc voltage will be needed on the
dc side. Since the switching elements of the converter are
unidirectional, the direction of the current flow through them
cannot change. This in effect means that the direction of current
at the terminals A and B cannot change and must be the same for
the rectification mode.
the rectification mode.
In the rectification mode of operation, the direction of power flow is from the
ac side to dc side as shown in Fig. 6.6(b). Therefore, for reversed power flow,
the dc source VS must be connected with reverse polarity as shown in Fig.
6.6(c). The SCRs are turned on in such a way that the conduction for each ac
phase occurs when the segment of the ac phase voltage waveform has the
reversed polarity. The reversed polarity of the dc source voltage can be used to
forward bias and make the SCRs conduct to oppose the instantaneous ac phase
voltage. This is how, power flows in the reversed direction on the ac side.
The function of the iron-cored inductor is to absorb the ripple, which is the
voltage difference between the constant dc side voltage and the instantaneous
value of the conducting ac phase voltage that is presented across AB through the
SCR switches that are ON.
Fig. 6.6(b) Block diagram of a phase-controlled converter (rectification mode).

Fig. 6.6(c) Block diagram of a phase-controlled converter (inversion mode).
6.7.2 Two-quadrant Operation of a Phase-controlled Converter
An operation with a particular value of dc voltage and a
particular value of dc current can be located on the graph using
the respective axes for these two quantities. The horizontal axis
for the positive dc current and the vertical axis for the positive dc
voltage are used. On the basis of reference polarity for voltage
and reference direction of current as stated above, all the
operating points in the rectification mode will be located in the
first quadrant—the quadrant for positive voltage and positive
current as shown in Fig. 6.6(d).
For the inversion mode, all the operating points will be in the fourth quadrant
—the quadrant for positive current, but negative voltage. The control circuit of a
phase-controlled converter can be designed to cater for operation in both modes,
and to facilitate changover from one mode to the other. Such a converter is
known as the two-quadrant converter.
An example of a two-quadrant phase-controlled converter—HVDC
power link An important example of the two-quadrant phase-
controlled converters is in the area of bulk power HVDC
transmission. It is more economical to use dc at high voltage to
interconnect two ac power systems and transmit power from one
system to the other. A classical example of this is the underwater high
voltage dc cable across the English
Fig. 6.6(d) Two-quadrant operation of a phase-controlled converter.
Channel, which interconnects the ac electrical power networks of the UK and
France. This cross-channel dc cable is being used to supply electric power from
the British power network to the French network and vice versa during the hours
of the day when peak demands of power occur. Figure 6.7(a) shows the block
schematic diagram of the main features of an HVDC link between two ac power
networks, labelled British power grid and French power grid. The three-
terminals labelled R1, Y1, and B1 constitute the three-phase bus of the ac
network of the British power grid. Similarly, R2, Y2, and B2 constitute the
three-phase bus of the ac network of the French power grid. The inductance L
outside the converter block absorbs the ripple.
Fig. 6.7(a) Two-quadrant operation of the phase-controlled converters for power

transmission by HVDC.
The blocks labelled ‘Converter at British power grid’ and ‘Converter at French
power grid’ consist of transformers and SCR bridges. When the power flow is to
be from the British power grid network to the French power grid network, the
converter on the British side will be working in the rectification mode, i.e. in
quadrant 1, and the converter on the French side will be working in the inversion
mode, i.e. in quadrant 4. The operating modes of the two converter stations will
be reversed when power flow from the network in France to the network in
Britain is required.
Another example of the two-quadrant phase-controlled converter—dc
motor drive with regenerative braking In dc motor drives, the
converter is used not only for driving the motor at an adjustable speed
but also for braking it electrically when moving at a lower speed, or
while stopping. The field circuit of the motor is not shown in Fig.
6.7(b). A small converter which is designed for the rectification duty
only, supplies the field current of the dc motor.
The driving mode is shown in Fig. 6.7(b). The converter is operated as a
rectifier to deliver dc power into the motor armature terminals, A1 and A2. The
speed of the motor
Fig. 6.7(b) Two-quadrant phase-controlled converter for a dc drive with

regenerative braking.
is controlled by varying the dc output voltage of the rectifier which in turn is
adjusted by phase control. When the motor rotates, it generates an induced dc
voltage in the armature circuit, which is known as the back e.m.f. According to
the Lenz’s law, this back e.m.f opposes the dc voltage across the terminals A and
B of the converter. The dc current has to be driven into the armature circuit
against the back e.m.f. This is how the electrical power is pumped into the
armature for converting to the mechanical power needed to drive the load.
To brake the motor that is rotating at a certain speed, the armature terminals of
the motor are first disconnected from the converter and then reconnected with
the terminal connections reversed as shown in Fig. 6.7(c). This can be done by
using a fast-acting contactor as a reversing switch. At the same time, the firing
angles of the converter change in such a way that it operates in the inversion
mode. The machine will, therefore, now function as a generator and not as a
motor. The generator receives its driving power from the stored kinetic energy of
the mass of the flywheel coupled to its shaft and from its own rotational inertia.
This energy flows back into the ac bus through the converter, which is now
made to function in the inversion mode. This type of braking is called the
Fig. 6.7(c) Two-quadrant phase-controlled converter for a dc drive with
As the motor slows down, the e.m.f. induced in its armature decreases, but the
adjustment of phase control continues the regenerative braking and lowers the
speed.
6.7.3 Static Four-quadrant Operation Figure 6.8(a) shows the
connections of the motor armature terminals A1 and A2 to the
converter dc terminals A and B when the motor is being driven in
the forward direction. The smoothing inductor L is necessary to
absorb the ripple voltage which is present in the dc output voltage
of the converter. The inductance L may be treated as a part of the
motor circuit or the converter circuit.
Fig. 6.8(a) Motoring operation (driving) in the forward direction.

The positive voltage to the terminal A1 of the motor with respect to A2 is
assigned as a reference polarity to locate a motor operating point on the four-
quadrant graph. The motor current is assigned positive direction when the
current flows in the motor from terminal A1 to terminal A2. Therefore, for the
motoring operation (driving) in the forward direction,
the operating quadrant is quadrant-1 (positive voltage and positive current) as
shown in Fig. 6.9.
To slow down the motor and bring it to rest, while still rotating in the forward
direction, the motor terminals are reversed as shown in Fig. 6.8(b) by means of a
fast-acting reversing switch. The converter can be operated in the inversion
mode by changing the firing angles of the SCRs. Consequently, the voltage
polarity of the converter reverses. The dc voltage source, which is the e.m.f. of
the machine when the motor is working as a generator, is used to force the
current through the ac phases when their polarities are actually opposite to the
rectification mode. In this way, power flows into the ac bus and the reversal of
dc voltage occurs across the converter output terminals A and B. Therefore, for
the motoring operation (braking) in the forward direction, the operating quadrant
is quadrant-2 (positive voltage and negative current) as shown in Fig. 6.9. From
the point of view of a motor, its voltage polarity is not reversed, as the terminal
A1 continues to be positive with respect to terminal A2. But the direction of
current has reversed which is now negative, i.e. from terminal A2 to terminal
A1.
Fig. 6.8(b) Motoring operation (braking) in the forward direction.

To rotate the motor in the reverse direction after the motor has come to rest,
the converter can be operated in the rectification mode by changing the
triggering angles accordingly. The motor will now have dc voltage impressed
across its terminals with reverse polarity (terminal A2 positive with respect to
terminal A1), which is opposite to that
of Fig. 6.8(a). Therefore, the motor will rotate in the reverse direction. By doing
so, it will develop a back e.m.f. that makes the terminal A2 positive with respect
to the terminal A1. So, both the motor voltage and motor current will be
negative. For the motoring operation (driving) in the reverse direction,
corresponding to Fig. 6.8(c), the operating quadrant for the motor is quadrant-3.
As for the converter, the operating quadrant will now be quadrant-1,
corresponding to the rectification mode shown in Fig. 6.9.
Fig. 6.8(c) Motoring operation (driving) in the reverse direction.

For regenerative braking while rotating in the reverse direction, the reversing
switch is operated again to reverse the connections of the motor terminals A1
and A2, to the converter terminals A and B as shown in Fig. 6.8(d).
Simultaneously, the triggering angles of the SCRs are changed to force the
converter into the inversion mode. Therefore, for motoring operation (braking)
in the reverse direction, the motor operating quadrant is quadrant-4 (negative
voltage and positive current) as shown in Fig. 6.9. The converter is now in the
inversion mode.
Fig. 6.8(d) Motoring operation (driving) in the reverse direction.

Fig. 6.9 Four-quadrant operation.
In this manner, operation in all the four quadrants can be achieved, for a
reversible dc motor drive with regenerative braking, as shown in Fig. 6.9.
6.8 DUAL CONVERTERs

A dual converter is a converter which can handle a load with all four
combinations of voltage polarity and current direction. Therefore, with a suitable
design of the control circuit, the converter can be operated in such a way that the
current supplied to the load is alternating. The positive current converter is
operated to supply positive current to the load. Then the negative current
converter is operated for negative load current. These operations can be repeated
cyclically at a low frequency, so that the current supplied to the load is
alternating in nature. Since all combinations of voltage polarity and current
direction are possible, it is not necessary that the load current be in phase with
the load voltage.
Applications of dual converters A dual converter can be used to
reverse the speed of a dc motor. Regenerative braking can also be
achieved by a dual converter.
6.8.1 The Phase-controlled Dual Converter A static four-quadrant
converter is also known as a dual converter, because it is
essentially a combination of two ‘two quadrant converters’—one
to control positive currents and the other negative currents. The
two converters are connected in antiparallel as shown in
Fig. 6.10(a), by which arrangement their terminal polarities are
reversed with respect to each other. Dual converters are also
called reversible thyristor converters.
Fig. 6.10(a) Phase-controlled dual converter.
For driving in the forward direction, the positive current converter (PCC)
operates in the rectification mode and all the gate pulses to the SCRs of the
negative current converter (NCC) are blocked. To brake the motor while rotating
in the forward direction, the gate pulses to the SCRs of the PCC are stopped and
the NCC operates in the inversion mode. This is how the current through the
motor is reversed statically without the use of a reversing switch. The NCC
continues to operate in the reverse direction, but changes in the rectification
mode. To brake the motor while rotating in the reverse direction, the gate pulses
to the SCRs of the NCC are stopped and the PCC operates in the inversion
mode. These operating sequences are also indicated in Fig. 6.10(b).
Fig. 6.10(b) Phase-controlled dual converter for static four-quadrant operation.

6.8.2 Single-phase Dual Converter In Fig. 6.10(c), the Bridge 1
consists of SCRs TP1, TP2, TP3, and TP4. The Bridge 1 operates
like a single-phase full-wave rectifier. Similarly, the Bridge 2,
which is connected in
opposite mode to that of Bridge 1, consists of SCRs TN1, TN2,
TN3, and TN4. To minimise the ripples in the rectified dc, an L-C
network is used. The rectified dc fed to the load is the input of the
Bridge 2 which acts as a single-phase inverter. The output of the
inverter (Bridge 2) is ac.
Fig. 6.10(c) Single-phase dual converter circuit.

Principle of operation of the single-phase dual converter In the
positive half-cycle of the ac input to Bridge 1, SCRs TP1 and TP2 are
gated simultaneously. SCRs TP3 and TP4 are triggered in the
negative half-cycle. In both the cases, the load current IL flows
downwards as shown in Fig. 6.10(c). The full-wave rectified dc
voltage across the load is controlled by varying the triggering angles
of the SCRs. Hence Bridge 1 operates as a full-wave, full-controlled
single-phase rectifier and Bridge 2 acts like an inverter when Bridge
1 is triggered.
If Bridge 1 is not triggered, Bridge 2 can be used as a rectifier by feeding it
with
single-phase ac. In this case, the load current IL flows upwards as shown in Fig.
6.10(c). So Bridge 2 operates as a full-wave, full-controlled single-phase
rectifier and Bridge 1 acts like an inverter when Bridge 2 is triggered.
Applications of dual converters A single-phase dual converter can be
used to achieve plugging (dynamic braking) and speed reversal of dc
motors.
6.8.3 Types of Three-phase Dual Converters There are two
different types of dual converters. These are of:
circulating current type

circulating current-free type or non-circulating current type.
6.8.4 Circulating Current Type Dual Converter (Mid-point

Configuration) Figure 6.11(a) shows the circulating current type
dual converter in which each of the two converters is a mid-point
converter. The SCRs TPR, TPY, and TPB constitute the positive
current converter (PCC), which has the common cathode
configuration, the terminal K being the common cathode. The
SCRs TNR, TNY, and TNB constitute the negative current
converter (NCC). This converter has the common anode
configuration, the terminal A being the common anode. The two
converters are operated in such a way that the dc voltages of both
are the same.
Fig. 6.11(a) Three-phase mid-point dual converter with circulating current.

Let ap be the triggering angle of the PCC and an that of the NCC. Assuming
that
the PCC is in the rectification mode, so that ap is less than 90°, its dc output
voltage is given by ………(6.15) where Vm is the peak
voltage per phase.
The dc output voltage of the NCC is given by ………
(6.16) The negative sign indicates the converter has a common anode
configuration. If the triggering angle an of the NCC is such that ap + an = 180°,
then cos an = cos (180 – ap) = – cos ap Therefore, the dc terminal voltage of the
NCC becomes ………(6.17) Therefore,
both the positive current and negative current converters have exactly the same
voltage, with the same polarity, if the condition ap + an = 180° is satisfied. This
condition implies that if one of the converters is in the rectification mode, then
the other is in the inversion mode. Although their dc voltages are the same, the
two converters are still unable to connect solidly in parallel, because, besides the
dc voltage, each converter has an ac ripple voltage as well. The ripple voltages
may not be the same. Therefore, the two voltages will not match at every instant.
The unequal instantaneous voltage difference can cause an excessive current to
flow between the converters if both are in operation, unless steps are taken to
limit this current. However, an iron-cored inductor L between K and A limits the
ripple current to a small value. The output voltage is taken at point M which is
the mid-point of the inductor.
Figure 6.11(b) shows the output voltage waveform of the positive current
converter at the terminals K–N for the triggering angle 30° and the output
voltage waveform of the negative current converter at the terminals A–N for the
triggering angle of 150°. From the waveform, it is seen that the dc voltages are
the same for both the converters. During the interval t1 to t2, the SCR TPB is
conducting in the positive current converter and the SCR TNR is conducting in
the negative current converter. In the first-half of this interval, the voltage of
phase-B is more positive than the voltage of phase-R, and therefore a circulating
current will build up in the direction K to A. In the second-half of this interval,
the voltage of phase-R becomes higher than the voltage of phase-B. Hence the
circulating current that had built up, will now fall to zero. But it cannot reverse,
because current can only flow in one direction owing to the unidirectional nature
of the SCRs. It is observed that had it not been for the inductance L, there would
occur a direct short-circuit between the phase-B and the phase-R during the first
half of the interval t1 to t2. The circulating current in this interval is limited to a
low value because of the presence of inductor L.
In the interval t2 to t3, the SCRs TPR and TNR are in conduction in the
positive current converter and the negative current converter, respectively.
Therefore, both K and A are at the same potential and the voltage across L is
zero. There will be no circulating current during this interval.
During the interval t3 to t4, the situation is similar to that in the interval t1 to
t2. The phase that would be connected is the phase-R in the positive current
converter and the phase-Y in the negative current converter. In the first-half of
this interval, the voltage of phase-R is higher, and a circulating current will build
up. This current will decay to zero in the second-half of this interval, because the
voltage of phase-Y will be higher during this half. The current cannot reverse,
because the circulating current can flow only in one direction.
The voltage waveform appearing across L as shown in Fig. 6.11(b) is obtained
by taking the instantaneous voltage difference between the waveforms of the
positive current converter and the negative current converter. The voltage across
L will be zero when the

Fig. 6.11(b) Output voltage waveforms for positive and negative current
converters along with voltage waveform across inductor L.
same phase conducts in both the converters. The voltage will be the line voltage
between the two phases during the interval when the conducting phases are
different in the two converters.
6.8.5 Circulating Current Type Dual Converter (Dual-bridge
Configuration) A transformer is needed for the mid-point
configuration to provide the neutral terminal, which is one of the
output terminals of the dual converter [see Fig. 6.11(a)]. The
bridge configuration does not need a transformer. For this reason,
the bridge configuration is often a more convenient choice than
the mid-point configuration.
The bridge configuration is actually a combination of two mid-point dual
converters. It is necessary to have two circulating current reactors—one for each
mid-point dual converter as shown in Fig. 6.12(a). If only one circulating current
reactor is used, a short-circuit can occur between the ac lines when two different
phases are conducting in the other dual converter. A separate smoothing
inductance L is used for the load.
Beneficial effects of circulating current mode The beneficial effects of
the circulating current mode are as follows:
Discontinuity problem is excluded completely as there is always current

flowing through the converter whose magnitude is independent of the
load current.
Fig. 6.12(a) Three-phase dual-bridge converter with circulating current.
Changeover from one quadrant of operation to the other is smooth and

the triggering angle is automati cally adjusted according to the control
voltage. Thus, the converters do not have to pass through blocking,
unblocking and through the safety interval of 5 millisecond. Hence
control is never lost in this mode of operation.
6.8.6 The Circulating Current-free Type or Non-circulating Type

Dual Converter One such converter in Fig. 6.12(b) requires only
one of the two converters to be operated at any given time to
handle the load current. Therefore, the function of a dual
converter can be served by operating only one converter at a time
and keeping the other in readiness to take over when current
reversal is needed. As such no circulating current can flow
between the two converter circuits and, therefore, this mode is
called the circulating current-free mode of operation. The positive
current and negative current converters are solidly connected in
antiparallel without any circulating current reactor in between.
Only one converter carries the load current. If the load current is
positive, the positive current converter is operated with the
approximate triggering angle. The triggering pulses to the
negative current converter can either be blocked or phased back
so that it does not carry current.
Fig. 6.12(b) The circulating current-free type dual converter.
If the positive current converter is in the rectification mode with a triggering
angle less than 90°, the conduction in the negative current converter is prevented
by either blocking or delaying the gate pulses to the SCRs so that the e.m.f.
presented by it is in opposition to the flow of circulating current and is large
enough to prevent any flow of circulating current. Whenever the drive is to be
braked or to be driven in the other direction, the positive current converter is first
blocked and the load current is reduced to zero. The pulses to the second
converter are then released after a current-free safety interval of 4 to 6
millisecond. Irregular jumps must be avoided during changeover.
Thus, such a mode of operation requires a sophisticated regulating system
which has to not only sense the desired torque direction but also block/unblock
both the converters suitably with a safety interval.
6.8.7 Different Configurations Used for Dual Converters The dual
converters can be connected in any one of the following ways:
Antiparallel connection
Direct antiparallel connection
Cross connection
Antiparallel connection
The antiparallel connection is shown in Fig. 6.13(a).
Fig. 6.13(a) Reversible converter in antiparallel connection.
The advantages of the antiparallel connection are: (i) The design of the converter
transformer is simple.
(ii) The circuit configuration is less expensive.
The disadvantages of the antiparallel connection are: (i) Reactances have to be
provided to limit the loading of the SCRs caused by the arc voltage of the high
speed circuit breakers.
(ii) The circuit configuration is expensive because of the use of dc high speed
circuit breakers along with the reactances.
(iii) If the dc circuit breakers and the ac switchgear are opened simultaneously,
devices may get punctured.
(iv) Only the circulating current-free type of operation is possible.
Direct antiparallel connection (back-to-back connection) Figure 6.13(b)
shows SCRs in direct antiparallel connection.
Fig. 6.13(b) Reversible converter in direct antiparallel connection.
The advantages of the above connection are the following: (i) It is economical
and compact.
(ii) Loading of SCRs caused by the arc voltage of the circuit breakers is
avoided.
(iii) The number of semiconducting fuses and circuit breakers used is halved.
The disadvantages of the direct antiparallel connection are as follows: (i) This
connection cannot be used in high-rating loads.
(ii) Device capacity is not fully utilised because of poor heat transfer.
(iii) Only a circulating current-free type of operation is possible.
Cross connection
This connection is shown in Fig. 6.13(c).
Fig. 6.13(c) Reversible converter in cross connection.
The merits of the cross-connection configuration are as follows: (i) The
circulating current type of operation is possible.
(ii) Each converter is provided with a circuit breaker.
(iii) Loading of the devices caused by the arc voltage of the circuit breakers is
limited by using two reactances.
The demerits of the cross-connection configuration are: (i) It is the most
expensive configuration.
(ii) More components are needed in the regulating system compared to the first
two configurations.
(iii) A large converter transformer is needed.
(iv) During circulatory current type of operation, all items of electrical
equipment have to be of higher rating (approximately 10% higher).
(v) Reactive power drawn from the system is very high.
6.9 CHOPPERs
6.9 CHOPPERs
In ac applications, the transformer serves to convert electric power efficiently
from one voltage level to another. Static dc-dc converters by stepping-up or
stepping-down a dc voltage source achieve a similar function in dc applications.
In dc-dc converters, the voltage conversion is achieved by power
semiconductors, functioning as static switches and performing switching
operations at a high repetitive frequency. Static dc-dc converters using the
switching principle are also known as choppers. The SCR is switched on and off
rapidly to ‘chop’ the input voltage for adjusting the input load voltage. This
means that, although the input voltage is constant, the average dc voltage can be
varied.
The circuit configuration of a chopper converter can thus be designed either to
step up from a lower input voltage to a higher output voltage or to step down
from a higher input voltage to a lower output voltage. When the voltage
conversion ratio, K = output voltage/input voltage, is more than 1, the circuit is a
voltage step-up chopper. If K < 1, it is a voltage step-down chopper. There are
differences between the step-up and the step-down choppers in the internal
circuit configurations of their static switches.
In a two-quadrant chopper, the power flow is from the low voltage side to the
high voltage side in the step-up mode, and reverse is the case in the step-down
mode. Therefore, the input terminal pair and the output terminal pair interchange
their roles when moving from one mode of operation to the other. In any
chopper converter, the voltage conversion ratio K is determined by the switching
times of the static switches that constitute the chopper. It is, therefore, easy to
vary the voltage conversion ratio K smoothly and continuously, by means of an
adjustable voltage input into the chopper control circuit that suitably modifies
the timing of the switching control pulses to the power switching elements. The
chopper circuit offers the following advantages:
Greater efficiency
Faster response
Lower maintenance
Smaller size
Applications of choppers
The main applications of choppers are as follows: (i) Chopper circuits are used
in the speed control of dc series motors in traction systems.
(ii) The speed of the wound rotor induction motor can be varied by varying its
rotor resistance. The rotor resistance can be varied steplessly by using a
simple chopper.
(iii) Choppers can be used as switched mode power supply (SMPS) regulators
to convert an unregulated dc voltage to a regulated dc output voltage.
(iv) Choppers are used in battery-operated vehicles to provide smooth
acceleration control, high efficiency, and fast dynamic response.
6.9.1 Principle of Operation
Figure 6.14(a) is a basic circuit diagram of the chopper. The SCR T is operated
as a switch, which turns on and off the dc battery voltage V to the load. The SCR
is triggered periodically and is kept conducting for a period tON and is blocked
for a period tOFF as shown in
Fig. 6.14(b).
The average dc output voltage Vout across the load is given by (assuming
continuous current conduction) Vout = VL =
= ………(6.18)
Fig. 6.14 DC chopper: (a) basic circuit and (b) output voltage waveform.
where
T is the time period = tON + tOFF, and D is the duty cycle.
The chopper frequency can be determined by f = 1/T = 1/(tON + tOFF) Thus, the
dc output voltage Vout can be varied by the following methods:
tON may be varied while the periodic time T is held constant. This is
known as pulse width modulation (PWM).
tON may be kept constant while T is varied i.e. tOFF is varied. This is
known as frequency modulation or pulse rate modulation.
Combined pulse width modulation and pulse rate modulation.
Figures 6.15(a), 6.15(b), and 6.15(c) illustrate, respectively, the chopper action
for pulse width modulation, pulse rate modulation, and for a combination of both
of these methods. The duty cycle D controls the average dc output voltage.
Fig. 6.15(a) Pulse width modulation.
Fig. 6.15(b) Pulse rate modulation.

Fig. 6.15(c) Combination of pulse rate and pulse width modulations.
6.9.2 Chopper Control Technique The operation of the SCR in
Fig. 6.14(a) can be controlled in the following two ways:
Time ratio control (TRC)

Current limit control (CLC)
Time ratio control This principle is essentially the same as described

under Section 6.9.1. However, it is clear from Fig. 6.14(b) that the
output voltage is rich in the ripple content.
Under the steady state condition: ………(6.19)
Assuming negligible ripple component, the input power is given by Pin =
= VIdc………(6.20) The output power is given by Pout =

= VLIL………(6.21) Assuming that no losses occur in the SCR and
comparing Eqs. (6.20) and (6.21), VIdc = VLIL
This relation shows that the time ratio control (TRC) also has the properties of a
transformer. Again from Eq. (6.19), ………(6.22) where f is
the chopper frequency.
The load voltage can be varied either by varying the chopper frequency f or by
varying tON. In the constant frequency TRC method, VL can be controlled by
varying tON. This has the added advantage of low ripple and, therefore, a
smaller size of the filter is required. This method is also preferred for faster
response.
The disadvantages of the time ratio control method are: (i) The frequency f has
to be varied considerably and it results in discontinuity and sluggishness at low
frequencies.
(ii) Operation at higher frequencies is accompanied with higher losses in
components. So this system cannot be optimised because of the variable
frequency.
Current limit control (CLC)
In this method of control, the load current is allowed to vary only between
predetermined maximum and minimum limits such that if the load current tends
to increase beyond the maximum value, the SCR T as shown in Fig. 6.14(a) will
be blocked and if the current
tends to fall below the minimum value, the SCR will be turned on. Figure
6.15(d) shows the waveforms of the current limit control.
As the chopper operates between the prescribed current limits, discontinuity
cannot occur. The difference between Imax and Imin decides the switching
frequency. If this difference is small, the ripple at the output will be small,
however, the switching losses will increase because of higher chopper
frequency.
Fig. 6.15(d) Waveforms of the current limit control.

EXAMPLE 6.4
A chopper circuit is operating on the TRC principle at a frequency of 2 kHz on a
460 V dc supply. If the load voltage is 350 V, calculate the conduction and
blocking periods of the SCR in each cycle.
Solution The output voltage of a chopper circuit is given by VL = VftON
Hence the conduction period is
The time period is

Therefore, the blocking period tOFF of the SCR is tOFF = T – tON = 0.5 – 0.38
= 0.12 ms 6.9.3 Voltage Step-down Chopper The chopper shown in Fig. 6.16(a)
delivers adjustable dc power into a resistive load from a fixed dc voltage source
V. The load resistance R is connected to the output through an inductance L. The
purpose of this inductance is to smooth out the fluctuations in the output current
that are caused by the switching process in the chopper. If the inductance L is
sufficiently large, the voltage across the load and the current through it will be
substantially dc, with negligible ac ripple. The inductor is usually iron-cored and
should be capable of carrying the full load dc current without magnetic
saturation.
Fig. 6.16(a) Circuit diagram of a voltage step-down chopper.

When SCR T is turned on, the input dc voltage V is applied in reverse mode
across the power diode, D. The power diode must stay OFF as long as SCR T
remains ON. The growth of load current i occurs exponentially because of the
inductance L. The SCR is kept ON for a time interval tON, and then turned off.
At the instant when SCR T is turned off, load current i has a finite value ip1
during the first chopper cycle as shown in Fig. 6.16(b). This current cannot
instantly fall to zero because of the presence of the inductance L. The decay of
load current i causes an induced voltage Ldi/dt to appear across the inductance.
The polarity of the induced voltage changes at the instant when SCR is turned
off. Because of this voltage, the diode gets forward biased and causes the
freewheeling current iD to continue. The current iD decays exponentially and
continues as long as T remains OFF, that is, for a duration tOFF. The lowest
value to which the current falls at the end of the first chopper cycle is labelled in
Fig. 6.16(b) as the valley magnitude iv1.
Fig. 6.16(b) Waveforms of the voltage step-down chopper.

The second chopper switching cycle commences when SCR T is turned on
again at the end of the first tOFF when the load current starts building up again.
There is already an initial current iv1, and therefore the second peak ip2 will be
larger than ip1. Consequently, the valley magnitude iv2 at the end of the second
cycle will also be larger than iv1. In this way, as the switching progresses, both
the peak and the valley magnitudes progressively increase. The differences
between the successive cycles, therefore, becomes less and less. After several
cycles, these differences becomes negligibly small. The circuit conditions are
then said to have reached the repetitive state or steady state. This means that the
peak current is effectively the same in successive cycles.
The magnitude of the output dc voltage at the load terminals will be given by
the average height of the waveform of Fig. 6.16(b). The average output voltage
is thus given by ………(6.22) where D = tON/T = the switching
duty cycle.
Therefore, the voltage conversion ratio K of the chopper, defined as the ratio
of the output voltage to the input voltage, is given by K = VL/V = D
It can be derived that the repetitive value of the valley current is given by
………(6.24) where T = L/R = time constant of the load.
The value of the peak current is given by ………(6.25) The

peak-to-peak ripple current is given by ipp = ip – iv The dc component of the
load current is given by ………(6.26) EXAMPLE 6.5
The input voltage to a step-down chopper is 220 V. When the chopper switch is
ON, the voltage drop across it is 2 V and the duty cycle is 50%. Determine the
average output voltage.
Solution Since voltage drop across the switching element is 2 V, the effective dc
supply voltage is given by V1 = 220 – 2 = 218 V
Load voltage (average output voltage) of a step-down dc chopper is given by
6.9.4 Voltage Step-up Chopper

Figure 6.16(c) provides output voltages higher than the source voltage V and,
therefore, this circuit is known as step-up chopper circuit. When SCR T
conducts, the current Idc passes through inductor L and electromagnetic energy
is stored in it. The induced voltage in the
Fig. 6.16(c) Circuit diagram of a step-up chopper.
inductor opposes the applied voltage V. If SCR T is turned off, the capacitor C
charges exponentially through diode D and inductor L, and the stored
electromagnetic energy is converted to electrostatic energy. At the instant of
switching off the SCR, the induced voltage in the inductor changes its polarity
and adds to the source voltage.
The diode D will allow the output voltage VL to be higher than the source
voltage V. If the current Idc remains constant, then the energy stored Einduced in
the inductor during the turn-on period tON of the SCR is given by Einduced =
VIdc tON………(6.27) During the turn-off period tOFF of the SCR, the energy
Etransferred is transferred from the inductor to the load RL and capacitance C.
Therefore, the energy transferred is given by Etransferred = (VL – V)Idc
tOFF………(6.28) But the energy transferred by the inductor during the period
tOFF must equal the energy gained by it during the period tON. Comparing Eqs.
(6.27) and (6.28), VIdctON = (VL – V)IdctOFF
Therefore,
………(6.29) If tON = tOFF, the load voltage VL is twice
the source voltage V (i.e. VL = 2V). Thus, this circuit gives a voltage that
is higher than the source voltage. The output voltage VL can be varied by
controlling tON and tOFF.
EXAMPLE 6.6
A step-up chopper with a pulse width of 200 ms is operating on 220 V supply.
Calculate the load voltage if the non-conduction time of the device is 50 ms.
Solution According to the problem: Supply voltage, V = 220 V
Pulse width, tON = 200 ms = turn-on time Non-conduction time = turn-
off time = tOFF = 50 ms The output voltage (load voltage) of a dc step-
up chopper is given by
6.9.5 Jones Chopper

The Jones chopper circuit in Fig. 6.17(a) controls the mean load voltage by
varying the ratio of the ON-time to the OFF-time (pulse width modulation). This
chopper circuit is based on class D commutation. The auxiliary SCR T2
connects a charged capacitor C across the
load-carrying SCR T1. Because of this additional SCR T2, tON and tOFF can be
independently controlled.
Assume that capacitor C is charged with its top plate positive as shown in
Fig. 6.17(a). If SCR T1 is triggered, load current iT1 flows through T1, inductor
L1, and the series load as shown in Fig. 6.17(b). By this time, the capacitor C
discharges through L2 and diode D2. After complete discharge, the capacitor C
recharges resonantly through L2 and diode D2 to its peak positive voltage. This
peak positive voltage is equal but opposite to the peak negative voltage found on
the capacitor C just before T1 is triggered. Inductors L1 and L2 are closely
coupled to form an autotransformer. When T1 is ON, the load current iL = iT1
flows through L1 and induces a positive voltage at the top end of L2 that charges
the commutating capacitor C.
Fig. 6.17(a) and (b) Jones chopper: (a) basic circuit and (b) circuit operation
with SCR T1 in triggered state.
When the auxiliary SCR T2 is triggered, the capacitor C gets effectively
connected across T1. This reverse biases the SCR T1, and turns it off. The load
current iL = iT2 is now supplied by V and the capacitor C as shown in Fig.
6.17(c). The capacitor discharges completely and recharges again to an opposite
polarity as the load current continues to flow. When the capacitor voltage
reaches the supply voltage, the charging current decreases and eventually goes
below the holding current for T2. Consequently, SCR T2 turns off. When the
load current iL = iT2 reaches zero, the induced voltage in the inductance part of
the load changes its polarity as shown in Fig. 6.17(d). Diode D1 is forward
biased which allows the energy stored in the inductance of the load to be
dissipated. All currents cease, and the circuit is ready for a gate pulse to arrive at
T1 to begin another cycle.
Fig. 6.17(c) and (d) Jones chopper: (c) circuit operation with SCR T2 in
triggered state and (d) freewheeling current.
The Jones chopper circuit provides an efficient control of motor speed by
varying the duty cycle. To increase the motor speed, the time between T1’s
gating pulse and T2’s gating pulse is increased. This allows load current (motor
current) to flow for a greater period of time and raises the average load voltage.
The different waveforms are shown in Fig. 6.18.
Fig. 6.18 Jones chopper: voltage and current waveforms.
Applications of Jones choppers Jones choppers are widely used for
the following applications.
(i) Smooth acceleration control, braking, and current limiting of dc motors (ii)
Forward and reverse operations of dc motors (iii) Control of dc series
motors in electric traction systems (iv) Regulating dc power supplies
Advantages and disadvantages of Jones choppers Advantages. (i) Unlike
other chopper circuits, Jones chopper circuits provide good commutation
even when capacitor C is not fully charged. This is due to the presence of
an autotransformer in the circuit. (ii) The output voltage can be controlled
by varying the chopper frequency or the pulse width. (iii) The Jones
chopper circuit can be used for control of both dc series and shunt motors.
Disadvantages. The only disadvantage of the Jones chopper circuit is that
SCRs require a high PIV.
EXAMPLE 6.7
A 60 V battery supplies an inductive load through a chopper circuit. The load
inductance and resistance are 30 mH and 5 W, respectively. The load has a
freewheeling diode across it. What should be the time ratio of the chopper, if it is
required to vary the load current between the limits 8 A and 10 A?
Solution The average value of the load current is given by
But the maximum value of the load current is given by Im = V/R = 60/5 = 12 A
The average value of the load voltage is, therefore, given by
Again, the average load voltage is given by

or,
Therefore, tON = 0.75(tON + tOFF) or
6.9.6 Two-quadrant Chopper or Reversible Chopper In a two-

quadrant chopper, the polarity of the load current can be
reversed, i.e. the direction of power flow between the input and
output terminals is reversed. Figure 6.19(a) shows a circuit where
bidirectional flow of power is accomplished. In the driving mode
of the motor, the principle of the step-down chopper is applied
whereas the principle of
step-up chopper is applied for reversing the flow of power. For
normal operation, SCR T1 is triggered to apply voltage V to the
load (i.e. the armature winding of the motor). So power flows
from the source to the load. When SCR T2 is gated, it will turn off
SCR T1. This is a class B type forced commutation in which the
conducting SCR T1 is turned off by the discharging current of the
capacitor passing through it. As a result, no power flows in any
direction, i.e. the load voltage is zero. Since the load is a dc motor
with separate excitation, regenerative braking can be provided if
the power flow through the chopper is reversed. This is done by
SCRs T3 and T4.
Fig. 6.19(a) Circuit diagram of a two-quadrant chopper.

Initially, SCR T4 is fired to charge the capacitor C2. It will turn off when the
charging current becomes zero. To reverse the direction of power flow, i.e. from
the load to the source, SCR T3 is triggered, the armature is short circuited
through the inductor Ld and current will, therefore, build up in this inductor. If
SCR T4 is again triggered, it will turn off SCR T3 as it would do so in a normal
oscillating chopper circuit. The inductor Ld will now force the current into the
main supply V through the feedback rectifier D2, and thus return its inductive
energy which it had stored, to the supply. Thus, the motor is subjected to
regenerative braking. By controlling the triggering instants of SCRs T3 and T4,
the required amount of power can be made to flow from the load to the supply.
The load voltage polarity of the two-quadrant chopper remains the same for both
directions of power flow, though the direction of current is reversed. The load
should contain a dc voltage source to supply the necessary amount of power.
Figure 6.19(b) shows the operating quadrants of a two-quadrant chopper.
Fig. 6.19(b) Operating quadrants of a two-quadrant chopper.
6.9.7 AC Chopper
A simple and very convenient way of controlling power is by using line
commutation where the instant of triggering the SCR is varied to change the rms
value of the load voltage. The main disadvantage of such a scheme is that its
input power factor is poor, particularly with large triggering angles. This
drawback can be overcome by using forced commutation. A voltage changing
circuit employing SCRs is known as the ac chopper. Here, C1 and C2 are the
commutating capacitors which are initially charged to the peak value of the ac
input voltage with polarities as shown in Fig. 6.20(a). The SCRs T1 and T2 are
responsible for
Fig. 6.20(a) Circuit diagram of a single-phase ac chopper.
generating the positive and negative halves of the load voltage vL, whereas
SCRs T3 and T4 are the auxiliary SCRs used for commutating the main SCRs
T1 and T2.
Principle of operation of the ac chopper In the positive half-cycle of

the ac input voltage, when point A is positive relative to point B, SCR
T1 is gated at instant t1 corresponding to triggering angle a as shown
in Fig. 6.20(b). The current iT1 flows through T1 and load as shown
by the blue arrows. At instant t2,
SCR T3 is gated. As soon as T3 is fired, capacitor C1 starts to
discharge through T3, T1, and C1. The discharging current of C1
opposes the load current iL = iT1 passing through T1. As this
discharging current equals the load current iL = iT1, SCR T1 will be
turned off. The discharging time constant is so small that SCR T1 will
be commutated just after t2. The load voltage will be zero until the
next SCR T2 is triggered.
Fig. 6.20(b) Output voltage waveform of a single-phase ac chopper.

During the negative alteration of ac input voltage (when point A is negative
relative to point B), SCR T2 is gated at the instant t3(i.e. when wt = p + a). The
load current flows through the load and T2 (which is opposite to the direction of
T1) as shown by the magenta arrows. At wt = p, capacitor C1 starts charging
(which was previously discharged to commutate T1) through R1, D1, and C1 as
shown by the dotted green arrows. At instant t4, SCR T4 is gated. As soon as T4
is fired, capacitor C2 starts discharging through the conducting SCR T2, SCR
T4, and C2. The discharging current of C2 opposes the load current iL = iT2
passing through T2. When this discharging current equals the load current iL =
iT2, SCR T3 will be commutated just after t4.
Again, at instant t5, SCR T1 is gated to produce the next positive alteration. At
wt = 2p, capacitor C2 starts charging (which was previously discharged to
commutate T2) through D2, R2 and C2.
The principal advantage of an ac chopper is that the fundamental input power
factor is always unity irrespective of the conduction interval b.
6.10 CYCLOCONVERTER
The cycloconverter, also called cycle converter, converts ac power of certain
frequency to ac power of much lower frequency without the help of an
intermediate dc link. The output voltage and frequency of the cycloconverter can
be varied continuously and independently by means of a control circuit. In other
words, the cycloconverter is a direct frequency converter that converts an ac
input, which is typically the three-phase fixed frequency utility bus, to an
adjustable ac output, whose voltage and frequency are independently adjustable.
If a dual converter is operated to provide a low frequency ac output, then it is
referred to as a phase-controlled cycloconverter. Although the frequency of the
ac output of the cycloconverter is adjustable, this frequency has to be
considerably less than the frequency of the ac input. For satisfactory operation of
the converter, the realistic upper limit of the output frequency is about one-third
the input frequency. Therefore, when working from a 50 Hz ac supply,
reasonably good operation will not be possible for outputs above 16-2/3 Hz.
The cycloconverter is essentially a dual converter, the triggering angles of
which are varied continuously maintaining the relation ap + an = p (where ap is
the triggering angle of the positive current converter when the converter
develops positive voltage and an is the triggering angle of the negative current
converter when the converter develops negative voltage), such that the average
output voltage of the dual converter system varies alternately from positive to
negative and vice versa with time. By controlling the frequency in phase
modulation of the triggering angles in converters, the output frequency of the
cycloconverter can be varied continuously. Since the dual converter has four
quadrants of operations, the cycloconverter is, therefore, capable of handling
loads of any power factor, and regenerative operations are also possible. The
cycloconverter can convert power from a single-phase supply, producing either
single-phase or three-phase power and also from a three-phase supply, giving out
either single-phase or three-phase power.
Applications of cycloconverters Cycloconverters are widely used as
the power converters for the following applications.
(i) Variable frequency supply for aircraft (ii) Adjustable-speed induction motor
drives (iii) The speed control of synchronous motors 6.10.1 Types of
Cycloconverters Cycloconverters are classified as: (i) Single-phase
cycloconverters (ii) Three-phase cycloconverters There are two
configurations in a single-phase cycloconverter: (i) Mid-point
configuration (ii) Bridge configuration 6.10.2 Single-phase/Single-phase
Cycloconverter (Mid-point Configuration) The circuit shown in Fig.
6.21(a) consists of a centre-tap transformer and two SCR groups— one
group of SCRs (TP1 and TP2) produces the positive half-cycle of the
output voltage and the other group of SCRs (TN1 and TN2) produces the
negative half-cycle of the output voltage. Depending on the polarity of the
input, any one of these two groups will conduct. The natural commutation
process is used to turn off the SCRs. This configuration is used for traction
purposes.
Fig. 6.21(a) Circuit diagram of a single-phase/single-phase cycloconverter (mid-
point configuration).
Principle of operation of the single-phase/single-phase cycloconverter
It is assumed that the load is resistive. If point A is positive with
respect to centre-tap
point C during the positive half-cycle, TP1 is triggered and TP2 is
automatically turned off as the voltage at point B is negative with
respect to centre-tap point C. The load current iP1 flows through
point A, TP1, limiting reactor L, the load, and centre-tap point C. In
the negative half-cycle, point A is negative and point B positive. TP2
is triggered and TP1 will be turned off by natural commutation. The
load current iP2 flows through point B, TP2, limiting reactor L, the
load, and centre-tap point C. The direction of flow of current in the
load remains the same in both the half-cycles. At the next instant,
point A becomes positive again and point B negative, thus TP2 is
turned off due to natural commutation and TP1 is triggered. Again,
the direction of flow of current in the load remains the same in all its
three half-cycles. These three positive half-cycles across the load
produce a combined positive half-cycle as the output. By changing the
triggering angle a, the duration of conduction in each SCR (and
thereby the magnitude of the output voltage) can be varied.
At the end of each half-period of the output, the triggering angles to the SCRs
of the positive group will be stopped and the SCRs TN1 and TN2 of the negative
group will be triggered. Similarly, in the next half-cycle of the ac input when B
is again positive and A negative, TP1 is automatically turned off. Now, TN1 is
triggered instead of TP2. The load current iN1 flows through point C, the load,
limiting reactor L, TN1, and point A. Thus, the direction of flow of current
through the load is reversed. In the next half-cycle of the ac input, A is positive
and B negative. TN1 is turned off by natural commutation and TN2 is triggered.
Now, the load current iN2 flows through point C, the load, limiting reactor L,
TN2, and point B. Hence, the direction of load current remains the same. Again,
during the next half-cycle of the ac input when B is positive and A negative,
TN2 is turned off and TN1 is triggered. The direction of load current again
remains unchanged. Thus, these three negative half-cycles across the load
produce one combined negative half-cycle as the output. As a result, three cycles
of the ac input produce one cycle at the output. This indicates that the input
frequency is reduced to 1/3 (i.e. submultiple of the input frequency) in the output
across the load as shown in Fig. 6.21(b).
Fig. 6.21(b) Waveforms of a single-phase/single-phase cycloconverter.
Problem which arises when the output frequency is not a submultiple
of the input frequency If the output frequency is not a submultiple of
the input frequency, the triggering of SCRs TN1 and TN2 will start
even before the last half-cycle of conduction in the SCRs of the
positive group is completed. That is, SCR TN1 or TN2 will be
triggered when TP1 or TP2 is still conducting. This will produce a
short circuit on the input and reduce the load voltage to zero. The
path of short-circuit current is shown in Fig. 6.21(a). The duration of
the short circuit will be less than one-half the period of the input and
take place once in every half-cycle of the output. A current limiting
reactor L is introduced in the input lines to reduce the short-circuit
current.
Effects of inductive load
If the load is inductive, then the SCRs will not turn off at the end of every half-
cycle of the input voltage. Current will continue to flow even after the
completion of a half-cycle because of stored energy in the inductor. For
example, TP1 which was triggered in the positive half-cycle will continue to
conduct during the negative half-cycle because of the load inductance, making
the load voltage negative, and will turn off when TP2 is triggered. The load
voltage will again become positive. At the beginning of the negative half-cycle
when SCR TN1 in the negative group is triggered, TP1 will still be conducting
in the negative half-cycle and so, the SCRs in the negative group, being reverse-
biased, will not turn on. Therefore, no voltage will appear across the load until
after TP1 is turned off by natural commutation. The load will get open-circuited
for a maximum duration of one-half the input period. This will occur at every
half-cycle of the output when the conduction shifts from one group of SCRs to
the other as shown in Fig. 6.21(b). Thus, the load voltage waveform will get
distorted. An inductive load causes poor lagging power factor. The larger the
inductive load, the more lagging will be the power factor and higher will be the
distortion in the output wave.
If an SCR of the negative group starts conducting before an SCR in the
positive group is turned off, the input will experience a short circuit causing zero
voltage across the output. This short circuit, although existing for a very small
period of time, will cause distortion in the output wave. A large inductor L is
used to minimise the short-circuit current. Such an inductor will also reduce the
ripple component.
Development of waveforms A simple method of improving the output
voltage waveform when the output frequency is one-third the input
frequency is to connect SCRs TP2 and TN2 to a higher tap on the
secondary winding of the input transformer. An almost ideal
sinusoidal wave can be obtained by making the positive amplitude due
to TP2 to be double of that due to TP1, and similarly, the negative
amplitude due to TN2 to be double of that due to TN1. This may be
done by connecting one terminal of the load to a new point on the
secondary winding of the transformer (not the centre point) so that the
voltage across CB is twice the voltage across CA as shown in Fig.
6.21(c). The output waveform will be more like a sinusoidal wave as
shown in Fig. 6.21(d).
Fig. 6.21(c) Circuit diagram of a single-phase/single-phase cycloconverter with
SCRs TP2 and TN2 connected to a higher tap on the secondary winding.
Fig. 6.21(d) Improved output voltage waveforms of the single-phase/single-
phase cycloconverter.
6.10.3 Single-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Bridge
Configuration) Two single-phase full-controlled converter bridges
are connected in opposite directions like the dual converter as
shown in Fig. 6.22(a). Bridge 1 is responsible for producing
Fig. 6.22(a) Circuit diagram of a single-phase/single-phase cycloconverter

(bridge configuration).
the positive alterations of the output wave whereas the negative alterations of the
output wave are produced by the Bridge 2. However, the input transformer is not
required in this configuration. The two bridges are not allowed to conduct
together as this will produce a short-circuit current on the input. When the load
current is positive, the triggering pulses to the SCRs of Bridge 2 will be inhibited
and bridge 1 will be triggered. Similarly, when the load current reverses, Bridge
2 will be triggered and the triggering pulses will not be applied to the SCRs in
Bridge 1. The triggering angles of SCRs in the two bridges are kept the same so
that the output voltage is symmetrical.
Principle of operation of the single-phase/single-phase cycloconverter
(bridge configuration) During the positive half-cycle of the ac input,
SCRs T1 and T2 are triggered. The load current iT1-T2 flows through
T1, the load, and T2. In the negative half-cycle, SCRs T1 and T2 are
turned off by natural commutation and SCRs T3 and T4 are triggered.
Again, the load current iT3-T4 flows through T3, the load, and T4. In
both the half-cycles the direction of the load current through the load
remains the same. This indicates that the combination of the first
positive and negative half-cycles of the ac input produces the positive
one-half of the output. Similarly, the negative one-half of the output
will be produced by triggering the pair of SCRs formed by T8-T7 and
T6-T5, respectively, of the Bridge 2. Figure 6.22(b) shows the input
and output waveforms. The output frequency in this case will be half
the input frequency, i.e. the output frequency is 25 Hz corresponding
to the input frequency
of 50 Hz.
Fig. 6.22(b) Input and output waveforms of the single-phase cycloconverter.

6.10.4 Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter The three-phase
bridge circuit cycloconverter as shown in Fig. 6.23(a) consists of
two identical phase-controlled SCR converters (one is positive
current converter and the other negative current converter). The
average dc voltage of a three-phase line-commutated converter is
given by (3 Vm/p) cos a, where Vm and a are the maximum
voltage per phase and the triggering angle, respectively.
If the positive current converter operates at a triggering angle ap and the
negative current converter at a triggering angle (p – ap), then the dc output
voltages of the positive current bridge and negative current bridge will be given,
respectively, by (3 Vm/p) cos ap and ( 3 Vm/p) cos (p + ap), i.e. (–3 Vm/p)
cos ap. Both outputs have the same magnitude of the dc voltage, but with
mutually reversed polarity. The range of triggering angle is ideally from 0° to
180°. In this range, any one converter can operate with both
Fig. 6.23(a) Circulating current type cycloconverter circuit.

positive and negative voltages. But each converter can conduct current in one
direction only. Therefore, two converters are required to enable load current
flow in both directions— one converter for each direction of current flow. The
positive current converter handles the positive load current and the negative
current converter handles the negative load current. In this way, the parallel
combination can provide an alternating current output.
6.10.5 Types of Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverters There
are two types of three-phase/single-phase cycloconverters: (i)
Circulating current type (ii) Circulating current-free type or non-
circulating type.
6.10.6 Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Circulating
Current Type) Figure 6.23(a) is the circulating-current type
cycloconverter. Though each converter has a ripple voltage and a
dc component at its output, the ripple voltages never tend to be
the same. The ripple voltages will not be balanced because the
triggering angles for the positive current and negative current
converters are different and the terminal polarities are reversed.
If a direct parallel connection, i.e. without any inductor between
the converters is used and the two converters are simultaneously
operated, there will be a large flow of ripple current in the loop
consisting of the two converters, because the instantaneous
voltages of the two converters do not balance.
To limit the circulating current and keep both bridges operating
simultaneously, two reactors are needed for the bridge configuration, because the
circulating current has to be limited on both ends of the bridge. The circulating
current has to be unidirectional, because each bridge can carry current in only
one direction. Since the ripple voltage is alternating in nature, this will mean a
discontinuous flow of the circulating current.
If the positive current converter (PCC) bridge is operated with a triggering
angle of 0°, its dc output voltage will be maximum and equal to ( 3Vm)/p
because cos a = cos 0° = 1. When the triggering angle increases slowly, the
output voltage will decrease in magnitude until ap becomes 90°, when any
further increase in ap causes the voltage to reverse according to the cosine law,
and the voltage reaches the negative maximum at ap = 180° under the ideal
assumption that 180° trigger delay is possible. In this way, by
slowly varying the triggering angle between 0° and 180°, and back again to 0°, it
is
possible to vary the dc voltage to a complete ac cycle between the positive
maximum
and the negative maximum, and then back again to the positive maximum. This
is how the cycloconverter provides a low frequency ac output as shown in Fig.
6.23(b). This ac is a slow varying dc, within the positive and negative maximum
limits of the two individual converters.
Fig. 6.23(b) Instantaneous and mean voltage waveforms of a cycloconverter
output.
6.10.7 Three-phase/Single-phase Cycloconverter (Non-circulating
Current Type) Figure 6.24(a) shows the non-circulating type or
the circulating current-free type cycloconverter. In this
configuration, the SCR gate pulses will be provided only to the
converter that needs to conduct the load current, and the other
converter will be made inoperative by blocking the gate pulses to
its SCRs. This means that when supplying an alternating load
current, the switching between the bridges will have to be made
after
Fig. 6.24(a) Non-circulating current type cycloconverter.

every half-cycle of the load current. The control circuit has to detect the instant
when the current becomes zero, and decide if a current reversal is needed, and
then implement the channelling of the gate pulses as required. Figure 6.24(a)
does not show the logic channelling of the gate pulses, but the same is
incorporated in the controller. In this method, no circulating current can flow as
the two converters are not operated at the same time. It is for this reason that, no
current limiting reactor is used. Hence, this arrangement is more popular at
present.
6.10.8 Three-phase/Three-phase Cycloconverter In three-phase

motor control applications, the cycloconverter provides a three-
phase output. The three-phase output can be obtained by having
three cycloconverter blocks, and controlling them in such a way
that their outputs have the 120° phase difference between them as
shown in Fig. 6.24(b). A three-phase cycloconverter operates on
the same principle as a single-phase cycloconverter. In the three-
phase cycloconverter, the amount of the ripple component is
reduced more compared to that in a single-phase cycloconverter.
In Fig. 6.24(b), there are three dual converter bridge pairs, each bridge pair
functioning as one of the ac output. It is necessary to provide electrical isolation
between the inputs to the three cycloconverter phases. This is achieved by the
use of a three-phase transformer with three isolated secondaries, which provide
three separate three-phase supplies with electrical isolation between them. Each
three-phase secondary is used as the input to one cycloconverter. If this isolation
is not provided, there will be circulating current between the phases, without any
means of limiting it.
Fig. 6.24(b) Circuit diagram of a cycloconverter with three-phase output.
The triggering of the SCR is such that, phase commutation is achieved all the
time, i.e. the commutation of current from one SCR to the next is natural owing
to the voltage difference between the SCRs being of the correct polarity. The
anode of the SCR next in order of triggering is always at a higher potential in the
direction of current flow than that of the conducting SCR.
Advantages of the cycloconverter (i) The cycloconverter is a single-
stage conversion equipment which converts frequency in one stage
and also improves the overall efficiency.
(ii) The function of the cycloconverter is based on the principle of line
commutation. No forced commutation circuits are necessary and, therefore,
there are no losses associated with such circuits.
(iii) Load commutation is possible.
(iv) It delivers a high-quality sinusoidal waveform at low output frequencies as
it is fabricated from a large number of segments of the supply waveform. It
is preferred for low-speed operations.
(v) The cycloconverter continues to function with a slightly distorted
waveform even if an SCR blows off. Hence complete shutdown of the
system is not necessary.
(vi) It has an inherent capability of transferring power from supply to the load
and vice versa and can supply power of any power factor. Hence four-
quadrant operation is also accomplished.
Disadvantages of the cycloconverter (i) It offers a very poor power
factor.
(ii) It requires a large number of SCRs and, therefore, its control circuitry is
very complex.
(iii) The failure of commutation short circuits the source.
(iv) In order to obtain a reasonable waveshape of the output voltage, its
frequency can only be a fraction of the input frequency.

1. An inverter converts (a) ac into dc.
(b) ac into ac of higher frequency.
(b) ac into ac of lower frequency.
(d) dc into ac.
2. The number of main blocks in an inverter circuit is (a) two.
(b) three.
(c) four.
(d) five.
3. The heart of an inverter is the (a) oscillator circuit.
(b) rectifier circuit.
(c) step-up transformer.
(d) filter.
4. The value of output frequency of an inverter circuit depends on the (a)
voltage ratio of the step-up transformer.
(b) level of the dc voltage applied.
(c) type of circuit used.
(d) values and combinations of the resonant elements.
5. Thyristors are used for developing mostly (a) low power inverters.
(b) very low power inverters.
(c) medium and high power inverters.
(d) medium power inverters.
6. SCR inverters can be mainly classified into (a) three categories.
(b) two categories.
(c) five categories.
(d) four categories.
7. According to its connections, an SCR inverter can be of (a) series type.
(b) parallel type.
(c) bridge type.
(d) all the types mentioned above.
8. A single-phase full-controlled bridge inverter can operate in the load
commutation mode if the load consists of an (a) R-L combination.
(b) R-L-C underdamped combination.
(c) R-L-C overdamped combination.
(d) R-L-C critically damped combination.
9. A single-phase bridge inverter delivers its output to a series connected R-L-
C load with R = 2 W , XL = 8 W. For this inverter, load commutation is
possible in case the magnitude of XC is (a) 10 W.
(b) 6 W.
(c) 8 W.
(d) zero.
10. The condition of making the series inverter circuit underdamped is (a) R2
> 4L/C.
(b) R2 < 4L/C.
(c) R2 = 4L/C.
11. The commutation method used in a three-phase forced commutated bridge
inverter is (a) Class A.
(b) Class B.
(c) Class C.
(d) Class D.
12. A dual converter circuit has two bridges, out of which one bridge works as
(a) a rectifier, the other as a chopper.
(b) a rectifier, the other as an inverter.
(c) an inverter, the other as an amplifier.
(d) an inverter, the other as an oscillator.
13. A dual converter is generally used where (a) reversible dc is required.
(b) ac of higher frequency is required.
(c) ac of lower frequency is required.
(d) ripple-free dc is required.
14. A four-quadrant operation requires (a) two full-controlled converters in
series.
(b) two full-controlled converters connected back-to-back.
(c) two full-controlled converters in parallel.
(d) two semi-converters connected back-to-back.
15. A full-controlled single-phase dual converter uses (a) 4 SCRs.
(b) 6 SCRs.
(c) 8 SCRs.
(d) 12 SCRs.
16. A full-controlled three-phase dual converter uses (a) 6 SCRs.
(b) 6 or 12 SCRs.
(c) 8 SCRs.
(d) 12 SCRs.
17. For the circulating-current mode operation of a dual converter (a) both the
bridges are gated simultaneously.
(b) both the bridges are gated but with a little time difference between the
two.
(c) only one bridge is gated at a time.
(d) the first bridge is gated and after some time it is turned off and then the
second bridge is gated.
18. For an ideal dual converter, if the triggering angle of the positive current
converter is ap, then the triggering angle for the negative current converter
will be equal to (a) 180° – ap.
(b) 90° + ap.
(c) 90° – ap.
(d) 1800 + ap.
19. In a dual converter bridge, if the triggering angle of the negative current
converter is 60°, then for achieving the best possible control the triggering
angle of the positive current converter should be (a) 120°.
(b) 60°.
(c) 180°.
(d) 90°.
20. In HVDC transmission lines, high-power SCRs are used as (a) inverters.
(b) converters.
(c) both inverters and converters.
(d) voltage boosters.
21. The control of a dc chopper circuit can be achieved by (a) keeping tON
constant and varying tOFF.
(b) keeping tOFF constant and varying tON.
(c) varying the ratio tON/tOFF.
22. The ON-OFF frequency of a chopper depends on (a) the applied voltage.
(b) the load current.
(c) the type of chopper.
23. In a chopper circuit, the device is switched off at regular intervals by
adopting (a) the forced commutation process.
(b) the natural commutation process.
(c) either the natural or the forced commutation process.
(d) a combination of natural and forced commutation processes.
24. In a single SCR chopper circuit, the discharge current of the capacitor is (a)
oscillating but decaying in nature.
(b) pulsating in nature.
(c) alternating in nature.
(d) unidirectional in nature.
25. In a dc chopper circuit, the load voltage is governed by the (a) number of
SCRs used in the circuit.
(b) type of connection used in the circuit.
(c) duty cycle of the circuit.
(d) dc voltage applied to the circuit.
26. The duty cycle of a chopper circuit is expressed as (a) tON + tOFF.
(b) tON/tOFF.
(c) 1/(tON + tOFF).
27. The frequency of a chopper circuit is given by (a) 1/(tON + tOFF).
(b) tOFF/tON.
(c) tON/tOFF.
(d) tON + tOFF.
28. In dc choppers, the waveforms for input and output voltages are (a)
discontinuous and continuous, respectively.
(b) both continuous.
(c) both discontinuous.
(d) continuous and discontinuous, respectively.
29. In dc choppers, if tON is the ON period and f is the chopping frequency,
then the output voltage in terms of the input voltage V is given by (a)
VtON/f.
(b) (V/f)tON.
(c) VftON.
30. In a single-phase ac chopper circuit, there (a) is one main SCR and three
auxiliary SCRs.
(b) are three main SCRs and one auxiliary SCR.
(c) are four main SCRs.
(d) are two main SCRs and two auxiliary SCRs.
31. A cycloconverter is a device which (a) measures the frequency of the ac
mains.
(b) converts ac into dc.
(c) converts ac of one frequency into ac of some other frequency.
(d) converts dc into ac.
32. A cycloconverter is a frequency changer (a) from a higher to a lower
frequency with one stage conversion.
(b) from a higher to a lower frequency with two stage conversion.
(c) from a lower to a higher frequency with one stage conversion.
(d) either of (a) or (c) type.
33. Cycloconverters are used for situations demanding (a) very high
frequency.
(b) low frequencies.
(c) very low frequencies.
(d) high frequencies.
34. The main application of cycloconverters is found in (a) traction systems.
(b) speed control of synchronous motors.
(c) speed control of dc shunt motors.
(d) lifts and hoists.
35. Cycloconverters are more efficient than dc link converters because they (a)
produce the output frequency only in one stage.
(b) do not use any rotating parts.
(c) use very low power.
(d) produce very low frequency at the output.
36. The number of possible configurations in a single-phase cycloconverter
circuit is (a) two.
(b) three.
(c) four.
(d) five.
37. A bridge configuration of a single-phase cycloconverter uses (a) two
SCRs.
(b) four SCRs.
(c) six SCRs.
(d) eight SCRs.
38. A bridge configuration of a single-phase cycloconverter (input frequency is
50 Hz) is used for producing an output frequency of (a) 25 Hz.
(b) 16-2/3 Hz.
(c) 75 Hz.
39. A mid-point configuration of a single-phase cycloconverter is used for
producing an output frequency of (a) 75 Hz.
(b) 16-2/3 Hz.
(c) 25 Hz.
(d) 12.5 Hz.
40. The input power factor of a cycloconverter is (a) high.
(b) low.
(c) always unity.
(d) leading.
41. A phase-controlled cycloconverter employs (a) line commutation.
(b) load commutation.
(c) forced commutation.
(d) no commutation.
42. At low output frequencies, the voltage waveform at the output of a
cycloconverter is (a) a stepped voltage waveform.
(b) a rectangular voltage waveform.
(c) a high quality sinusoidal waveform.
(d) a waveform rich in harmonics.

State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. SCR inverters usually have higher power ratings compared to transistor
inverters.
2. The efficiency of an inverter decreases as its input voltage is raised.
3. The resistor, capacitor, inductor, etc. used for building up the oscillator
circuit in an inverter, are called the resonant elements.
4. Thyristors are mostly used for developing medium and high power
inverters.
5. In the case of an SCR inverter, the oscillator circuit is build up by using a
suitable power transistor and proper resonant elements.
6. The resonant elements in the SCR inverter circuits are known as the
commutating elements.
7. Transistor inverters are preferred over the SCR inverters because of their
superior performance.
8. The current drawn from the dc source in the case of a series inverter circuit
is intermittent in nature.
9. Natural-commutated inverters need more complicated circuitry compared to
that of forced-commutated inverters.
10. A series inverter produces distortion in the output waveform.
11. A series inverter can produce a resonant frequency which is grteater than
its output frequency.
12. In a series inverter, the load current flows continuously through the
commutating elements.
13. In a series inverter circuit, very less ripple is present in the dc input.
14. The load current in a series inverter is of alternating nature because of the
underdamped circuit formed by the commutating elements.
15. Series inverters are also known as self-commutated inverters.
16. In a parallel inverter, the capacitor is connected in series with the load.
17. Parallel inverters are also known as forced commutated inverters.
18. The output voltage waveform of a parallel inverter can be improved by
using load inductance.
19. The main advantage of a bridge inverter is that it does not use any
transformer.
20. The disadvantages of a bridge inverter are the poor voltage control and the
limited range of frequency control obtainable at the output.
21. Bridge inverters can be designed for both single-phase and three-phase
circuits.
22. Current source inverters are mainly used for high frequency applications.
23. Regenerative braking can be achieved by a dual converter.
24. Dual converter circuits are designed only for three-phase type.
25. A dual converter is fed with an ac input.
26. The mode of connections of the SCRs for bridge 1 (positive current
converter) and bridge 2 (negative current converter) are the same as in the
case of a dual converter.
27. In a single-phase dual converter, if the bridge 1 acts as a rectifier then the
bridge 2 will operate as an inverter.
28. In dual converters, inductors are used to minimise the ripple content.
29. In a dual converter, the dc voltage available across the load can be
controlled by varying the triggering angles of the SCRs.
30. For achieving the speed reversal of a dc motor using a dual converter,
bridge 1 is gated and after sometime this bridge is turned off and bridge 2
is gated.
31. For achieving plugging with the help of a dual converter, bridge 1 and
bridge 2 are triggered simultaneously.
32. Regenerative braking can be achieved by a three-phase dual converter.
33. In the case of a three-phase dual converter, the triggering angles of both
the bridges must be controlled in such a manner that their output voltages
are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
34. In the non-circulatory current mode of operation, a little time gap must be
allowed between commutation of bridge 1 and triggering of bridge 2.
35. The circulatory current flows in a dual converter because of the difference
between the ac ripple voltage of the two converter bridges.
36. In the circulatory-current mode of operation, if both the bridges of a dual
converter are working in the same mode, it will lead to a short circuit
between the two bridges.
37. Controlled rectifiers provide a variable dc output voltage from a fixed ac
voltage, whereas choppers provide a variable dc voltage from a fixed dc
voltage.
38. Chopper drives are widely used in traction applications all over the world.
39. A chopper can be either of dc type or of ac type.
40. A chopper is a kind of switch which allows a circuit to be energised for a
required duration.
41. Choppers using SCRs provide static switching.
42. In a chopper circuit, the average voltage across the load can be controlled
by changing the supply voltage.
43. In a chopper circuit, the type of control adopted for overload/underload
protection is known as current limit control.
44. In the case of a dc chopper, the average voltage across the load depends on
the values of the ON and OFF durations.
45. A single SCR chopper circuit employs the forced commutation process.
46. The conduction time for a chopper circuit is not decided by the values of
its commutating elements.
47. The auxiliary SCR in a chopper circuit is used to commutate the main
SCR.
48. A step-up chopper is a type of ac chopper circuit.
49. The output of a step-up chopper can be increased by varying the duty cycle
of the chopper circuit.
50. In a step-up chopper, the energy stored in the inductor is equal to the
energy transferred to the capacitor.
51. In the case of an ac chopper, the frequency of the output ac voltage
depends on the rate of switching.
52. In the case of an ac chopper, the conduction angle for the two pairs of
SCRs must be maintained same throughout, in order to produce a good
shape of the output waveforms.
53. A cycloconverter converts input power of one frequency to output power at
a different frequency.
54. A cycloconverter is a frequency changer from a higher to a lower
frequency with two stage conversion.
55. Speed reversal of electric motors is not possible with the help of
cycloconverters.
56. Regenerative braking cannot be achieved with the help of a cycloconverter.
57. A cycloconverter can produce a variable frequency output by making use
of a phase-controlled converter.
58. A device which produces a constant low frequency output is called an
envelope cycloconverter.
59. A cycloconverter produces the output frequency in one stage whereas a dc
link converter requires two power conversion stages.
60. A cycloconverter employs the forced commutation process.
61. The basic principle of the cycloconverter is similar to that of the dual
converter.
62. The centre-tap transformer configuration of a single-phase cycloconverter
is meant for producing one-third the input frequency at the output across
the load.
63. An inductive load will cause poor lagging power factor and cause
distortion in the output waveform of a cycloconverter using centre-tap
transformer.
64. An input transformer is required for a bridge configuration of a
cycloconverter.
65. A bridge configuration cycloconverter circuit functions like a circulating-
current mode dual converter.
66. The amount of ripple content can be reduced by increasing the number of
pulses used in the case of a three-phase cycloconverter.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) What is the principle of operation of an inverter? State its applications.
(WBDETC 1999) (b) Explain with neat circuit diagrams and waveforms
the working of a line-commutated inverter. (WBDETC 1999) (c) Discuss
the main difference between the voltage-source and the current-source
inverters. (WBDETC 1997) 2. (a) What is forced commutated inverter?
(b) Explain with a neat circuit diagram and waveforms the working
principle of the parallel capacitor commu tated inverter. (WBDETC 1998)
(c) What are the advantages of the parallel inverter? What is voltage
commutation of this circuit?
3. (a) With the aid of a circuit and wave diagrams, describe the working
principle of the three-phase full-controlled inverter.
(b) Discuss the working of a single-phase series inverter.
(c) What are the limitations of a series inverter? What is current
commutation of this circuit?
4. (a) Explain the process of inversion in an SCR converter.
(b) What is a two-quadrant converter? Give an example of a two-quadrant
phase-controlled converter. Discuss the difference between the two-
quadrant and four-quadrant operations.
5. (a) Briefly describe the working principle of the voltage-source inverter.
(b) Explain with the help of a circuit diagram the working principle of the
current-source inverter.
6. (a) What is a dual converter? State its areas of application.
(b) What are the different types of dual converters?
(c) Draw the circuit diagram of a circulating-type dual converter using
mid-point configuration.
(d) Describe with the help of a circuit diagram the working principle of the
dual converter bridge.
7. (a) State the basic differences between the circulating-current type and the
non-circulating type dual converters from the viewpoint of their working
principles.
(b) Explain how regenerative braking can be achieved by means of a dual
converter bridge.
8. (a) Briefly explain the principle of operation of the dc chopper. (WBDETC
1998) (b) Mention some applications of choppers in industry. (WBDETC
1998) 9. (a) What are the techniques used to control the operation of a
chopper circuit?
(b) How would you execute current limit control with the help of a chopper
circuit?
(c) Explain (i) duty cycle and (ii) chopper frequency.
10. (a) Draw the wave patterns for (i) load voltage, (ii) load current, and (iii)
chopper current obtained by chopper switching.
(b) Explain the term time ratio control (TRC) with the help of a chopper
circuit.
11. (a) With the help of a circuit diagram, describe the operation of a single
SCR chopper.
(b) Explain the circuit operation of a voltage step-up chopper and derive an
expression for its output voltage.
12. (a) Explain how a voltage step-down chopper works.
(b) Describe with the help of a circuit diagram and necessary waveforms
the operation of a Jone’s chopper. Discuss its advantages and
disadvantages. (WBDETC 1997) 13. (a) Briefly explain the operating
principle of the reversible chopper.
(b) Why is a reversible chopper called a two-quadrant chopper?
(c) How does an ac chopper work? Explain.
14. (a) Briefly explain the principle of operation of the cycloconverter.
Mention some applications of the cycloconverter. (WBDETC 1999) (b)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of cycloconverters?
(WBDETC 1997) 15. (a) Explain with the help of a circuit diagram the
operation of a single-phase cycloconverter using centre-tap transformer.
State its applications.
(b) What problem is faced in a single-phase cycloconverter when the
output frequency is not a submultiple of the input frequency?
(c) What are the effects of the inductive load in a cycloconverter?
(d) How can the output waveform be improved in a cycloconverter?
16. (a) Explain the circuit operation of a cycloconverter whose output
frequency is half the input frequency.
(b) What are the different types of three-phase/single phase
cycloconverters?
(c) Draw the circuit diagram of a three-phase/single-phase cycloconverter
(non-circulating type) and explain its working principle.
PROBLEMS
6.1 The resonant frequency and time period between the turn-off of one SCR
and the turn-on of the other SCR of a series inverter are 174 Hz and 0.011
s, respectively. Calculate the output frequency.
6.2 Calculate the value of inductance in a series inverter circuit having a
frequency of 5 kHz and a capacitance of 1mF if the inverter operates under
the resonance condition.
6.3 The output frequency of a series inverter circuit varies from 3.144 kHz to
2.285 kHz corresponding to a change in the load from 50 W to 125 W. The
time period between the turn-off of one SCR and the turn-on of the other
SCR is 0.2 ms. Calculate the inductance and capacitance of the series
inverter.
6.4 Determine the value of load voltage of a chopper circuit operating on the
TRC principle. It works at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V dc supply. The
conduction and blocking periods of the SCR in each cycle are 0.38 ms and
0.18 ms, respectively.
6.5 The input and average output voltages of a step-down chopper are 220 V,
and
99 V, respectively. Calculate the duty cycle of the chopper if the voltage
drop across the switch is 2 V.
Chapter 9
OPTOELECTRONICS AND
OPTICAL FIBRE
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In 1887, Hertz observed the relation between light and electricity. This he
referred to as the photoelectric effect. The combination of optics and electronics
is called optoelectronics. Electro-optics is the other name that is often used.
Optoelectronic devices comprise light emitting diodes (LEDs), photodiodes,
phototransistors, and fibre optics, along with the older standard devices such as
photo cells. Optoelectronic devices are classified as:
Photo emitters
Optical sensors or Photodetectors
Optocouplers or Optoisolators
Optical sensors can be divided into the following three categories:
Photoemissive sensors
Photovoltaic sensors
Photoconductive sensors
9.2 PHOTO EMITTERS

Optoelectronics solid-state emitters are the light emitting diodes (LEDs) that
emit visible radiation, infrared type emitters, and laser diodes. There are various
other kinds of light sources such as tungsten lamps, neon lamps, xenon lamps,
etc.
9.2.1 Luminescence
It is the emission of radiation from a solid when it is supplied with some form of
energy. There are various types of luminescence from the viewpoint of the
excitation methods.
Photoluminescence
Cathodeluminescence
Electroluminescence
Photoluminescence is the excitation which arises from the absorption of photons.

Cathodeluminescence is caused by the collision of high energy electrons with
the phosphor coating which lines the inside surface of cathode ray tubes (CRTs).
When a beam of electrons strikes the viewing screen of a CRT, radiation is
generated by cathodeluminescence. A thin layer of phosphor granules is
sandwiched between a glass faceplate and an evaporated aluminium layer as
shown in Fig. 9.1(a). High energy electrons penetrate the evaporated aluminium
layer and excite cathodeluminescence in the phosphor particles. The aluminium
layer serves to prevent charge from building up on the phosphor granules. Again,
this layer also helps to reflect back the emitted light, out through the face plate.
Fig. 9.1(a) Cathodeluminescence effect of a CRT screen.

Electroluminescence is the excitation, which results from the application of an
electric field that may be either ac or dc, to a suitably doped P-N junction. A P-N
junction LED emits light when it is biased in the forward direction. The light
emitted can be either in the invisible (infrared) or in the visible spectrum. In Fig.
9.1(b), phosphor (combination of ZnS and Cu) particles are suspended within a
transparent insulating medium of high dielectric constant and sandwiched
between two electrodes, one of which is transparent. When an alternating
voltage is applied to the electrodes, the phosphor particles emit light. The
phosphor particles in Fig. 9.1(c) have a coating of CuxS. This coating gets
removed by the application of an initial high current pulse from the anode side of
the particles that are in contact with the anode. Under normal conditions, light is
emitted only from the CuxS depleted particles.
If any form of energy excites the luminescing material, it results in an
electronic transition between the two energy levels, E1 and E2 (E2 > E1), with
the emission of radiation of wavelength l given by
………(9.1)
where
h is the Planck’s constant = 6.626 10–34 J s
c is the velocity of light = 3 108 m/s
l is the wavelength, in nm.
Fig. 9.1(b) Construction of an ac electroluminescent device.
Fig. 9.1(c) Construction of a dc electroluminescent device.

When the excitation mechanism is switched off, the luminescence persists for a
time equal to the lifetime of the transition between the two energy level E1 and
E2. The luminescence, however, persists for a much longer duration than
expected. This phenomenon is called phosphorescence.
9.2.2 LED Materials
The LEDs used in electronic applications as emitters are normally infrared
emitting diodes (IREDs). Commercially available LEDs are made from gallium
arsenide (GaAs) or gallium phosphide (GaP). There are two types of infrared
LEDs (IREDs):
Surface emitting infrared diodes

Edge emitting infrared diodes
Both these types of IREDs use a low band gap, silicon doped epitaxially grown
material, gallium arsenide (GaAs). The GaAs diodes are efficient and very
reliable and produce a peak wavelength of 940 nm (nanometres). The second
type is manufactured by replacing some of the gallium with aluminium. This
increases the band gap energy, yielding an IRED with a wavelength of 880 nm.
Gallium phosphide (GaP) is used for visible light emitting diodes. The
mechanism for visible light radiations is the same as that for the infrared diodes.
The transition of electrons from the conduction band to the acceptor level
releases a photon. The assumption of Planck’s hypothesis says that radiant
energy is not continuous, but exists in discrete bundles or quantities called
photons or quanta. The energy of a photon which depends upon the frequency
of the radiant energy is given by
E = hf………(9.2)
where
h is the Planck’s constant = 6.626 10–34 J s
f is the frequency in Hz
Optoelectronic devices utilise energy in the visible and infrared regions. Figure
9.2 shows the response of the average human eye to the visible radiation that
extends from 400 to 760 nm in wavelength. The eye has a maximum response to
light at 550 nm and drops to 50% of maximum at 610 nm. At higher frequencies
(smaller wavelengths), the photon energy is higher and can become very
penetrating. Semiconducting light sources can be made to cover a wide range of
wavelengths, ranging from the near-ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic
spectrum to the far-infrared region.
Fig. 9.2 Visible light spectral characteristics.

The photon energy can be converted to wavelength by the equation
l = 1240/E………(9.3)
where
l is the wavelength, in nm
E is the energy transition, in eV
9.2.3 Construction of Surface Emitting Infrared Diodes (Invisible
LEDs)
The Ga(As,P) is produced as an epitaxial layer grown on a substrate of either
GaAs or GaP as shown in Fig. 9.3. The grown wafer is then processed to
produce P-N junctions with photolithography used to shape the structure. The
photons generated at the junction of a P-N electroluminescent diode are emitted
in all directions. If the diode substrate is opaque, as is the case with GaAs, only
those photons which are emitted upwards within a critical angle will be emitted
as useful light. Gallium phosphide is nearly transparent compared to GaAs.
Diodes grown on the GaP substrate, therefore, exhibit improved efficiency
attributed to increased emission of photons which in the GaAs substrate would
be absorbed. The visible LEDs are similar in structure to the surface emitting
infrared diodes.
Fig. 9.3 Surface emitting infrared diode: (a) construction and (b) symbol.
9.2.4 Construction of Edge Emitting Infrared Diodes (Invisible
LEDs)
The physical structure of an edge emitter consists of a rectangle-shaped
semiconductor diode (P-N junction) in which the radiant output is emitted from
the edges of the diode in the recombination region of the junction as shown in
Fig. 9.4. The lateral size of the radiation area is usually defined by etching an
opening in an oxide insulating layer and forming an ohmic contact by depositing
a metal film into the open contact region. This type of construction is referred to
as edge emitters. The edge emission structure has an oxide metallisation stripe
constricting the flow of current through the recombination region to that area of
the junction directly below the stripe contact.
9.2.5 Principle of Operation of LEDs
A P-N junction can be formed in a semiconductor material by doping one region
with donor atoms and an adjacent region with acceptors. When a P-N junction
semiconductor diode
Fig. 9.4 Structure of an edge emitting infrared diode.

is subjected to an external electric field (forward biased), a flow of bias current
in the junction causes holes to be injected into the N-type material and electrons
to be injected into the P-type material as shown in Fig. 9.5. The radiation from a
P-N junction arises from the recombination of electrons with the minority
carriers, and the energy released is proportional to the band gap energy of the
semiconductor material. Some of this energy is released as light, and the
remainder as heat. This proportion is determined by the mixture
Fig. 9.5 P-N junction semiconductor diode (LED) when it is forward biased.
of the recombination process taking place. In Fig. 9.6, the energy contained in a
photon of light is proportional to the frequency, i.e. the colour. The larger the
band gap energy of the semiconductor material forming the junction, the higher
the frequency of the light emitted. For best performance, emitters (LED) should
be biased from a current source rather than a voltage source.
Fig. 9.6 Photon emitted by forward biased LED.

9.3 LASERS
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation. Lasers are a practical source of energy for cutting, welding, and
drilling. The first laser was a ruby crystal device developed in 1960. It provided
a single wavelength, called monochromatic (one colour) light. Lasers can be
constructed by using a variety of different materials, each of which produces a
distinctive wavelength as shown in Fig. 9.7. The wavelengths of
Fig. 9.7 Electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength in lasers.

different lasers are as follows:
(i) The CO2 laser—far infrared to 10.6 mm
(ii) The neodymium glass laser—near infrared at 1.06 mm
(iii) The gallium arsenide injection laser—near infrared, at wavelengths around
0.85 to 0.9 mm
(iv) The helium-neon laser—emitting 0.6328 mm radiation, reddish-orange in
colour
(v) The argon laser—operating at several wavelengths in the blue and green
portions of the spectrum, and
(vi) The nitrogen laser—an ultraviolet laser, operating at 0.3371 mm.
Lasers are used in holography, metrology, medicine, communication and
scientific research.
9.3.1 Emission and Absorption of Radiation
When an electron in an atom undergoes transitions between two energy states or
levels, it either emits or absorbs a photon. If an electron is in the lower level E1,
then in the presence of photons of energy (E2 – E1) it may be excited to the
upper level E2 by absorbing a photon. On the other hand, light (photon) is
emitted when an electron in a semiconductor drops from a higher energy level
E2 to a lower level, releasing extra energy. The lifetime of the excited state is the
average time for which the electron exists in the excited state before making a
spontaneous transition. There are two types of emission processes as described
below.
Spontaneous emission
In this process, the electron drops to the lower level in an entirely random way as
shown in Fig. 9.8(a). Light (photon) is emitted when an electron in a
semiconductor drops from a higher energy level E2 to a lower level E1, releasing
extra energy. Normally, it emits light without external influence. It takes its time
to get around to spontaneous emission.
Fig. 9.8(a) Energy level diagram illustrating spontaneous emission.

Stimulated emission
In this process, the electron is triggered to undergo the transition in the presence
of photons of energy (E2 – E1) as shown in Fig. 9.8(b). If an electron in the
upper energy level is waiting to emit its extra energy and another photon comes
its way with just the same amount of energy the electron needs to emit, then the
external photon can stimulate the electron in the upper energy level to drop to
the lower level and emit its energy as light
Fig. 9.8(b) Energy level diagram illustrating stimulated emission.

of the same wavelength. The result is a second identical photon. This process is
called light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
9.3.2 Population Inversion
The requirement for laser emission is that there should be more electrons in the
upper energy level than in the lower level. In population inversion, normally
more electrons (or atoms) are in the lower levels. This is necessary because
whatever is in the lower energy level, it can absorb the emitted light. If more
electrons are in the lower level than in the upper level, the absorption of light by
them would be faster than the emission of light by them. However, if only that
condition is met, the stimulated emission will scatter in all directions. So the
population inversion condition required for light amplification is a non-
equilibrium distribution of atoms among the various energy levels of the atomic
system. The excitation process in which a large amount of energy is required to
excite atoms into the upper level E2 is called pumping. Most of the laser
technology is connected with how the pumping energy can be supplied to a
given laser system. Pumping produces a non-thermal equilibrium situation.
9.3.3 Optical Feedback
The laser is more analogous to an oscillator than to an amplifier. In the laser, a
positive feedback is obtained by placing the gain medium between a pair of
mirrors which, in fact, forms an optical cavity. The initial stimulus is provided
by any spontaneous transition between the appropriate energy levels in which
the emitted photon travels along the axis of the system. The signal is amplified
as it passes through the medium and fed back by the mirrors. Saturation is
reached when the gain provided by the medium exactly matches the losses
incurred during a complete cyclic trip.
The gain per unit length of most active media is so small that very little
amplification of a beam of light results from a single pass through the medium.
In the multiple
passes which a beam undergoes when the medium is placed within a cavity,
however,
the amplification may be substantial. The radiation within the cavity propagates
to and
fro between two plane-parallel mirrors in a well-collimated beam. Because of the
diffraction effects, however, this cannot be the case as a perfectly collimated
beam
cannot be maintained with mirrors of finite extent. Some radiation will spread
out
beyond the edges of the mirrors. Diffraction losses of this nature can be reduced
by using concave mirrors.
9.3.4 Formation of Laser Beam
In Fig. 9.9, the laser beam is formed by a resonator (a pair of mirrors—one at
each end of the region occupied by excited atoms) which serves to confine light
and makes it pass repeatedly through the excited medium. Light emitted straight
towards one mirror will be reflected back and forth, stimulating emission from
electrons ready to recombine as the light passes through the junction plane. Light
emitted in other directions will leak away. Thus, only the light travelling back
and forth along the narrow stripe of the active region will be amplified and build
up into a beam.
Fig. 9.9 A structure illustrating the basic operation of a semiconductor laser.
9.3.5 Laser Losses
The losses in the laser system are caused by a number of different processes as
given below:
Diffraction at the mirrors

Absorption and scattering at the mirrors
Scattering at optical inhomogenities in the laser medium
Absorption in the laser medium
9.3.6 Classification of Lasers

Practical lasers commonly found in industries are as follows:
Semiconductor laser diode

Solid state laser (ruby)
Gas laser
Organic dye laser
9.3.7 Semiconductor Laser Diode

Semiconductor laser diodes are superficially like LEDs, but they produce light in
different ways that results in higher output powers and more directional beams.
Laser diodes made from direct bandgap material differ from conventional light
emitting diodes in that they require an optical cavity and a high injection carrier
density. Thus, the name injection diode usually refers to the semiconductor
laser diode. The semiconductor laser is much more efficient and smaller in size
than the other types of lasers.
To obtain stimulated emission, there must be a region in the device where
there are many excited electrons and vacant states, i.e holes, present together.
This is achieved by forward biasing a junction formed by heavily doped N-type
(N+) and P-type (P+) materials as shown in Fig. 9.10(a). This is an injection
laser diode with a P-N optical cavity formed by cleaving the opposite ends of the
diode and sawing the adjacent sides of the rectangular structure. When the
injection is forward biased with a voltage which is equal to the energy gap
voltage, electrons and holes are injected across the junction in sufficient numbers
to create a population inversion in a narrow zone called the active region as
shown in Fig. 9.10(a).
Fig. 9.10(a) Injection laser diode structure.

In GaAs which has a direct bandgap, the electrons and holes have a high
probability of recombining radiatively. The recombination radiation produced
may interact with the valence electrons and be absorbed, or may interact with
electrons in the conduction band thereby stimulating the production of further
photons of the same frequency. If the injected carrier concentration becomes
large enough, the stimulated emission can exceed the absorption so that optical
gain can be achieved in the active region. In Fig. 9.10(b), the radiant output
power is a function of the diode current. A threshold current Ith of about
10 A is required for coherent output. The device is operated in the pulsed mode
only since the required current is very high. The emissive wavelength depends
on (i) the semiconductor material, (ii) the doping level, and (iii) the temperature
of operation.
In some injection lasers, a film of silver or gold is deposited over one end so
that the other end serves as the only output. The gallium arsenide material is
reflective, so no internal mirrors are required to produce reflection. This type of
laser emits 0.5 to 50 W of pulsed energy. Many injection lasers are operated at
the cryogenic temperature (about 77 K).
Fig. 9.10(b) Injection laser diode—output characteristics.

Semiconductor laser diodes are most widely used in fibre optic systems.
However, their disadvantages lie in the fact that high drive currents are required
to drive the larger laser pellets and the large source size requires big and costly
optics.
9.3.8 Differences between LEDs and Laser Diodes
LED Laser diode
LEDs lack reflective faces. There are reflective faces in laser diodes.
Lasers must operate with large drive currents to get high density of ready-to-combine
LEDs operate at low drive current.
electrons needed at the P-N junctions.
The output does not depend on the drive current

The laser diode output depends on the drive current passing through it.
passing through the LED.
Laser diodes are more powerful than LEDs and emit a narrower range of
LEDs are less powerful. wavelengths.
LEDs have greater lifetimes than those of the The high drive currents and optical power levels make laser lifetimes shorter than
lasers. those of LEDs.
9.3.9 Solid State Laser (Ruby)

Ruby is sapphire (crystalline aluminium oxide) in which 0.05% chromium
replaces aluminium. Figure 9.11 shows an optically pumped solid state laser.
Energy produced by a dc high voltage power supply (in the range of 2000 to
5000 V) is stored in a bank of capacitors. The flash tube is filled with xenon and
does not conduct until the gas is ionized by a high voltage pulse from the trigger
transformer. When it is pulsed by the trigger, the stored energy causes the xenon
tube to emit very intense radiation, which then is absorbed in the laser crystal by
the pumping action.
Light from the flash tube pumps the chromium atoms from ground state G to
the excited levels in band E or band F. The pumped atoms are unstable at this
state and lose
Fig. 9.11 Optically pumped solid state laser.

energy in two steps. The first step is to a metastable level M in which no
emission takes place. The second step is from M to ground G state, with release
of photons by simulated or spontaneous emissions. This is called a three level
energy laser action. The laser beam emerges through the partially transmitting
mirror at the right end of the laser. A large amount of heat is dissipated by the
flash tube and consequently the laser rod quickly becomes very hot. Cooling has
to be provided by forcing air over the crystal.
To increase the effective optical coupling between the flash lamp and the laser
rod, it is necessary to surround the complete assembly by reflecting walls. This
system uses a helical flash lamp with the ruby rod centred in the enclosure and is
exactly like the one used in photography. The laser uses flash lamps of glass or
quartz tubes filled with gas at low pressure. The gas generally used is xenon,
though a higher brightness is achieved by using krypton or helium. These lamps
are of various shapes like helical, linear, and
U-shaped. Lamp size, pulse duration and electrical input energy can be varied
over a wide range. A wide range of wavelengths is formed when an electric
current is discharged through the lamp and a high temperature plasma emits
radiant energy. The pressure and the type of gas can be adjusted to produce a
wavelength peak that matches the absorption spectrum of the variety of crystals
being used.
9.4 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAYS (LCDS)
The liquid crystal is a passive type of display. It is a low power consumption
device. The liquid crystal state is a phase of matter which is exhibited by a large
number of organic materials over a restricted temperature range. At the lower
end of its temperature range, the material becomes a crystalline solid, whilst at
the upper end it changes into a clear liquid. Within this range it has a milky
yellowish appearance and combines some of the optical properties of solids with
the fluidity of liquids. A major characteristic of all liquid crystal compounds is
the rod like shape of their molecules. There are two types of ordering in liquid
crystals—nematic and cholesteric. In nematic ordering, the molecules are
aligned parallel to each other as shown in Fig. 9.12(a), but apart from remaining
parallel the molecules are free to move relative to each other so that the phase
has liquid properties as shown in
Fig. 9.12(b), which is cholesteric ordering in liquid crystals.
Fig. 9.12 Liquid crystals: (a) nematic ordering and (b) cholesteric ordering.
In Fig. 9.13, the liquid crystal display has two glass plates, the insides of
which are coated with a transparent pattern of conductive materials. The plates
are mounted with conducting layers facing each other. The liquid crystal
materials are retained between these
Fig. 9.13 LCD construction.

plates by a peripheral seal of glass frit or epoxy. Both the outer surfaces of the
front and rear glass plates require light polarising films. Ordinary light is
composed of vertical and horizontal components; polarising it removes one of
the components. The polarising film on the rear glass is covered with a reflective
material such as silver bead, silver foil, gold foil or a transreflective material
(reflects ambient light and transmits back light).
Liquid crystal displays are activated by applying voltage between the segment
and the common electrodes. The allowable frequency range of the driving
voltage (5Vrms ) is from
30 to 100 Hz. If the driving frequency is below 30 Hz, flicker will be observed.
The power consumption increases in direct proportion to the driving frequency,
and a driving frequency of 100 Hz is typically used. AC voltage is used to
prevent plating of the conductive electrodes because of electrolysis. Liquid
crystal display devices require backlighting if they are to be used in the dark or
at night. They are very sluggish at low temperatures, and in some applications
heaters are added or integrated into the display at the time of their fabrication.
LCDs are used as display devices for digital watches, pocket calculators and
laptop computers.
9.5 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE SENSORS OR BULK
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS
A bulk photoconductor or a photoresistor is a semiconductor device whose
conductivity increases (i.e. resistivity decreases) in proportion to the intensity of
light. A film of polycrystalline is deposited on an insulating substrate and the
electrodes are formed by evaporating a suitable metal, such as gold, through a
mask to give comb-like pattern as shown in Fig. 9.14. This geometry, which
results in a relatively large area of sensitive surface and a small interelectrode
spacing, helps to give a high sensitivity to the device.
Fig. 9.14 Typical electrode geometry of a CdS photoconductive cell.
The spectral response of photoconductive bulk type cells depends upon the
basic material used, cadmium sulphide (CdS), lead sulphide (PbS), or cadmium
selenide (CdSe), as well as on doping. The photoconductive bulk effect cells
have no junction. The entire layer of the material changes resistance when
illuminated. The resistance of the photoconductive cell decreases with the
increase in the level of light and the resistance increases as the level of light
decreases. As long as no light is incident upon the device, the bulk
photoconductor has a certain high resistance called the dark resistance.
Cadmium sulphide cells have their peak response in the visible spectrum. The
resistance of a photoconductive cell versus intensity is non-linear as shown in
Fig. 9.15(a). The value of the dark resistance may be as large as 104–107 W.
Photoconductive devices require an external source as shown in Fig. 9.15(b).
Changes in resistance of the photoconductor will cause a voltage variation across
load RL. A blocking capacitor C is used to let the ac component of the voltage
pass.
Fig. 9.15 Photoconductive cell: (a) characteristic curve and (b) biasing circuit.
If the energy E1 = hf1 of a photon striking the surface of a conductor is greater
than the energy gap between the valence and conduction energy bands of the
semiconductor, sufficient energy will be imparted to an electron to raise it to the
conduction level, leaving a hole in the valence band as shown in Fig. 9.16. Such
electron-hole pairs are free to serve
Fig. 9.16 Photoeffect in a semiconductor.

as current carriers, so that the conductivity of the material increases with the
increase in the illumination level and area. Photons having insufficient energy to
excite electrons to the conduction band, such as E2 = hf2, will not increase the
conductivity of the material. Since the photoconductive cells are characterised
by a change in resistance, they are sometimes referred to as photoresistors or
photoconductors. The performance of a photodiode is usually assessed in terms
of the specific sensitivity, i.e. the integral sensitivity per volt of applied voltage.
The specific sensitivity is given by
Ssp = IP/fV………(9.4)
where
IP is the photocurrent in mA
f is the light flux in lumen
V is the applied voltage in V
The specific sensitivity is usually several hundreds or several thousands
microamperes per volt per lumen. Photoresistors have a linear V-I characteristic
and a non-linear current-flux characteristic as shown in Fig. 9.17.
Fig. 9.17 Photoresistors: (a) current-voltage characteristic and (b) current-flux

characteristic.
Applications of photoconductive cells
Photoconductive cells are widely used in low-speed switching, counting, and
beam-breaking applications, as well as in cameras to control shutter opening
during the flash.
Advantages and disadvantages of photoconductive cells
Photoconductive cells have a high dissipation capacity and can withstand a high
voltage. They are used to control relays and small motors directly.
The disadvantage is that their speed of response is slow.
9.6 PHOTODIODES (JUNCTION TYPE
PHOTOCONDUCTORS)
Photodiodes are photosensitive types of semiconductor devices. There are two
basic kinds of photodiodes.
Photoconductive type diode or light-dependent resistor (LDR)

Photovoltaic type diode or solar cell
9.6.1 Photoconductive Type Diode or LDR

A photoconductive type diode or photodiode is a semiconductor diode which
depends for its operation on the inner photoelectric effect. The incident light
controls the reverse current of a photodiode. When the photons of energy greater
than the energy gap of the device material are absorbed in the device, hole-
electron pairs are generated, the conduction of the diode increases, and the
reverse current builds up. This is the current mode of operation. The current-
voltage characteristic curve for the current mode of operation is shown in
Fig. 9.18(a). The operating voltage of photodiodes is usually 10 to 30 V. The
dark current does not exceed 10 to 20 mA for germanium devices and 1 to 2 mA
for silicon devices.
An external bias is needed for the photoconductive types of diodes. The
reverse saturation current of a P-N junction semiconductor diode increases with
the rise in temperature (heat). Heat is a form of energy in the infrared region of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Light, in the visible spectrum, striking an exposed
P-N junction also results in the generation of electron-hole pairs. The greater the
intensity and higher the frequency of light, the larger is the diode current. In P-N
photodiodes, a thin P diffusion allows a good short-wavelength response. A deep
P diffusion degrades the short-wavelength response but lowers the bias required
for good response at longer wavelengths. An increase in the reverse voltage
across a photodiode raises the current only slightly. The current-flux
characteristics are linear and almost independent of the applied voltage as shown
in Fig. 9.18(b).
Fig. 9.18 Photodiode: (a) current-voltage characteristics in the current mode and
(b) current-flux characteristics.
The dark current is a small leakage current that flows for no incident
radiation. In other words, the dark current is the reverse leakage current besides
the photocurrent generated when a P-N junction photodiode is reverse biased
without light. This dark current consists of a surface leakage current and a bulk
leakage current. The surface leakage current of a photodiode is about 100 times
the bulk leakage current.
The photodiode is sensitive to certain colours. The sensitivity of a photodiode
depends on the energy gap of the material used for the diode. In addition to
germanium and silicon, cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium sulphide (CdS), and
cadmium telluride (CdTe) are the commonly used materials.
Principle of operation of photoconductive type diode
The reverse-biased P-N junction is the only way to operate a photosensitive
device. When a photon is absorbed in a semiconductor, a hole-electron pair is
formed and swept across the junction by the electric field e developed across the
depletion region. A photocurrent results owing to the separated hole-electron
pairs. The minority carrier electrons in the
P-region go to the N-side, and the minority carrier holes in the N-region go to
the P-side. Separation of a photon generated hole-electron pair is more likely to
occur when the pair is formed in a region where there is an electric field e as
shown in Fig. 9.19. The flow of photocurrent in the external circuit is
proportional to the illumination.
Fig. 9.19 P-N photodiode junction and its internal field diagram.
The distribution of the electric field in a semiconductor diode is not uniform as
shown in Fig. 9.19. In the regions of the P-type diffusion (front) and N-type
diffusion (back), the field is much weaker than it is in the centre region known as
the depletion region. For best results, a photodiode should be made so as to
allow the greatest number of photons to be absorbed in the depletion region. The
photons should not be absorbed until they have penetrated as far as the depletion
region, and they should be absorbed before penetrating beyond the depletion
region.
The depth at which a photon will penetrate before it is absorbed is a function
of the photon wavelength. Short wavelength photons are absorbed near the
surface. Those of longer wavelength may penetrate the entire thickness of the
crystal. Therefore, if a photodiode is to have a broad spectrum of wavelengths, it
should have a very thin P-layer to allow short-wavelength photons to penetrate,
as well as a thick depletion region to maximise photocurrent from the long-
wavelength photons.
The thickness of the depletion region depends on the resistivity of the region
to be depleted and on the reverse bias. A depletion region exists at room
temperature even if no reverse bias is applied because of the built-in field
produced by diffusion of minority carriers across the junction. Reverse biasing
aids this built-in field and expands the depletion region (at room temperature).
Figure 9.20 shows the planar construction and connection diagram of a
photodiode.
Fig. 9.20 Planar construction and connection diagram of a photodiode.

Applications of photoconductive type diodes or LDRs
Photoconductive type diodes or LDRs are used as:
Light-operated ON-OFF relays

Light-sensitive trips and alarms
9.6.2 Photovoltaic Type Diode or Solar Cell

Silicon junction photovoltaic cells are employed for the direct conversion of
solar energy to electric energy. No external bias source is required in
photovoltaic type diodes. The junction generates a voltage and/or current
depending upon the illumination and the load. This is the voltage mode of
operation for photodiodes. The photovoltaic or solar cells are able to generate an
emf of 0.4–0.5 V per cell. The individual cells can be connected in parallel and
series into solar batteries or panels which have a relatively high efficiency (up to
20%) and can deliver a power output of several kilowatts. The photovoltaic cells
are made of P-type selenium and N-type cadmium oxide as shown in Fig. 9.21.
The N-type region is exposed to the incident radiation.
Principle of operation of photovoltaic cell (photovoltaic type diode)
Photons incident on the P-N junction and the adjacent regions give rise to the
generation of electron-hole pairs. The electrons and holes created in the N-region
and P-region, respectively, diffuse towards the junction and if they have no time
to recombine in the transit, they fall under the influence of the internal electric
field existing in the junction as shown in Fig. 9.22. This field also acts on the
carriers created in the junction itself. The field separates the electrons from the
holes. With regard to the majority carriers, i.e. the holes in the P-region,
however, the field is an accelerating one. It sweeps the electrons into the N-
region.
Fig. 9.21 Construction of selenium (Se) photovoltaic cell.

Fig. 9.22 Separation of light induced carriers in the field of a P-N junction.
Similarly, the holes are swept by the field out of the N-region into the P-
region. With regard to the majority carriers, i.e. the holes in the P-region,
however, the field of the junction is a decelerating one. These carriers stay in
their respective regions, i.e. the holes remain in the P-region and the electrons in
the N-region as shown in Fig. 9.22. As a result, excess majority carriers
accumulate in their respective regions. The electrons and holes build up charges
in their respective regions, and a potential difference called the photo-emf
appears. This photo-emf builds up non-linearly with increasing luminous flux,
i.e. irradiance as shown in Fig. 9.23(a). The solar cell operates in the quadrant
where IP is negative and V is positive as shown in Fig. 9.23(b). Under increasing
levels of illumination, the curve is progressively shifted downwards.
Fig. 9.23 Photovoltaic diode: (a) photo-emf as a function of light flux and (b)
current-voltage characteristic.
When a semiconductor photovoltaic cell is connected to a load RL, a
photocurrent IP begins to flow as shown in Fig. 9.24.
The photocurrent is given by
………(9.5)
where
Eph is the photo-emf
Rph is the internal resistance of the photovoltaic cell.
Fig. 9.24 Connections of photovoltaic cell.

Applications of the photovoltaic cell
The photovoltaic solar cell has become the workhorse for producing
spacecraft power.
It is used to recharge batteries for satellite and earth communication
equipment.
Disadvantages of the photovoltaic cell
It has a poor frequency response.

The integral sensitivity is strongly dependent on temperature.
9.7 PHOTOTRANSISTORS
The top surface of a bipolar phototransistor has a window or lens so that its base
region can be exposed to incident radiation. Photons incident on the base
generate electron-hole pairs which diffuse towards the collector junction. The
collector field forces the electrons from the base to the collector where they
augment the base current. The holes remain in the base and raise the forward
voltage across the emitter junction—a factor which stimulates the injection of
holes in this junction, thereby building up the collector current.
The above chain of events applies when the phototransistor is of N-P-N type
with no base connection as shown in Fig. 9.25(a). This makes it a two-terminal
device. The emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is
reverse biased. The output characteristics of the phototransistor are shown in
Fig. 9.25(b). Each curve corresponds to a particular level of irradiance (luminous
flux). The dashed portions of the curves represent the electric breakdown. The
phototransistor dark current is proportional to the junction area and the perimeter
at the surface. Careful processing of the transistor chip as shown in Fig. 9.25(c)
is required to minimise the dark current and maintain a maximum light
sensitivity.
Fig. 9.25 Phototransistor: (a) N-P-N type with no base connection, (b) output
characteristics, and (c) structure.
9.8 LIGHT-ACTIVATED SCRS (LASCRS) OR PHOTO SCRS
A variation in an SCR is a light-activated SCR (LASCR). Light passing through
a translucent window in the package containing the device acts as a trigger pulse.
The LASCR behaves as an SCR as shown in Fig. 9.26. It is very sensitive to
temperature, applied voltage, and the rate of change of applied voltage.
Fig. 9.26 Structure and symbol of a photo SCR (LASCR).
Principle of operation of LASCR
With proper bias, photons incident on the P1 base region create electron-hole
pairs in that region, and these diffuse towards the P-N junction i.e. J1. On
entering the reverse-biased J2 region, the electrons reduce the resistance of this
region. Consequently, the voltage applied to the SCR is redistributed. The
voltage across the J2 junction reduces to an extent and simultaneously the
voltages across J1 and J3 junctions rise. This, however, enhances carrier
injection into J1 and J3 junctions. The injected carriers arrive at the J2 junction,
its resistance decreases further, and another voltage redistribution takes place.
With such an enhancement in carrier injection in J1 and J3 junctions and with
the current building up cumulatively in an avalanche fashion, the SCR turns on.
The greater the luminous flux incident on the SCR, the lower the voltage that
is needed to turn on the device as may be seen from the characteristics curves
shown in Fig. 9.27. After turn-on, a small voltage is established across the
device as usual and nearly all of the supply voltage is dropped across the load
RL. Sometimes, a gate electrode is made to one of the base regions (P1 or N2).
By applying a dc voltage to the gate electrode, it is possible to bring down the
turn-on voltage. The turn-on action is accomplished by the incident radiation as
before.
The LASCR is used to drive a higher power device, usually another SCR.
Fig. 9.27 Current-voltage characteristics of a photo SCR (LASCR).
Advantages of LASCRs
The LASCRs have the following advantages:
Low power drain in the ON-state region

Small size
Free from sparking
A short turn-on time
9.9 OPTOCOUPLERS OR OPTOISOLATORS

The optocoupler, also called the optoisolator, consists of a photo-emitting device
such as an LED (infrared LED) whose flux is coupled through a transparent
insulation material (e.g. air, glass, or optical fibre) to some sort of junction
detector such as a photoconductor, photodiode, phototransistor, photo FET,
phototriac, photo SCR or integrated photodiode/amplifier in a single package. In
other words, an optoisolator cell is the combination of a light source and a
photodetector. Various combinations of these elements result in a wide variety of
input characteristics, output characteristics, and coupled characteristics. A
significant advantage is its high isolation resistance (in the order of 1011 W)
between its input and output. Isolation capacitance of an optocoupler (in the
order of 0.3–2.5 pF) is a parasitic capacitance from input to output through the
dielectric. Isolation voltage (in the order of 1500–50,000 V) is the maximum
voltage which the dielectric can expect to withstand.
Optocouplers use an infrared input with a variety of output detectors.
Characteristics such as coupling efficiency which is the effect of infrared current
on the output device, speed of response, voltage drops, current capability, and V-
I curves vary from model to model. These characteristics must be considered,
especially when performing substitutions. The only common characteristic is
that the input is dielectrically isolated from the output. Common symbols for
optoisolators are shown in Fig. 9.28.
Fig. 9.28 Symbols of optocouplers (optoisolators).
The optocoupler was designed as a solid state device to replace mechanical
relays and pulse transformers as it offer a high value of isolation resistance
between the input and the output. The following are the improvements offered
by optocouplers:
Faster operating speeds

Small size
No bounce action
No moving parts to stick
Insensitivity to vibration and shock
Compatible with many logic and microprocessor circuits
Frequency response from dc to 100 kHz
The input stage of an optocoupler consists of an efficient GaAs infrared emitting

diode. The output stage of the basic optocoupler is a phototransistor. Figure 9.29
has a thin layer of infrared transmitting glass between the input and the output
stages. Figure 9.30
Fig. 9.29 Glass-isolated optocoupler configuration.
Fig. 9.30 Air-isolated optocoupler configuration.

shows an air gap to attain greater electrical isolation. Regardless of whether an
air gap or infrared transmitting glass is used to separate the input and the output
circuits, the operating characteristics remain basically identical.
Applications of optoisolators (optocouplers)
The optoisolators are used to interface different types of logic circuits. They are
also used in level and position sensing circuits.
Advantages of optoisolators
The optoisolators have the following advantages:
There is no electrical connection between the input and the output.

The bandwidth is very large extending from zero to 1014 GHz.
The optical section of the device controls the output signal.
The optical channel is highly immune to interference that may arise
owing to external electromagnetic fields.
Disadvantages of optoisolators
The optoisolators have the following disadvantages:
The power drain is relatively high because energy conversion takes place
twice, and the efficiency of each of them is low.
Optocouplers are subjected to temperature variations and radiation
effects.
The inherent noise level is relatively high.
There is a noticeable tendency to age, and therefore, an impairment in
performance with time takes place.
9.10 SOLID STATE RELAYS (LIGHT OPERATED RELAYS)

The junction type photoconductors have relatively small dissipation capacities
compared to the bulk type photoconductive cells. Consequently, the junction
type photoconductors usually require some stages of amplification to provide a
control function. The photo relay as shown in Fig. 9.31 is used as a switch to
apply power to a lamp load when the actuating light focused on the photo cell
goes off. The relay contact (NO) is normally open (when the relay is not
energized). The conductivity of the photo cell increases on the incidence of light.
The resistance of the photo cell and R1 form a voltage divider which makes the
base-emitter junction of transistor Q forward biased.
Fig. 9.31 Circuit diagram of a solid state relay (photo relay).
The increase in light intensity on the photoconductive cell increases its
conductivity. The voltage developed across the photoconductive cell is
inadequate to drive transistor Q. Therefore, the relay does not energize, i.e. the
relay remains cut off when light falls on the photoconductive cell. No ac power
is applied to the lamp. However, when the illumination on the cell goes off, the
resistance of the cell increases drastically. Consequently, an increase in voltage
drop across the cell enhances the forward voltage to the input of transistor Q.
This increases the base current and the collector current. The increased collector
current energizes the relay coil and the ‘normally open contact’ of the relay
closes, applying ac power to the lamp. If the load is a street light, it will
automatically turn on after sunset and turned off after sunrise. Resistor R2 is
used to control the level of light desired to turn off the load power.
9.10.1 Solid State Relay Using Optocouplers
In Fig. 9.32, the optocoupler is operated as a solid state relay so as to allow a
logic input of 5 V to control a 230 V ac load. The LEDs of the two optocouplers
are fed through a power frequency square wave generator.
Fig. 9.32 Circuit diagram of a solid state relay using optocouplers (triggering
circuit of an SCR using optocouplers).
When an input pulse turns on the LED of the optocoupler-1, its light activates
the LASCR of the same optocoupler-1. In turn, this produces a trigger pulse for
the load carrying SCR T1. This is how an isolated control over the positive half-
cycle of the line voltage can be obtained. The resistor RS and capacitor CS form
the suppression (snubber) network for any induction in the load. The load
current during the negative half-cycle flows when optocoupler-2 gets activated.
During the negative half-cycle of the line voltage, the logic input to the LED of
optocoupler-2 will be reversed.
This isolation system eliminates the drawbacks of the coupling transformer.
9.11 OPTICAL FIBRE
Fibre optic systems offer an alternative method for transmitting information and
sensing physical events. A basic fibre optic system as shown in Fig. 9.33
consists of a transmitter (light source with modulator or driver), a propagation
medium (optical fibre with connectors or splices), and a receiver (light detector
and preamplifier). The light source may either be an LED or an injection laser
diode. Information is sent as intensity modulation of the light produced by the
transmitter. The optical signal is referred to as the carrier. The system illustrated
in Fig. 9.33, called the simplex system, is one-directional. A duplex system
provides a two way communication and requires two such links. The losses in a
point-to-point fibre optic system comprise the insertion losses at the input, the
output, the connectors, and the transmission loss. The transmission loss is
proportional to the cable length. Optical fibres do not pick up electromagnetic
interference because they carry signals as light. A major attraction of optical
fibres is that they can carry information at very high speeds over long distances.
The optical communication frequencies range from 300 to 600 tetrahertz (THz).
Presently, the fibre optic systems operate in the range from 0.6 mm to 1.6 mm.
Fig. 9.33 Block diagram of a basic fibre-optic link.

9.11.1 Materials of Optical Fibre
Most fibres are made of glass, plastic, or plastic-clad glass. Some special fibres
are made of other materials, such as exotic fluoride compounds. Standard fibres
are flexible but somewhat stiff. Flexibility depends on the fibre diameter. Optical
fibres are often compared to human hairs. These thin glass or plastic strands,
with diameters between 0.003 mm and
0.5 mm, conduct the modulated carrier from the transmitter to the detector.
Many fibres may be bundled together, or they may be used individually.
Virtually, all communications use individual optical fibres. Each fibre is
optically separate from the other, although many separate fibres may be housed
in a common cable. The choice of the proper optical cable to conduct the
modulated optical carrier depends on the following parameters:
Fibre light-guiding ability

Attenuation
Bandwidth
Cross-section of the cable fibre
Cable configuration (fibre connectors).
9.11.2 Characteristics of Fibre Optic Systems

Fibre optic systems offer a number of distinct advantages over the wire or radio
systems. The reasons for preferring them in communication are described below.
Low transmission losses
This means that the light signal in the optical guide suffers little loss between the
transmitter and the receiver.
Greater bandwidth
A greater bandwidth means that more information can be conveyed compared to
that conveyed by wire or radio communication systems. This property coupled
with low fibre attenuation provides long distance, high-data-rate transmission
links.
Immunity to inductive interference and crosstalk
As the fibre is a dielectric, the changing electric or magnetic fields do not induce
interfering signals. The optical fibre does not act like an antenna to pick up
radio-frequency and electromagnetic interference. Consequently, crosstalk,
which is the coupling of information from one pair of copper wires to another
pair nearby, is virtually non-existent in optical fibre cables. This results in noise-
free transmission. The fibre cable is also not susceptible to lightning even when
used overhead.
Lower weight and less bulky cable
Optical fibres have very small diameters which are often no greater than the
diameter of a human hair. Hence, even when such fibres are covered with
protective coatings they are far smaller in cross-section and much lighter than
the corresponding copper cables. This permits increased transmission capacity in
underground conduits. The reduction in size and weight makes optical cable
ideal for communication links in aircraft and ships.
Excellent signal confinement
This occurs because the optical guide is designed to trap the optical
electromagnetic wave within the fibre. Hence, external electric and magnetic
fields are virtually non-existent.
Electrical isolation
Optical fibres which are fabricated from glass, or sometimes a plastic polymer,
are electrical insulators and, therefore, they do not exhibit earth loop and
interface problems. Optical fibre transmission is ideally suited for
communication in electrically hazardous environments as the fibres create no
arcing or spark hazards in abrasions or short-circuits.
9.11.3 Advantages of the Optical Fibre
The advantages offered by the optical fibre are summarised below:
(i) Propagated light signals have no interference with electrical noise.
(ii) The optical fibre can withstand a lot of environmental hazards and has a
longer life than that of the copper wire.
(iii) The attenuation of signals in optical fibres is much less than that in coaxial
cables or twisted pairs of copper cables.
(iv) The speed of transmission is very fast as the signals are carried by light.
(v) The optical fibre cable is more economical than the conventional copper
cable.
(vi) There is no interference of radiation with other systems as optical fibres
are non-conductive and non-inductive.
(vii) Communication is more secure with optical systems as ideally there is no
crosstalk.
(viii) Fibre materials in raw state are available in abundance.
(ix) The channel capacity of fibres being large, the frequency of the carrier
light waves is very high. Hence, a large number of speech signal channels
can be accomplished in the fibres as the bandwidth is larger than that of a
wire transmission system.
9.11.4 Applications of Optical Fibres
The application areas of fibre optic systems are growing rapidly. Some of these
areas are enumerated below:
(i) Transmission of signals within ships and aircraft.
(ii) Links among computers and high-resolution video terminals.
(iii) Connections between the telephone network and the antennas for mobile
telephone services.
(iv) Local area networks operating at high speeds or over large areas, and the
backbone systems connecting slower local area networks.
(v) High-speed interconnections between computers and peripheral devices, or
between computers, or even within segments of single large computers.
(vi) Portable communication equipment for battlefield use.
(vii) Cables for remote news-gathering equipment.
(viii) Illumination of wounds inside the human body.
(ix) Medical endoscopy, bloodless surgery, retinal welding, and in laser
opthalmoscope.
(x) Transfer of infrared energy from the source to the point of application of
heat.
Fibre optics also find use in ultraviolet region for spectrophotometric work.
9.11.5 Working Principle of the Optical Fibre (Light Guiding)
The working of the optical fibre depends on the principles of optics and the
interaction of light with matter. Light can be seen either as electromagnetic
waves, or as photons, i.e. quanta of electromagnetic energy. The simplest fibre
type consists of a cylindrical core of glass (silica) or plastic with index of
refraction n1, surrounded by a concentric layer of glass or plastic of index n2 as
shown in Fig. 9.34.
Fig. 9.34 Basic structure of a step-index fibre.

The index of refraction of a material is defined as
n = speed of light in vacuum/speed of light in the material
The index of refraction ranges from 1.45 to 1.55 for silica glass. Hence, light
travels approximately 33% slower in silica than in air. The second layer is called
the cladding, and has a refractive index less than that of the core by a few per
cent. Additional layers, called buffers, are added to protect the cladding and to
strengthen the fibre.
Optical power coupled into the fibre core is prevented from escaping the core
by being totally reflected at the core boundary. Therefore, the light is guided
along the fibre core. In Fig. 9.35(a), a light ray is directed towards a boundary at
an angle q1. Some of the light is reflected at the same angle q1. The rest of the
light crosses the boundary into the second medium as a refracted ray which
travels at an angle q2 as shown in the figure. According to the Snell’s law
n1 sin q1 = n2 sin q2………(9.6)
For this illustration n2 > n1, so that q2 > q1.
Thus, it is seen that one part of the light is reflected at the boundary. The rest
is lost owing to refraction. The objective is to eliminate the loss of light power
owing to refraction. For light rays that are directed into a material with a lower
refractive index, there is a certain angle of incidence for which the refracted
angle is 90o. This specific angle of incidence shown in Fig. 9.35(b) is called the
critical angle qc. At angles of incidence greater than qc , total internal reflection
of light occurs at the core–cladding boundary in a fibre as shown in Fig. 9.35(c).
Therefore, light rays admitted to the fibre core only within a specified range of
incident angles are guided by the fibre. This range defines an acceptance cone
which is illustrated in Fig. 9.36. This cone is specified by the numerical aperture
(NA) given by
………(9.7)
where q is the cone’s half-angle. For most fibres, the cladding index is only a
few per cent smaller than that for the core, therefore, Eq. (9.7) may be
approximated as
………(9.8)
where D = n1 – n2.
The step index fibres have NA values between 0.2 and 0.6.
Fig. 9.35 Reflection and refraction of light waves at a boundary between two
different materials for light incident at an angle (a) less than the critical
angle, (b) at the critical angle, and (c) greater than the critical angle.
Fig. 9.36 Acceptance cone for a step index fibre.

9.11.6 Fibre Optic Cable
A cable structure protects the optical fibres from mechanical damage and
environmental degradation, eases handling of the small fibres and isolates them
from mechanical stresses that could occur in installation or operation. This cable
resembles externally the conventional metal cables, and uses some materials and
jacketing technology hired from copper wire cables. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
sheaths are common on both fibre optic and coaxial cables used inside the
buildings, but fibre cables are brightly coloured. Polyethylene (PE) is used on
both metal and fibre cables to protect them against the environmental rigours of
the underground burial or aerial installation.
Plenum cables are special intra-building cables made of materials that retard
the spread of flame and produce little smoke. The word ‘plenum’ means air
handling spaces, including the space above suspended ceilings and below
elevated floors, as well as heating and ventilation ducts. The construction of a
single fibre plenum cable is shown in Fig. 9.37. The optical fibre must be
strengthened with strands of Kevlar strength member (Kevlar is a registered
trademark of DuPont, Inc.) and protected by an inner sheath or jacket before
Fig. 9.37 Structure of a single fibre cable.

the outer sheath layer is provided. The need for such special materials makes the
cable relatively expensive.
9.11.7 Splices and Connectors
Splices as shown in Fig. 9.38 are used where junctions are permanent or where
the lower loss in splices is a critical requirement. For example, splices are made
in long cable runs if there is no need of disconnecting the cable segments, and
connectors, if used instead, would reduce maximum transmission distances
because of losses occurring in them. Splices offer better mechanical
characteristics for outdoor locations.
Fig. 9.38 Rotary or polished-ferrule splice.
Fibre optic connectors and splices are interchangeable. Connectors as shown
in
Fig. 9.39 are normally used at the ends of systems to join cables for transmitters
and receivers. Connectors are used in patch panels where outdoor cables enter a
building and have their junctions with cables that distribute signals within the
building.
Fig. 9.39 A simplified generic fibre connector with coupling receptacle or

adapter.
1. A light emitting diode is
(a) a display device.
(b) an amplifying device.
(c) a storage device.
2. Radiation emitted by an LED can be seen in the
(a) ultraviolet region.
(b) visible spectrum.
(c) visible as well as the infrared region.
(d) infrared region.
3. Emission of light in an LED is due to
(a) generation of electromagnetic radiation.
(b) emission of electrons.
(c) conversion of heat energy into light energy.
(d) the photovoltaic effect.
4. In a photoemissive device the number of electrodes is
(a) four.
(b) three.
(c) two.
(d) six.
5. Laser light is produced by
(a) stimulated emission.
(b) spontaneous emission.
(c) electricity.
(d) black magic.
6. A laser diode can be fabricated using
(a) silicon.
(b) germanium.
(c) gallium arsenide.
(d) aluminium.
7. Which of the following statements about the difference between
semiconductor lasers and LEDs are true?
(a) Lasers emit light only if the drive current is above a threshold value.
(b) Lasers emit higher power at the same drive current.
(c) Output from LEDs spreads out over a broader angle.
(d) All of the above.
8. The power consumption of an LCD compared to an LED is
(a) equal.
(b) more.
(c) less.
9. The photoconductive bulk effect cells have
(a) one junction.
(b) no junction.
(c) two junctions.
10. The conduction in photoelectric devices is controlled by
(a) an external source of electric supply.
(b) photo generated electron-hole pairs.
(c) photo bombardment.
(d) the extra energy imparted owing to heating.
11. The conduction in semiconductor devices can be controlled by the amount
of light falling on their surfaces, and such devices are known as
(a) photoelectric relays.
(b) photovoltaic cells.
(c) photosensitive devices.
(d) light emitting diodes.
12. Photoconductive devices are made of a
(a) semiconductor material.
(b) radioactive material.
(c) highly conductive material.
(d) highly insulating material.
13. LDRs are
(a) photovoltaic devices.
(b) radioactive devices.
(c) photoemissive devices.
(d) photoresistive devices.
14. The solar cell is a type of
(a) photovolatic device.
(b) photoconductive device.
(c) photoemissive device.
(d) electromotive device.
15. In a solar cell, the open-circuit voltage is produced as the sun’s radiation
falls on it because
(a) majority carriers flow across the junction.
(b) minority carriers flow across the junction.
(c) carrier recombination takes place near the junctions.
(d) depletion layer gets reduced.
16. The typical value of open-circuit voltage of a solar cell is
(a) 10 mV.
(b) 1000 mV.
(c) 0.5 V.
(d) 1 V.
17. A photodiode is used in reverse bias because
(a) majority of electron-hole pairs swept are reversed across the junction.
(b) only one side is illuminated.
(c) reverse current is small compared to photocurrent.
(d) reverse current is large compared to photocurrent.
18. When a photodiode in reverse bias is kept in dark condition, the current
flowing through the device corresponds to
(a) maximum value of the current which can flow through the device.
(b) zero.
(c) normal value of the current through the device.
(d) value of the reverse saturation current.
19. The general connection for a phototransistor is
(a) common emitter configuration.
(b) common collector configuration.
(c) common base configuration.
(d) any of the above.
20. In a phototransistor, the base current is
(a) set by a bias voltage.
(b) directly proportional to light.
(c) inversely proportional to light.
21. In a phototransistor, the photocurrent is generated at
(a) either of the junctions.
(b) the emitter-base junction.
(c) the collector-base junction.
(d) both the junctions.
22. The LASCR is a type of
(a) radioactive device.
(b) photoemissive device.
(c) electromotive device.
(d) semiconductor photoelectric switching element.
23. The essential components of any fibre optic communication system are
(a) light source and cable.
(b) light source, fibre, and receiver.
(c) fibre and receiver.
(d) fibres only.
24. Optical fibres are made of
(a) ultra pure glass.
(b) plastic.
(c) glass coated with plastic.
25. Optical fibres, unlike wires, are immune to
(a) signal losses.
(b) electromagnetic interference.
(c) high frequency transmission.
26. The major advantage of the optical fibres for long distance communication
is its
(a) small diameter.
(b) nonmetallic character.
(c) low loss.
(d) high-speed signal capacity.
27. The isolation resistance between the input and the output of an optocoupler
is
(a) low.
(b) very low.
(c) high.
28. One application of fibre optics is in
(a) communication systems.
(b) colour television sets.
(c) black and white television sets.
(d) tape recorders.
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. LEDs require warming-up time.
2. For best performance, emitters (LEDs) should be biased from a voltage
source rather than a current source.
3. The output of a laser is monochromatic.
4. The lifetime of laser is greater than that of an LED.
5. The liquid crystal is a passive type of display.
6. The power consumption of an LCD decreases in direct proportion to the
driving frequency.
7. In darkness, the photoemissive devices emit electrons.
8. In darkness, the resistance of an LDR is very high.
9. Photoresistors are generally made of silicon.
10. An LDR operates on the voltage mode.
11. Photodiodes are usually used in the reverse-biased condition.
12. In darkness, the reverse saturation current flowing through a photodiode is
very high.
13. The current in a photodiode is directly proportional to the photon.
14. A photovoltaic cell is a reverse-biased photodiode.
15. A photovoltaic cell operates on the current mode.
16. The energy contained in a photon of light is proportional to the frequency,
i.e. the colour.
17. The action of a phototransistor does not depend on the light flux.
18. The injection diode usually refers to the semiconductor laser diode.
19. The greater the intensity and higher the frequency of light, the greater is
the diode current.
20. The surface leakage current of a photodiode is 100 times its bulk leakage.
21. In an optocoupler, the input is dielectrically isolated from the output.
22. Optical fibres can pick up electromagnetic interference.
23. Crosstalk is virtually non-existent in optical fibre cables.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) Describe the mechanism by which light increases the conductivity of a
bulk-type photoconductive cell.
(b) List the usual materials found in these cells.
(c) Identify the material which is considered as a drawback.
2. (a) Explain the process by which light controls the flow of current in a
reverse-biased photodiode.
(b) Justify the name photodiode.
3. (a) Explain the construction and working principle of LEDs. (WBDEE
1999)
(b) What are the materials used in the construction of LEDs?
4. (a) Define stimulated and spontaneous emission.
(b) Appraise the formation of a laser beam. Explain how a semiconductor
laser diode operates.
(c) State the demerits of the semiconductor laser diode and explain how it
differs from an LED.
5. (a) What is an LCD? Mention its allowable frequency range.
(b) Describe its construction and name its applications.
6. (a) Why is a photodiode also called an LDR?
(b) Illustrate the principle of operation of a photoconductive type diode.
(c) Why is a photovoltaic type diode also called a solar cell?
(d) Explain the phenomenon ‘dark current’ with respect to a
photoconductive cell.
7. (a) Draw the structure of a phototransistor and explain its principle of
working.
(b) What are the advantages of a phototransistor over a photodiode?
(WBDEE 1998)
8. (a) How does the LASCR work? List its merits.
(b) Enumerate the basic principle of the optocoupler.
(c) Draw a neat circuit diagram for the isolation required between a
thyristor and its firing circuit either using a pulse transformer or using an
optocoupler and also explain the operation of the circuit used. (WBDETC
1997)
9. (a) Explain the characteristics of fibre optics and the reasons for their
preference in communication systems. (WBDEE 1998)
(b) What are the main sections of an optical fibre?
(c) State a few applications of optical fibres.
10. (a) Explain how light is guided in an optical fibre.
(b) Mention some of the advantages of optical fibres.
Chapter 11
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER (PLC)
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) was introduced in the early 1970s.
Before that humans were the main method for controlling a system. It replaced
the relay-based control systems, which permitted electrical power to be turned
ON and OFF without using a mechanical switch. Relays were also being used to
make simple logical control decisions. The PLC is today the most common
choice for controlling systems, machines and processes. The PLC is a digital-
based electronic control device with a programmable memory for storing
instructions specific to a control function, such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic.
The PLCs have also found wide acceptance in industrial automation, which
enables machines, installations, and facilities to operate independently. Other
examples of automation are traffic automation, railway automation, office
automation, etc.
The PLC is basically comprised of a Central Processing Unit (CPU),
Input/Output
(I/O) interfaces, and a control programming language.
Initially, the PLC was introduced to replace relay logic, but its ever-increasing
range of functions means that it is finding use in many and more complex
applications. As the structure of a PLC is based on the same principles as those
employed in computer architecture, it is capable of performing not only the relay
switching tasks but also other applications as enumerated above including the
processing of analog signals.
11.2 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

A PLC is a user friendly, microprocessor-based specialised computer that
performs control functions of different types, and of different levels of
complexity. In other words, a programmable logic controller is an event-driven
device, which means that an event taking place in the field will result in an
operation or output taking place.
A personal computer (PC) can be made into a programmable logic controller if
some means can be provided for the computer to receive information from input
sensing devices such as pushbuttons or switches. A program is needed to process
the inputs and decide the means of turning OFF and ON the load devices.
Essentially, a PLC operator draws the lines and devices of ladder diagrams with
laptop/PC. The resulting drawing is converted into computer machine language
and runs as a user program.
A person who has a knowledge of relay logic systems, can master the major
PLCs functions which include coils, contacts, timers, and counters.
11.2.1 Functions of PLC
The function of PLC is to monitor crucial process parameters and adjust

process operations accord ingly. In other words, PLC controls
manufacturing, and industrial processes such as robots, assembly lines.
Monitoring process parameters and adjusting process operations can be
programmed and controlled.
The PLC operates any system which has output (load) devices that turn
ON and OFF (known as discrete or digital outputs). A program is be
needed to process the inputs and decide the means of turning OFF and
ON load devices. The PLC can also operate any system with variable (i.e.
analog) outputs.
11.2.2 Applications of PLC
PLC is used in machine tool industry where Computer Numerical

Controls (CNC) have been used in the past.
Processes like (i) filling and capping of bottles, (ii) printing of
newspapers,
(iii) assembly of automo biles, etc. are carried out by PLCs.
PLC is used in process control, e.g. a petroleum refinery.
PLCs are used in annunciators for the working of the plant that could be
monitoring pressure, temperature, motor and valve status.
PLCs are also used in controlling electrical and mechanical machines
within a sequence of values of time, pressure, temperature, level, etc.
11.2.3 Advantages of Programmable Logic Controllers over

the Conventional Relay Type of Control
The advantages of PLC are as follows:
Flexibility
A PLC can easily run different electronically-controlled production machines.
Each of the machines under PLC control would have its own distinct program.
But in the past, each electronically-controlled production machine used to need
its own controller.
Implementing changes and correcting errors
In a wired relay logic panel, any program alteration requires much time for
rewiring of panels and devices. The PLC program can be changed from a
keyboard sequence in a matter of minutes if the sequence design is necessary to
be changed. No rewiring is required for a PLC-controlled system.
If a programming error occurs in a PLC-controlled ladder diagram, this error
can be corrected quickly.
Large number of contacts
Assume that a panel-wired relay has four contacts and all are in use. If a change
in design requires three more additional contacts in that relay, time would be
needed to procure and install either a new relay containing seven contacts or a
relay contact block.
A PLC has a large number of contacts for each coil available in its
programming. If three more contacts are keyed in, then all three contacts would
be automatically available. As many as one hundred contacts can be used from
one relay.
Lower cost
A PLC contains numerous relays, timers, counters, sequencers. Advanced
technology makes it possible to condense more functions into smaller and less
expensive packages.
Pilot running
Pilot running
Conventional relay systems have been tested in the factory for getting the best
test results and this is very time consuming. On the other hand, a PLC-
programmed circuit can be prerun and evaluated in the laboratory. The program
can be tested, observed, and modified if needed. This saves valuable factory
time.
Visual observation
The correct operation or misoperation of a circuit can be directly visualised on a
laptop or CRT screen. Logic paths light up on the screen as they are energised.
Troubleshooting can be done more quickly during visual observations.
Speed of operation
The operational speed for the PLC program is very fast whereas the conventional
relays take an unacceptably long time to actuate.
Reliability and maintainability
Generally, solid state devices are more reliable than the conventional relays (i.e.
electromechanical relays) and timers. The PLC, made of solid state components,
has very high reliability. Consequently, maintenance costs of solid state
components are low.
Simplicity of ordering control system components
In designing a wired logic relay panel, much time is needed for procuring 20
different relays and timers from 10 different suppliers. On the other hand, PLC
can be delivered with all the counters, relays, and other components on a single
delivery date.
Documentation
An immediate printout of the actual circuit in operation at a given moment is
made by PLC. There is no need to look for the blueprint of the circuit in remote
files. Often, the file prints for the wired logic relay panel are not properly kept
up-to-date. The underlying reason is that people on late shifts do not always
record panel alterations made when the office area is locked up for the night.
Security
A change in PLC program cannot be performed unless the PLC is properly
unlocked.
Ease of changes by reprogramming
Ease of changes by reprogramming
Any changes in PLC program can be reprogrammed quickly and easily.
11.2.4 Disadvantage of Programmable Logic Controllers over
the Conventional Relay Type of Control
The only disadvantage of PLC is that the use of PLC is limited to some process
environments such as high heat, inter ference with electronic devices, and
vibration.
11.2.5 Comparison of Data Processing Computer System with the
Process Control Computer System (i.e. System with Logic
Controller)
Data processing computer system Process control computer system
This type of computer system Of course, this computer system processes data, but its main function is to control manufacturing
processes reams of data. and industrial processes. In other words, PLC, nonetheless, is built for a specific purpose.
This is a nonevent driven system. This is an event-driven system.
The input peripherals are the This system may have a keyboard. Input peripherals and their control switches are sensors i.e. heat
keyboard, light pen, and mouse. sensors, sound sensors, light sensors, motion sensors, etc.
The output peripherals are video

The output peripherals such as video display terminals and printers may be attached, the process
display terminal, printer, and
control computer primarily controls devices like motors, solenoids, lights, and heaters.
plotter.
The software of PCs is designed

Its software is designed for a particular job.
for different jobs.
A PC is relatively difficult to
PLC is relatively easy to diagnose and trouble-shoot
diagnose and trouble-shoot.
Data processing computer system

Process control computer system is used for real-time control applications.
is used for batch processing.
The PC is less costly. The PLC is more costly.
11.2.6 Factors to be Considered in Selecting a PLC

The following factors need to be considered in selecting a PLC:
Flexibility/Expandability
A PLC system must be able to grow with industrial needs. Hence most PLCs are
designed with flexibility and expandability, in mind. Memory, I/O, and system
expansion along with the communi cation infrastructure that goes with them,
should also be taken into account.
Cost
It is important to consider, especially when installing networked PLC systems,
not only the initial cost of the PLCs, but installation, maintenance, and training
costs as well.
Serviceability/Supportability
Serviceability and supportability are the important factors to consider. Usually a
PLC is equipped with adequate self-diagnosis. Once the problem is found, it can
be corrected with minimal effort and time. Vendor support with replacement
parts should be available for a quick turnaround.
Training and documentation
Training, user manuals, software support, and the like are also important and
must accompany any hardware product.
11.3 FUNCTIONAL BLOCK

DIAGRAM OF PLC
Figure 11.1(a) shows a simplified block diagram of a PLC system. The detailed
functional block diagram of a typical PLC system, as shown in Fig. 11.1(b), can
be divided into four parts:
(i) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
(ii) Input/Output (I/O) modules (Interfaces)
(iii) Programming device
(iv) Racks and Chassis
11.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU) or PLC Processor
The CPU is the brain of a PLC system shown in Fig. 11.1(a), where the ladder
logic is stored and processed. The PLC processor is a microprocessor with a
memory system, circuits to store and retrieve information from memory, and
other circuits for communicating with a PC or an industrial computer
programming terminal. The CPU looks after communication, program
execution, memory operation, and inter-communications among other parts of
the PLC system. It also controls the other automation components.
Three kinds of CPU are available in the market for (i) small-to-medium sized
applications, (ii) medium-to-large applications, and (iii) exceptionally
demanding requirements and additional communication tasks. A processor used
in a PLC is either a 1-bit processor or a word processor. The 1-bit processor
deals with logic operations, but the word processor is used for (i) processing text
and numerical data,
(ii) performing calculations, (iii) controlling and recording, (iv) processing of
signals in binary code, etc. The components of a CPU are as follows:
Microprocessor — It carries out all the mathematical and logic

operations involved in a PLC.
Memory — It holds the system software as well as the user program
translated from a ladder diagram to a binary form. Today, flash ROM is
being increasingly implemented for storing system programs and data
that should not be altered. The ladder program and data are stored into
RAM. Such information and data stored in a RAM can be retrieved
and/or altered. User memory is divided into blocks having special
functions like storing of input and output status.
Power supply — This unit converts ac to various operational dc voltages.
It also filters and regulates the dc voltages for ensuring proper CPU
operation. Most PLC processors operate either at 24 V dc or 230 V ac.
PLCs also operate on +5 V and –5V dc supply.
Two power supplies are needed in a PLC system. The first one provides
power to field devices as well as output loads to function. The second power
supply, acting as an internal module of the PLC system, caters to the internal
direct connections for operating the logic circuitry of the processor with I/O
assemblies.
Fig. 11.1(a) Simplified block diagram of a PLC system.
Fig. 11.1(b) Block diagram of a PLC system.

11.3.2 Input/Output (I/O) Modules/Interfaces
Inputs to, and outputs from, a PLC are necessary to monitor and control a
process. The I/O modules are actually placed in an I/O rack. Each I/O module in
turn consists of
I/O groups made up of a set of terminals which are used for making field wiring
connections. The location of an input/output terminal, within a module group,
within a rack, will determine a device address. The addressing format of an I/O
terminal shown in Fig. 11.1(c) is given below:
File type. This specifies an input/output module, i.e. I for input and O for output.
Rack number. This determines the particular rack in which the module sits in.
Group number. It is a set of terminals within a rack. Typically, there will be 8
groups in a rack, i.e. 0 through 7.
Terminal number. This is the bit address for a particular terminal, input or
output.
Functions of input module
There are four functions performed by the input module as in Fig. 11.1(b):
The first task of the input module is to sense the presence or absence of
an input signal at each input terminal. The input signal selects—what
switch or sensor is ON or OFF in the process being controlled. The first
block receives the input signal from the input sensing devices such as
switch, sensor, etc.
The second task is to convert the input signal to its dc level. The signal
generated by the sensor is ac in nature. This ac signal is converted to a
suitable dc level which is stabilised with a zener diode or transistor
devices. In some cases, a dc-to-dc converter is used if the PLC input
voltage of the input module does not match the voltage value of the input
analog devices. For a low/OFF input signal, no signal is converted,
indicating OFF.
Next, the input module isolates itself from its input. The output of the
converter is not directly connected to the CPU to protect the CPU from
getting damaged. If the output of the converter were directly connected to
the CPU, the CPU would get damaged in case of open-or short-circuit
faults in the converter. In such an instance, a 230 V ac is fed back to the
CPU. The isolation is accomplished by an optoisolator. Electrical surges
will not pass through the optoisolator in either direction.
Finally, the input module produces an output voltage by output logic. The
CPU of PLC senses the output voltage through the output logic.
In Fig. 11.1(c), I : 024/01 means an input module (i.e. file type), with a rack
number 02, in group number 4, having a terminal bit address of 01. But, O :
013/03 means an output module (i.e. file type), with a rack 01, in group number
3, having a terminal bit address of 03.
Both inputs and outputs can be categorized into two basic types:
Logical
If a light bulb can only be turned ON or OFF, it is logical control. Logical values
are preferred because they allow more certainty, and simplify control. As a
result, most control applications (and PLCs) use logical inputs and outputs for
most applications.
Continuous
If the light can be dimmed to different levels, it is continuous control.
Continuous values seem more intuitive.
Fig. 11.1(c) Addressing format of I/O module in a typical PLC system.
Electrical signals generated by sensors, are passed through the input terminals
of the input module as shown in Fig. 11.1(b). In other words, the input module
terminals receive signals from wires connected to input sensors and transducers.
The output signals passing through the output terminals from the output
module, are sent to active relays, solenoids, various switching devices, motors,
and displays. In other words, the output module terminals provide output
voltages to energise actuators and indicating devices. An electronic system for
connecting I/O modules can be added to a remote location, if necessary.
There may be equal or unequal number of input and output terminals for I/O
modules. There are typically 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 equal input and output terminals
along with line and common terminals per module. However, a system module
may have 12 input and 8 output unequal terminals. The input and output
terminals for smaller (larger) systems may be included on the same (separate)
frame(s), i.e. unit(s). In larger systems, modules are placed in groups on racks
which are connected to the CPU via appropriate connector multiconductor
cables. The electrical controlling signals from the CPU to the I/O terminals are
coded and decoded electronically.
Multiple modules
A rack containing multiple modules, is necessary to set module switches for
each individual module. Each setting specifies module’s operational number in
series. Each rack group knows what numbers it should respond to by the system
of single in-line package (SIP) switch settings. In some systems, programming
instead of switches to configure I/O module settings is used. Figure 11.1(d)
shows the photographic view of an I/O module.
Fig. 11.1(d) Photographic view of an I/O module in a PLC.

Figure 11.2(a) shows the circuit for only one terminal and multiterminals of a
typical interface input module. All terminals in a given module have identical
circuits. The input signal received from the switch or sensor is converted to dc
(if the generated input signal is ac in nature). If the generated input signal is dc,
then dc-to-dc conversion within the converter block is needed.
When the pushbutton switch is closed, 230 V ac is applied to the bridge
rectifier through resistors R1 and R2. This produces a low-level 5 V dc voltage,
which is applied across the light emitting diode (LED) of the
optoisolator/optocoupler. The voltage rating of the zener diode ZD sets the
minimum level of voltage that can be detected. When the light from the LED
falls on the phototransistor, it turns ON, and the status of the pushbutton is
communicated in logic or low-level dc voltage to the CPU.
The optoisolator is sensed by a coded signal from the CPU when the output of
the isolator is ON. Each module is assigned a coded series of numbers by its
single in-line (SIP) switch settings. Each terminal number of the module is
assigned a number in consecutive order. The ON-OFF status for each number is
checked on each sweep of the input scan. The ON or OFF result is placed in
random access memory.
Necessity of using optoisolator
As the dc output of the converter is fed to the CPU through an optoisolator,
electric
surges will not pass through the optoisolator in either direction. The optoisolator
separates
Fig. 11.2(a) Circuit showing the input terminals of a typical interface input
module.
the higher ac input voltage from the logic circuits. If the dc output were fed to
the CPU directly, an input surge or circuit malfunction could reach the CPU. For
example, if a rectifier gets open circuited or short circuited, the 230 V ac supply
voltage could be fed to the CPU resulting in CPU damage. But the optoisolator
protects the CPU from this type of damage.
Typical ranges of input voltages in input modules
The ranges of input voltages used in input cards are given in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Ranges of input voltages used in input modules
Ranges of dc voltage Ranges of ac voltage
5 V 12–24 V
12–24 V 24 V
10–60 V 100–120 V
48 V 100–120 V
Function of output module

There are four functions performed by the output module as in Fig. 11.1(b):
The first task of the output module is to receive signal from the CPU by
the input logic once for each output scan if the CPU signal code matches
the assigned number of the module. If the CPU signal does not match, the
terminals of the output module will not be energised.
The second task is to isolate the CPU signal by the optoisolator. The
optoisolator protects the CPU from any erratic voltage surge which may
be produced by the output device.
Next, the output module converts the received CPU signal into either dc
or ac.
Finally, the output module drives the loads.
Figure 11.2(b) shows the circuit for only one terminal and multiterminals of a
typical interface output module. All terminals in a given module have identical
circuits. The output interface module acts as a switch to supply power from the
user power supply to operate the output. When the CPU calls for an output, a
voltage is applied across the LED of the optoisolator. The LED then emits light
which switches the phototransistor into conduction. This, in turn, switches the
triac into conduction, which, in turn, turns ON the ac motor. Since the triac
conducts in either direction, the output to the ac motor is alternating in nature.
Fig. 11.2(b) Circuit showing the output terminals of a typical interface output
module.
A dc signal from the CPU is converted to either ac or dc. The signal received
from the CPU is passed through the input logic once for each scan. If the CPU
signal code matches the assigned number of the module, the module section is
turned ON. The identification numbers of the module are again determined by
the setting of the module single in-line (SIP) switches.
As with the input modules, there are 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, and even 32 terminals or
sections. If the signal received from the CPU matches the output module
terminal during the output scan, the signal will pass through the optoisolator
which behaves like an isolation stage. If no matching signal is received by a
terminal during the output scan, the module terminal is not energised.
The optoisolator is used to protect the CPU from any erratic voltage surge
which may be produced by the output device. The isolator output is then
transmitted to converter which is either switching circuitry or an output relay.
The converter output may be either ac or dc.
Typical ranges of output voltages in output modules
The ranges of output voltages used in output cards are given in Table 11.2:
Table 11.2 Ranges of output voltages used in output modules
Ranges of dc voltage Ranges of ac voltage
5 V 12–48 V
24 V 120 V
12–48 V 230 V
11.3.3 Programming Device

The PLC has to have a programming device that provides the primary means by
which the user can communicate with the circuits of the PLC. This allows the
user to enter, edit, and
monitor programs by connecting the processor unit and allowing access to the
user memory. The programming device can be a LCD hand-held terminal or a
video display unit (VDU) with keyboard. A VDU offers the advantage of
displaying large amounts of logic on the screen, simplifying the interpretation of
the program.
The programming unit communicates with the processor via a serial or parallel
data communications link. If the programming unit is not in use, it may be
unplugged and removed. The operation of the user program will not be affected
if the programming unit is removed. A PC with appropriate software can also act
as a program terminal, making it possible to carry out the programming away
from the physical location of the PLC. When the program is finished, it is saved
to mass storage and downloaded to the PLC when required.
11.3.4 Racks and Chassis
In racks of a PLC system, several electronic cards consisting of processors, input
and output (I/O) cards with points, communications ports and other functions
necessary to the operation of a complete PLC system, are plugged in. Figure
11.2(c) shows the photographic view of racks and chassis with a typical
arrangement of different electronic cards in a PLC. Modular (Rack) PLCs can
provide customised I/O capability. Network cards can also be used in a rack.
Fig. 11.2(c) Photographic view of racks and chassis with a typical arrangement
of different electronic cards in a PLC.
11.4 MICROPROCESSOR OF A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER (PLC)
Microprocessors are devices which are designed to carry out arithmetic and logic
operations. The processor or CPU is known as microprocessor because the
complex circuitry necessary to do arithmetic and logic operations is fabricated
onto a single chip. The microprocessor in PLC receives, analyses, processes, and
sends data to the output devices through the output module.
Two factors—bit size and clock speed—determine the power of the
microprocessor. The larger the bit size, the more powerful the computer. The
clock speed determines how quickly a microprocessor can execute instructions.
Table 11.3 shows the bit size and the clock speed of the different
microprocessors.
Table 11.3 Bit size and clock speed of the different microprocessors
Microprocessor Bit size Clock speed

8085 8-bit 1 MHz
8086 16-bit 4.77 MHz

80186 16-bit 8 MHz
80286 16-bit 12.5 MHz

80386 32-bit 33 MHz
80486 32-bit 50 MHz
Pentitum 32-bit/64-bit 1.2 GHz
Pentium 4 (P4) 32-bit/64-bit 2.3 GHz
11.4.1 Principle of Operation of the CPU
The CPU accepts (reads) input data from the various sensing devices,
executes the stored user program from memory, and sends the
appropriate output commands to control devices.
A dc power source is required to produce the low level voltage used by
the CPU
and the I/O modules. This power supply can be housed in the CPU unit or
may
be a separately mounted unit, depending on the make and model of the
PLC
system.
Most CPUs contain backup batteries that keep the operating program in
storage in the event of a power failure in the plant. Typical retentive
backup time is one month to one year.
The CPU contains various electrical parts and receptacles for connecting
the cables that run to the other units as well as to operational key
switches. Typical operational key switch positions are:
OFF…System cannot be run or programmed.

RUN…This allows the system to run, but no program alterations can be
made.
DISABLE…It turns all outputs OFF or sets all outputs to the inoperable
state.
MONITOR…This turns ON the screen that displays operating information.
RUN/PROGRAM…System can run and program creation, modification,
and deletion of program can be made while it is running. In this mode,
the program cannot be completely erased (for safety) but can only be
modified. It disables outputs.
OFF/PROGRAM…System cannot run, but can be programmed or
reprogrammed.
11.5 MEMORY
Memory is mandatory in every microprocessor system. Memory is a chip that
holds both the raw data that needs to be processed and the results of processing.
Memory can even be a channel of communication between the microprocessor
and its peripherals. The memory of the PLC is organised to hold different types
of programs and data.
A RAM is a semiconductor memory which stores programs and data
temporarily. It is referred to as volatile memory as the stored data in RAM would
be lost if the system is turned off or an electrical outage occurs. RAM is used in
the PC for its primary memory or internal storage. This is a read/write memory
which is used by the CPU to keep programs, data, and intermediate results
during the executions of a program. Memory cells can be accessed randomly to
transfer information from any desired location to the other and hence the name
random access memory.
A read-only memory (ROM) is a semiconductor memory device used to store
permanent information and it performs only the read operation. It does not have
a write capability. The data and instruction are permanently stored during the
hardware production of the device. The information cannot be modified or the
new information cannot be written into it. The information stored in a ROM is
not erased when the system is switched off. Hence it is a nonvolatile memory. At
the time of turning on the system, the CPU needs the system information which
is stored in the ROM.
An unalterable program in ROM in a PLC manages the operation of the PLC.
Whatever the user program (logic scan program, i.e. user ladder logic program)
in RAM asks the PLC to perform, the operating system program is there to
perform the housekeeping chores for the PLC.
The input scan block as in Fig. 11.3(a), when called upon to operate, scans the
inputs and places the individual input statuses in RAM. After analysis, the user
ladder logic program updates the output scan block to the appropriate state.
Next, the outputs are scanned and updated. The output statuses are changed or
left alone, depending on logic analysis. The output status depends on the output
status signals of the CPU.
Fig. 11.3(a) CPU processor with scan blocks and I/O modules.
During each operating cycle, the processor reads all the inputs, takes these
values, and according to the user program energises or deenergises the outputs.
This process is known as a scan. The scan is normally a continuous process of
reading the status of inputs, evaluating the control logic, and updating the
outputs. A scan cycle is the time required for a PLC to scan its input and
generate the appropriate control responses at its outputs. Scan time varies with
program content and length.
11.5.1 Classification of Read Only Memory (ROM)
Semiconductor ROMs are manufactured with bipolar or MOS technology.
ROMs can be classified into several types which differ in the way the
information is written or programmed into the memory locations. The different
kinds of ROM are:
Mask ROM
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
Flash Memory
Mask ROM. Here the information is stored permanently into the memory chip at
the time of fabrication—hence it is called the Mask ROM. This kind of ROM is
programmed by the manufacturer according to the customer’s need. The mask is
a master pattern that is used to draw the various circuit elements on the chip
during fabrication. When the circuit elements of the chip are grown on the
silicon substrate, the pattern includes the information that will be read in the
final device.
A photographic negative, called a mask, is used to control the electrical
interconnections on this chip. The presence of a transistor connected to a
row/column junction represents a bit 1 and the absence of a transistor indicates a
bit 0. The disadvantage of this ROM is that the contents of this memory cannot
be altered.
PROM (Programmable Read-only Memory). A PROM is a ROM that can be
programmed electrically by the PROM programmer. This memory utilises an
array of memory elements like fuses. The manufacturer uses a fusible link in
series with each connection. The fuse in a PROM can be blown, and thereby
opened by passing a large flow of current. A memory link is fused open to
represent a bit 0 and when left intact it indicates a bit 1. The fusing process is
irreversible, i.e. a device can be programmed only once in its lifetime.
A PROM programmer or PROM burner is used to blow the fuses one-by-one
according to the needs of the software to be coded inside the chip. The contents
of the chip cannot be changed to update or revise the program inside due to the
effects of burning fusing elements. So a PROM chip is also referred to as OTP
(One Time Programmable) memory.
The three basic fuse technologies used in PROMs are metal links, silicon
links, and PN junction. Metal links are made of nichrome material, but the
silicon links are formed by narrow, notched strips of polycrystalline silicon. In
PN junction technology, two PN junction diodes are connected back to back.
During programming, a sudden large flow of current passes through the reverse-
connected diode of the two PN junction diodes and the other forward-biased
diode represents a data bit.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory) or UVEPROM. The
data inside this memory can be erased and the chip can be reused for other data
or programs. In other words, this kind of ROM (pronounced ‘e-prom’) is
erasable and can be reprogrammed.
The N-channel MOSFETs with isolated gate structure are used in EPROMs. The
process
of programming an EPROM involves the application of voltage which ranges
from 25 V to 50 V.
These chips are easy to spot because they have a clear quartz window in the
centre of the top of their packages. The window is covered with a label of some
kind to avoid penetration of ultraviolet light. The data inside this chip can be
erased by diffusing high intensity ultraviolet light through this window. This
erasure process can be performed repeatedly; each erasure can take as much as
20 minutes to perform. Thus, the EPROM can be altered multiple times. The
high intensity ultraviolet light causes a chemical reaction that erases the
EPROM. That is why it is also referred to as Ultraviolet EPROM (i.e.
UVEPROM). In order to reprogram an EPROM, it must be removed from the
computer, erased with ultraviolet light, and then reprogrammed on a PROM
programmer. The EPROM is more expensive than PROM, but it has the
advantage of multiple update capability.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory). Most
newer PCs now include an EEPROM (pronounced ‘e-e prom’) that can be
reprogrammed like an EPROM, but, unlike the EPROM, it does not need to be
removed from the PC to be reprogrammed. The P-channel MOSFETs with
isolated gate and erase gate structure are used in EEPROMs. The data inside this
memory needs only a higher voltage than normal voltage to erase their contents.
This higher voltage is 12 V whereas the normal voltage is 5 V. The advantage is
that EEPROMs can be erased and reprogrammed without popping them out of
their sockets. Each byte in EPROM is independently erasable and writable, i.e.
the data can be written into at any time without erasing the prior contents; only
the byte or bytes addressed are updated. The contents in EEPROM can be erased
only a finite number of times. EEPROM is more expensive than the EPROM.
Flash Memory. The data contents inside the flash memory can be erased and
reprogrammed using the normal voltages inside a PC. But in an EEPROM, to
erase the data contents inside it, the voltage required is higher than the normal
value. This memory can be programmed by a process called flashing, using
specialised software that runs on the PC. Flashing helps the user to upgrade the
computer’s BIOS easily without removing and replacing the ROM chip.
An entire flash memory can be erased in one or a few seconds, which is much
faster compared to EPROM. In addition, it is possible to erase just blocks of
memory rather than an entire chip. However, flash memory does not provide
byte-level erasure. The flash memory has the same limitation as that of the
EEPROM, that is, it can be erased and programmed only for a finite number of
times and it must be erased and programmed in blocks.
11.5.2 Memory Size
Solid state memory chips are classified according to bit size. A bit, either a 0 or a
1, occupies a given cell. Cells are arranged in 8 or 16 bits wide. When bits are
combined, they are referred to as words. An 8-bit word is called a byte. Two
bytes are often arranged side by side to form a 16-bit word. The arrangement of
1 KB memory which has 1024 locations (starting and ending addresses are 0000
H and 1023 H respectively) is shown in
Fig. 11.3(b). Each location is 8 bits wide. Figure 11.3(b) also shows a 2 kB
memory which has 1024 locations. Each location is 16 bits wide. The memory
capacity of recent PLCs is anywhere from 1 to 256 KB.
Fig. 11.3(b) Arrangement of 1 kB and KB memory size.
Controlling more processes requires more memory in PLC. As the memory
size increases, the cost of the CPU unit will also increase. Many PLC models can
have memory modules added to the existing CPU. Adding one or two new
memory modules is much less costly than replacing the entire PLC system. At
the time of purchasing a PLC, it is wise to consider memory expandability. The
memory required in a PLC depends on the
Number of inputs
Number of outputs
Complexity of the control diagram.

11.5.3 Memory Map
A memory map is a pictorial representation in which memory devices are
located in the entire range of addresses. Memory addresses provide the locations
of various memory devices in the system. If a PLC contains an 8-bit CPU
system, 16-bit address lines are available for the memory. In other words,
memory is capable of identifying 216 (65,536) memory registers, each register
with a 16-bit address. The entire memory addresses can range from 0000 H to
FFFF H. Here H stands for the hexadecimal notation. A memory map
representing how a memory is organised for a typical PLC, is illustrated in Fig.
11.3(c).
The storing of different variable data in memory is shown in Fig. 11.3(d).
The memory (RAM) in PLC is divided into two parts:
User memory
Data storage memory
User memory
This memory contains the ladder logic program. The user memory occupies
about 75% of total memory. Individual data bits can be accessed in the bit
memory which is known as User Bit Memory. These can be very useful when
keeping track of internal states that do not directly relate to an output or input.
The bit memory can be accessed with individual bits or integer words. Example
of user bit memory addresses is shown in Fig. 11.4(a). The single blackened bit
is in the third word B3:2 which is the 4th bit i.e 03. This can be addressed with
B3:2/03. As it is the 35th bit, so it could also be addressed with B3/35.
Data storage memory
It stores information needed to carry out the user program, i.e.
(i) the status of discrete input and output devices
(ii) the preset and accumulated values of counters and timers, numerical
values, sequence patterns, internal I/O relay equivalents and other
functions.
11.5.4 Memory Address
The memory in PLC is organised by data type. Program memory and Data
memory are the two types of fundamental memory. The program files hold
programs such as ladder logic. Data files are used for storing different types of
information.
Program files
For example, there is a collection of up to 1000 slots to store up to 1000 user
programs in a typical PLC as shown in Fig. 11.3(c). In a PLC-5, the first three
programs files—file 0,
Fig. 11.3(c) Memory map shows how memory is organized for a typical PLC.
file 1, and file 2—are defined by default. File 0 contains system with password
information, and should not be changed and file 1 is reserved for SFCs. The
main program will be stored in program file 2. File 2 is also available for user
programs and the PLC will run the program in file 2 by default. Other program
files, i.e. subroutine programs can be added from file 3 to file 999.
When a user creates a ladder logic program with programming software, it is
converted to a mnemonic-like form, and then transferred to the PLC, where it is
stored in a program file.
Fig. 11.3(d) Memory map showing where the variable data is stored.
Fig. 11.4(a) Example of bit memory map B3 : 2/3.

The contents of the program memory cannot be changed while the PLC is
running. If, while a program was running, it was overwritten with a new
program, serious problems could arise.
Data files
Data files are used for storing different types of information. These locations are
numbered from 0 to 999. The letter in front of the number indicates the data
type. For example, F8 shown in Fig. 11.3(d), is read as floating point numbers in
data file 8. The number that flows the first letter is the location number. For the
Input (I:) and Output (O:) files, the locations are converted to physical locations
on the PLC using rack and slot numbers. The address that can be used, will
depend upon the hardware configuration. The other memory locations are simply
slots to store data in. For example, F8:25 would indicate the 25th value in the 6th
data file which is floating point numbers.
Figure 11.3(d) also shows the format of default data files for a PLC-5 in which
the
first three data files—Output (O:), Input (I:), and Processor Status (S2:) are fixed
but all the other data files—Bits in words (B3:), Timers (T4:), Counters (C5:),
Control words (R6:), Integer numbers (N7:), and Floating point numbers (F8:),
can be moved. Multiple data files with the same data type (such as two files
having integer numbers N7: and N10:) can also exist. The other user-defined
data files having location 9 through 999 can be created. These user-defined data
files can have different data types.
11.5.5 Input Image Table
The input image table stores the status of digital inputs, which are connected to
the input interface circuits. Figure 11.4(b) shows a typical connections
configuration to the input image table through the input module. When the
switch is closed, the processor detects a voltage at the input terminal and records
that information by storing a bit 1 in the proper bit location. Each connected
input has a bit in the input image table that corresponds exactly to the terminal to
which the input is connected.
Fig. 11.4(b) Input image table.
In Fig. 11.4(b), all the switches except the last NC (normally closed) switch
connected to the terminal 07 of the input interface are in the OFF state. The bit
value in the bit position 07 in the input image table is 1; but all the bits are 0.
The input image table is constantly being changed to reflect the current status of
the switch. If the input is ON, its corresponding bit in the image table is set to 1,
otherwise it is reset to 0.
11.5.6 Output Image Table
The output image table is an array of bits that controls the status of digital output
devices, which are connected to output interface circuits. Figure 11.4(c) shows a
typical connection of lights to the output image table through the output module.
The status of the lights is controlled by the user program and indicated by the
presence of 1s (ON) and 0s (OFF).
Fig. 11.4(c) Output image table.
Each connected output has a bit in the output image table that corresponds
exactly to the terminal to which the output is connected. If the program calls for
a specific output to be ON, its corresponding bit in the table is set to 1, otherwise
it is reset to 0. In Fig. 11.4(c), the bit value is 1 in bit position 02. So the light
connected to the terminal number 02 will be ON. As all the bit values except in
bit position 02 are 0, the respective lights will be OFF.
11.5.7 Timer/Control Memory
The default timers are stored in the T4 : file of data files illustrated in Fig.
11.3(d). The bits and words for timers are:

EN Timer enabled bit (bit 15) is true (has a status of 1) whenever the timer instruction is true.
Timer timing bit (bit 14) is true whenever the accumulated value of the timer is changing, which
TT
means the timer is timing.
DN Timer done bit (bit 13) changes state whenever the accumulated value reaches the preset value.
Preset word i.e. preset value is the set point of the timer. It is the value up to which the timer will
PRE
time.
Accumulator time word or the accumulated value that increments as the timer is timing. The
ACC
accumulated value will stop incrementing when its value reaches the preset value.
Counters are stored in the C5 : file of data file shown in Fig. 11.3(d). The bits
and words for counters are:
CU Count up bit (bit 15) is true whenever the counter is counting in ascending order.
CD Count down (bit 14) is true whenever the counter is counting in descending order.
DN Counter done bit (bit 13) changes state whenever the counter value reaches the preset
OV Overall bit (bit 12) is true when the counter has reached the maximum value (32767, i.e. (211/2)
–1).
Underflow bit (bit 11) is true whenever the counter has reached the minimum value (–32768, i.e.
UN
–211/2).
Preset word, i.e. preset value is the set point of the counter. It is the value up to which the
PRE
counter will count.
Accumulator count word or the accumulated value that increments as the counter is counting.
ACC
The accumulated value will stop incrementing when its value reaches the preset value.
The values of timer/counter bits can only be read and should not be changed.
The preset and accumulators can be read and overwritten. Meanings of bit and
word addresses in timer and counter are given in Tables 11.4, and 11.5:
Table 11.4 Meaning of bit addresses in timer and counter
Bit address Meaning
T4 : 0/EN The input to timer T4 : 0 is true.
T4 : 0/TT The timer T4 : 0 is counting.
T4 : 0/DN The timer T4 : 0 has reached the maximum.
C5 : 0/CU The count up instruction is true for C5 : 0.
C5 : 0/CD The count down instruction is true for C5 : 0.
C5 : 0/DN The counter C5 : 0 has reached the preset.
C5 : 0/OV The counter C5 : 0 has reached the maximum value (32767, i.e. (211/2) –1).
C5 : 0/UN The counter C5 : 0 has reached the minimum value (– 32768, i.e. – 211/2).
…
Table 11.5 Meaning of word addresses in timer and counter
Word address Meaning
T4 : 0.PRE The preset value for timer T4 : 0
T4 : 0.ACC The accumulated value for timer T4 : 0
T4 : 0.PRE The preset value for counter C5 : 0
C5 : 0.ACC The accumulated value for counter C5 : 0
11.5.8 PLC Status Bits

Status memory allows a program to check the PLC operations, and also make
some changes. Few status bits for PLC5 are shown in Table 11.6. The first four
bits in Table
11.6 indicate the results of calculations—carry flag, overflow flag, zero and sign
flags.
The S2 : 1/15 will be true once the PLC is turned ON. This is the first scan bit.
The time for the last scan will be stored in S2 : 8. The watchdog timer allows a
time to be set in S2:28 so that if the PLC scan time is too long, the PLC will give
a fault condition. This is very important for dangerous processes. The locations
from S2 : 30 to S2 : 55 are used for interrupts. Interrupts can be used to run
programs at fixed time intervals, or when the input changes.
Table 11.6 Status bits for PLC5
Bit address Meaning
S2 : 0/0 Carry in mathematical operation
S2 : 0/1 Overflow in mathematical operation
S2 : 0/2 Zero in mathematical operation
S2 : 0/3 Sign in mathematical operation
S2 : 1/15 First scan of program file
S2 : 8 Scan time in ms
S2 : 28 Watchdog timer setpoint
11.5.9 Integer Memory

Integer memory comprises 16-bit words that are normally used as 2’s
complement numbers that can store data values from –32,768 to 32,767. When
decimal fractions are supplied, they are rounded to the nearest whole number.
These values are normally stored in
N7 : xx by default, but new blocks of integer memory are often created in other
locations such as N9 : xx. Integer memory can also be used for bits.
11.5.10 Floating Memory
Floating point memory which is available in newer and expensive PLCs, stores
real numbers in 4 words, with 7 digits of accuracy over a range from +/–
1.1754944 E–38 to
+/– 3.4028237 E-38. Floating memory is stored in F8:xx by default, but other
floating point numbers can be stored in other locations.
11.6 INPUT MODULES OR INTERFACES (CARDS)
Inputs come from sensors that translate physical phenomena into electrical
signals. Electrical signals generated by sensors, are passed through the input
terminals of the input module as shown in Fig. 11.1(b). In other words, the input
module terminals receive signals from wires connected to input sensors and
transducers. Sensors allow a PLC to detect the state of a process. When a sensor
detects a logical change it must signal that change to the PLC which is typically
done by switching ON/OFF a voltage or current. Logical sensors can only detect
a state that is either true or false. Examples of physical phenomena that are
typically detected are:
Inductive proximity……This is a metal object nearby
Capacitive proximity……It is a dielectric object nearby
Optical presence……This is an object breaking a light beam or reflecting light
Mechanical contact……It is an object touching a switch
In smaller PLCs the inputs are normally built in, and are specified when
purchasing
the PLC. For larger PLCs the inputs are purchased as modules, or cards, with 8
or
16 inputs of the same type on each card. A typical input module has 4, 8, 12, 16,
or
32 terminals along with a common terminal and a safety ground terminal. All
terminals
in a given module have identical circuits. The typical ranges for input voltages
are 5 V dc, 12–24 V dc, 10–60 V dc, 48 V dc, 12–24 V ac, 100–120 V ac, 200–
240 V ac. An external power supply is needed to supply power for the inputs and
sensors for the PLC input cards or modules.
11.6.1 Typical Outputs from Sensors
Sinking/Sourcing
This switches the current ON/OFF. Sinking sensors allow the current to flow
into the sensor to the voltage common, while sourcing sensors allow the current
to flow out of the sensor from a positive source. The method of using current
flow instead of voltage reduces many of the electrical noise problems.
The output of the sensor, i.e. transistor acts like a switch. A PNP transistor is
used for the sourcing output, and an NPN transistor is used for the sinking input.
Contact switches/Proximity switches
This switches voltage ON/OFF. Contact switches are available as normally open
and normally closed. Contact implies that there is mechanical contact and a
resulting force between the sensor and the object. Reed switches are the
examples of contact switches.
Proximity indicates that the object is near, but the contact is not required.
Proximity switches use inductance, capacitance, or light to detect an object
logically.
Solid state relays
These switch ac outputs. Solid state relays are available for large loads.
TTL
Transistor Transistor Logic (TTL) uses 0 V and 5 V to indicate logic levels. The
voltages can actually be slightly larger than 0 V, or lower than 5 V and still be
detected correctly.
A Schmitt trigger will receive an input voltage between 0–5 V and convert it to
either 0 V or 5 V. If a sensor has a TTL output, the PLC must use a TTL input
card to read the values.
11.6.2 Example of a PLC Input Card for Sinking Sensors
Sensor responds to a physical phenomenon. If the sensor as shown in Fig.
11.5(a) does detect nothing (i.e. inactive) then the active line is low and the NPN
transistor becomes OFF. The transistor behaves as an open switch which means
the output of the NPN transistor will have no current in/out. Any digital circuitry
needs to contain a pull-up resistor. When the sensor is active, it will make the
active line high. This turns ON the transistor which will allow the flow of
current into the sensor to ground—hence sinking.
The output of a sensor will be an input for the PLC. The input card as shown
in
Fig. 11.5(a) contains two optocouplers—one for each output. The flow of current
enters the PLC input card first at a +V terminal and flows through an
optocoupler. In this example,
Fig. 11.5(a) PLC input card for sinking sensor.
there is no common on this card. This turns ON a phototransistor of the
optocoupler which operates the ‘Internal Card Electronics’ of PLC. The current
flows out from the +V terminal of the power supply, enters the +V terminal of
the PLC input card, photodiode, input 00, NPN sinking source, and finally to the
common terminal of the power supply. When the sensor is inactive, no current
flows from the power supply.
Inductive proximity sensors
Inductive sensors use currents induced by magnetic fields to detect nearby metal
objects. The sensors can detect objects a few centimetres from the end. The
inductive sensor uses a coil (an inductor) to generate a high frequency magnetic
field as shown in Fig. 11.5(b).
Fig. 11.5(b) Inductive proximity sensor.
If there is a metal object near the changing magnetic field, current will flow in
the object. This resulting current flow sets up a new magnetic field that opposes
the original magnetic field. The net effect is that it changes the inductance of the
coil in the inductive sensor.
By measuring the inductance, the sensor can detect the presence of a metal
nearby. These sensors will detect any metal; when detecting multiple types of
metal multiple sensors are often used.
Capacitive proximity sensors
Capacitive sensors are able to detect most materials at distances up to a few
centimetres. In the capacitive sensor, the area of the plates and distance between
them is fixed. But the dielectric constant of the space around them will vary as
different materials are brought near the sensor. An oscillating field is used to
determine the capacitance of the plates as shown in Fig. 11.5(c). When this
changes beyond a selected sensitivity, the sensor output is activated.
Fig. 11.5(c) Capacitive proximity sensor.
For this capacitive sensor, the proximity of any material near the electrodes
will increase the capacitance. This will vary the magnitude of the oscillating
signal and the detector will decide when this is sufficient enough to determine
the proximity. These sensors work well for insulators (such as plastics) that tend
to have high dielectric coefficients, thus increasing the capacitance.
Optical sensors
Optical sensors require both a light source (emitter) and a detector. Emitters will
produce light beams in the visible and invisible spectrums using LEDs and laser
diodes. Detectors are typically built with photodiodes or phototransistors. The
emitter and detector are positioned so that an object will block or reflect a beam
when present. A basic optical sensor is shown in Fig. 11.5(d).
Fig. 11.5(d) Optical sensor.

In Fig. 11.5(d), the light beam is generated and focused through a lens. The
beam is focused on the detector with a second lens. If the beam is broken, the
detector will indicate the presence of an object. The oscillating light wave is
used so that the sensor can filter out normal light in the room. The light from the
emitter is turned ON and OFF at a set frequency. When the detector receives the
light, it checks to make sure that it is at the same frequency. If light is being
received at the right frequency then the beam is not broken. The frequency of
oscillation is in the kHz range, and too fast to be noticed. A side effect of the
frequency method is that the sensors can be used with lower power at longer
distances.
Example of sensor outputs
The simplest example of sensor outputs as shown in Fig. 11.6(a), are switches
and relays. A NO (normally open) contact switch is connected to input 01. A
sensor with a relay output must be powered separately. The +V and common (N)
terminals are connected to the power supply. The output of the sensor will
become active when a phenomenon has been detected. This means the internal
switch (probably a relay) will be closed allowing current to flow and the positive
voltage will be applied to input 06.
11.6.3 Input ON/OFF Switching Devices
Switches are mechanical mechanisms which will open or close electrical
contacts for a logical signal. Sourcing and sinking inputs are also popular. This
output method dictates that a device does not supply any power. Instead, the
device only switches current on or off, like a simple switch. Sinking is when the
active output allows current to flow to a common ground. This is best selected
when different voltages are supplied. Sourcing is when active current flows from
a supply, through the output device and to ground. This method is best used
when all devices use a single supply voltage. NPN and PNP transistors act as
sinking and sourcing respectively.
Different types of ON/OFF switches are connected to the common and an
active terminal of the PLC input module. Some common ON/OFF switches are:
Pressure switches
Float or Liquid level switches
Magnetic sensitive switches
Inductive sensitive switches.
Various types and symbols of input devices are shown in Fig. 11.6(b).
Fig. 11.6(a) Example of sensor output as an input for a PLC.

11.6.4 Input Analog Devicesz
Input analog devices produce a varying input signal which is sent to the
appropriate PLC input module. Carbon and wire wound potentiometers, linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermocouple etc. are the examples of
the input analog devices. If the PLC input voltage of the input module does not
match the voltage value of the input analog devices, a voltage converter or
amplifier is needed. Some common input analog devices (transducer*) are:
Thermal transducers
Optical transducers
Magnetic transducers
Electromechanical transducers
Flow transducers.
Thermal transducers
These are such devices which convert thermal energy into an equivalent
electrical signal. Thermal transducers are:
Thermistor. A thermistor (thermally sensitive resistor) is nonmetallic as well
as a non-linear resistor, made of semiconductor material by sintering mixtures
of metallic oxides such
Fig. 11.6(b) Different types of input sensing switches in a PLC.

as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, titanium, and uranium, that is extremely
sensitive to the changes in temperature. The device resistance changes inversely
with variations in temperature. It is inexpensive and a fast responding device.
Thermistors are non-linear, have a narrower temperature range, and require
power for their self-heats.
RTD. The device resistance changes directly with variations in temperature. It
is the most stable and accurate device. But RTD is expensive and does require
power.
Thermocouple . It is a device which produces a voltage. The magnitude of the
generated voltage is proportional to temperature. Its temperature range is wide.
Thermocouple transduc ers are used at high temperatures and are self-powered.
This device has low output and requires reference.
Optical pyrometer. This device focuses infrared energy on IC temperature
sensor in probe. The output voltage is proportional to the temperature. It has
linear output and is used at high temperatures. But optical pyrometers are
expensive.
Optical transducers
Optical transducers
These are devices which convert light energy into an equivalent electrical signal.
Optical sensors need both a light source (emitter) and a detector. Emitter will
produce light beams in the visible and invisible spectrums using LEDs and
LASER diodes. Detectors are typically built with photodiodes or
phototransistors. The emitter and detector are positioned so that an object will
block/reflect a beam when present as shown in Fig. 11.5(d).
Optical transducers are of the following type:
Photoconductive cell. Device resistance changes inversely with variations in
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) intensity. Its response is slow, and requires
power.
Photovoltaic (solar) cell. This device converts EMR into electrical voltage
which is proportional to EMR intensity. It is self-powered and has linear output
current. But the photovoltaic cell has non-linear output voltage and slow
response.
Photodiode. This device converts EMR into electrical voltage which is
proportional to EMR intensity. It is a small and fast responding device. A
photodiode requires an external power supply and has low output.
Phototransistor. This device converts EMR into current which is injected into
the base. It is a sensitive and fast responding device with high output, but
requires an external power supply.
Hall effect. Hall effect switches are basically transistors that can be switched
by magnetic fields. Their applications are very similar to reed switches, but
because they are solid state switches they tend to be more rugged and resist
vibration. Automated machines often use these to do initial calibration and detect
end stops.
Magnetic transducers
These are devices which convert linear/rotational motion into an equivalent
electrical signal. Magnetic transducers are of the following types:
LVDT. A linear variable differential transformer measures linear displacement
continuously using magnetic coupling.
RVDT. A rotational variable differential transformer measures circular
displacement continuously using magnetic coupling.
Electromechanical transducers
These are devices which convert physical quantity into an equivalent electrical
signal. Electromechanical transducers are of the following types:
Strain gauge. The device resistance of a strain gauge changes as the strain
wire is compressed or elongated. It is durable and requires an external power
supply. Strain gauges have a low gauge factor.
Potentiometer. The voltage between the wiper and either terminal of a
potentiometer changes as the shaft is turned. This measures angular positions
continuously using resistance. It is durable and requires an external power
supply.
Limit switch. The electrical path of a limit switch is closed or open according
to the position of the actuator. It usually requires no external power supply and
must contact the sensed object.
Proximity switches. A proximity switch uses inductance, capacitance or light
to detect an object logically. Frequency ch anges in oscillator indicate object
proximity. The output is activated when the oscillator changes frequency. It has
no moving parts, but the sensing range of it is limited to about 10 cm.
11.6.5 PLC Input Instructions
In a PLC system, each input is assigned a number on the input module and in the
CPU. The inputs are called by different names by various manufacturers. The
inputs are called words, functions, and instructions such as Examine ON and
Examine OFF. In some PLCs, some prefix like IN or I is used. In a prefix
system, the 5th input would correspond to the PLC program number IN005 or I :
005. Various types of inputs are:
NO (normally open contact). When this contact closes, the function carries out
some kind of action.
NC (normally closed contact). When this contact opens, the function carries
out some kind of action.
Latch/unlatch system. Actuating the latch input turns the function ON or
causes it to change state. The function then stays on even if the latch input is
turned OFF. To turn the function OFF, another input, unlatch, is turned ON,
which turns the function OFF.
If unlatch is then turned OFF, the function remains OFF.
Differentiation up/rising edge actuation. This involves turning the function
ON for one scan at the leading edge of an input signal pattern.
Differentiation down/falling edge actuation. This involves turning the function
ON for one scan at the trailing edge of an input signal pattern.
11.6.6 Example of an AC Input Card and Ladder Logic
There are two inputs, one is a normally open (NO) pushbutton, and the second is
a thermal switch (NO), or thermal relay as shown in Fig. 11.6(c). Both of the
switches are powered by the positive output of the 24 V ac power supply. When
the switches are open, there is no voltage passed to the input card. If either of the
switches is closed, power will be supplied to the input card. In this case, input 1
and input 3 are used. The input card compares these voltages to the common. If
the input voltage is within a given tolerance range the inputs will switch ON.
Ladder logic is also shown in Fig. 11.6(c) for the inputs. At the top is the
location of the input card I : 013 which indicates that the
card is an Input card in rack 01 in slot 3. The input number on the card is shown
in
Fig. 11.6(c)—the contact as 01 and 04.
Fig. 11.6(c) An ac input card and ladder logic for a PLC.
The neutral on the power supply is the common, or reference voltage. It is
chosen
as 0 V reference, and all other voltages are measured relative to it. The common
is a reference, or datum voltage but the ground is used to prevent shocks and
damage to equipment. Before connection, the ground and the common have to
be identified and ensured before the device is connected to a common.
11.7 OUTPUT MODULES/INTERFACES/CARDS

The outputs to actuators allow a PLC to cause something to happen in a process.
External power supplies are connected to the output card and the card will
switch the power ON or OFF for each output. Outputs from PLCs are often
relays, but they can also be solid state devices such as transistors, triacs, etc.
Continuous outputs require special output cards with digital to-analog-
converters. A dc signal generated by the CPU is converted to either an ac voltage
or a dc output voltage as in Fig. 11.2(b). In other words, the output module
terminals receive signals from CPU and drive the output load.
A typical output module has 4, 8, 12, 16, or 32 terminals along with a common
terminal and a safety ground terminal. All terminals in a given module have
identical circuits. The typical ranges for output voltages are 5 V dc (TTL), 24 V
dc, 12–48 V dc,
12–48 V ac, 120 V ac, 230 V ac. Transistors are limited to dc outputs, and triacs
are limited to ac outputs. Transistor and triac outputs are called switched outputs.
A switched output means a voltage that is supplied to the PLC card, and the card
switches it to the different outputs using the solid state circuitry (transistors,
triacs, etc.). Triacs are well suited to ac devices requiring less than 1 A.
Transistor outputs use NPN or PNP transistors up to 1 A typically. Their
response time is well under 1 ms.
11.7.1 Output ON/OFF Devices

Different types of ON/OFF electrical devices are connected to the common and
an active terminal of the PLC output module. Some common ON/OFF electrical
output devices are:
Electrical solenoid
Electromechanical relay.
Electrical solenoid
When a voltage is applied to the solenoid coil, the plunger goes down. Normally,
the plunger is held in an up position by a spring. The plunger is connected to
various types of mechanical devices.
Electromechanical relay
The coil of the electromechanical relay (also called contactor) is connected to the
output module. The solenoid action of the relay opens and closes contacts which
in turn control other electrical circuits.
Various types and symbols of output devices are shown in Fig. 11.7(a).
11.7.2 Output Analog Devices

Logical outputs can often be powered directly from PLC output boards. Output
analog devices are those which are controlled by PLCs through output modules.
Stepper motor, servomotor, etc. are the examples of the output analog devices.
Continuous actuators
Continuous actuators allow a system to position or adjust outputs over a wide
range of values. Even in their simplest form, continuous actuators tend to be
mechanically complex
Fig. 11.7(a) Different types of output devices in a PLC.

devices. For example, a linear slide system might be composed of a motor with
an electronic controller driving a mechanical slide with a ball screw†.
Typical motor feedback controller
A control system is required when a motor is used for an application that
requires continuous position or velocity. A typical controller is shown in Fig.
11.7(b). In any controlled system a command generator is required to specify a
desired position. The controller will compare the feedback from the encoder to
the desired position or velocity to determine
Fig. 11.7(b) Block representation of a typical motor controller.
the system error. The controller will then generate an output, based on the sys‐
tem error. The output is then passed through a power amplifier, which in turn
drives the motor. The encoder is connected directly to the motor shaft to provide
feedback of position.
Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a brushless dc motor whose rotor rotates in discrete angular
increments when its stator windings are energised in a programmed manner. So
stepper motors are designed for positioning. They move one step at a time with a
typical step size of 1.8 degrees giving 200 steps per revolution. Other motors are
designed for step sizes of 2, 2.5, 5, 15 and 30 degrees. The details of stepper
motors are discussed in Sections 7.10.1, 7.10.2,
and 7.10.3.
Stepper motors do not require feedback except when used in high reliability
applications and when the dynamic conditions could lead to slip. A stepper
motor slips when the holding torque is overcome, or when it is accelerated too
fast. When the motor slips, it will move a number of degrees from the current
position. The slip cannot be detected without position feedback. Stepper motors
are relatively weak compared to other motor types. These motors are also prone
to resonant conditions because of the stepped motion control.
The motors are used with controllers that perform many of the basic control
functions. At the minimum a translator controller will take care of switching the
coil voltages. The user indicates the maximum velocity and acceleration and a
distance to move. A more sophisticated indexing controller will accept motion
parameters, such as distance, and convert them to individual steps. Other types
of controllers also provide finer step resolutions with a process known as
microstepping. The user indicates the direction and the number of steps to take
in microstepping—each step is subdivided into smaller steps to give more
resolution.
Servo motor
The servo motor is used in a servo system. A servo system can be used to control
the position of a system, with the addition of a positive feedback element.
Magnetic and electronic amplifiers in the control loop use feedback to control
position, automatically and accurately.
11.7.3 Example of a DC Output Card and Ladder Logic
In Fig. 11.7(c), the outputs are connected to a low current light bulb (lamp) and a
relay coil. Consider the circuit through the lamp, starting at the 24 V dc supply.
When the output
07 is ON, current can flow in 07 to the COM, thus completing the circuit, and
allowing the light to turn ON. If the output is OFF, the current cannot flow, and
the light will not
turn ON.
The output 01 for the relay is connected in a similar way. When the output 01
is ON, current will flow through the relay coil to close the contacts and supply
230 V ac to the motor. Ladder logic for the outputs is also shown in Fig. 11.7(c).
The value O : 012 indicates that the card is an output card, in rack 01, in slot 2 of
the rack. Outputs 01 and 07 are the output numbers on the card. This card could
have many different voltages
applied from different sources, but all the power supplies would need a single
shared common.
Fig. 11.7(c) A dc output card and ladder logic for a PLC.
11.8 Sequence of Operations In A

PLC
When a process is controlled by a PLC, it uses inputs from sensors to make deci‐
sions and update outputs to drive actuators, as shown in Fig. 11.8(a). The
process is a real process that will change over time. Actuators will drive the
system to new states (or modes of operation). This means that the controller is
limited by the sensors available; if an input is not available, the controller will
have no way to detect a condition.
The control loop is a continuous cycle of the PLC reading inputs, solving the
ladder logic, and then changing the outputs. This does not happen instantly like
any computer. Figure 11.8(b) shows the basic operation cycle of a PLC. When
power is turned ON initially, the PLC does a quick sanity check to ensure that
the hardware is working properly. If there is a problem, the PLC will halt and
indicate that there is an error.
Fig. 11.8(a) and (b) Separation of controller and process with basic operation
cycle of a PLC.
For example, if the PLC backup battery is low and power was lost, the
memory will be corrupt and this will result in a fault. If the PLC passes the
sanity check, it will then scan (read) all the inputs. After the inputs values are
stored in memory the ladder logic will be scanned (solved) using the stored
values—not the current values. This is done to prevent logic problems when the
inputs change during the ladder logic scan. When the ladder logic scan is
complete, the outputs will be scanned (the output values will be changed). After
this the system goes back to do a sanity check, and the loop continues
indefinitely. Unlike normal computers, the entire program will be run every
scan. Typical times for each of the stages is in the order of milliseconds.
All PLCs have four basic stages of operations that are repeated many times per
second as shown in Fig. 11.8(c).
Fig. 11.8(c) Scan cycle of a PLC.
The four basic strategies are:
Self-test
When turned ON for the first time, the PLC will check its own hardware and
software for faults. In other words, the self-test checks all cards for errors, resets
the watchdog timer etc. A watchdog timer will cause an error and shut down the
PLC if not reset within a short period of time. This would indicate that the ladder
logic is not being scanned normally.
Input scan
If there are no problems after self-test, input scan will copy all the inputs and
copy their values into memory. In other words, input scan reads input values
from the chips in the input cards (input module), and copies their values to
memory. This makes the PLC operation faster and avoids cases where an input
changes from the start to the end of the program (e.g. an emergency stop).
The input scan takes a snapshot of the inputs, and solves the logic. This
prevents potential problems that might occur if an input that is used in multiple
places in the ladder logic program changed while half-way through a ladder
scan. This problem could have severe effects on complex programs. One side
effect of the input scan is that if a change in input is too short in duration, it
might fall between input scans and be missed. When the PLC is initially turned
ON the normal outputs will be turned OFF. This does not affect the values of the
inputs. There are special PLC functions that read the input directly and avoid
input tables.
Logic solve/scan
Logic solve/scan
The logic solve/scan solves the ladder logic program once, using the memory
copy of the inputs. While solving the ladder logic, the output values are only
changed in temporary memory. In other words, based on the input table in
memory, the program is executed one step at a time, and the outputs are updated.
Ladder logic programs are modelled after relay logic. In relay logic, each
element in the ladder will switch as quickly as possible. But in a program,
elements can only be examined one at a time in a fixed sequence. Considering
the ladder logic in Fig. 11.8(d), the ladder logic will be interpreted left-to-right
(i.e. horizontal scan), top-to-bottom (i.e.
Fig. 11.8(d) Ladder logic execution sequence in a PLC.

vertical scan). In Fig. 11.8(d), the ladder logic scan begins at the top rung. At the
end of the rung, it interprets the top output first, then the output is branched
below it. On the second rung, it solves branches before moving along the ladder
logic rung.
Output scan
When the ladder scan is done, the outputs will be updated using the temporary
values in memory. This is called the output scan. In other words, the output table
is copied from memory to the output chips in the output cards (output module).
These chips then drive the output devices. The PLC now restarts the process by
starting a self-check for faults. This process typically repeats 10 to 100 times per
second as shown in Fig. 11.8(c).
When the outputs to a PLC are scanned, they are copied from memory to the
physical outputs. When the ladder logic is scanned, it uses the values in memory,
not the actual input or output values. The primary reason for doing this is that if
a program uses an input value in multiple places, a change in the input value will
not invalidate the logic. Also, if the output bits were changed as each bit was
changed, instead of all at once at the end of the scan, the PLC would operate
much slower.
11.8.1 Scan
During each operating cycle, the processor reads all the inputs, takes these
values, and according to the user program energises or deenergises the outputs.
This process is scan. The scan is normally a continuous and sequential process
of reading the status of inputs, evaluating the control logic, and updating the
outputs. The scan process is shown in
Fig. 11.8(d). A scan cycle time is the time required for a PLC to scan its inputs
and generate appropriate control responses at its outputs. Scan time varies with
program content and length.
11.8.2 Importance of Logic Scan
The logic scan sequence become important when solving ladder logic programs
which use outputs as inputs. It also becomes important when considering output
usage. The first line of ladder logic as shown in Fig. 11.9(a), will examine input
A and set output X to have the same value. The second line will examine input B
and set the output X to have the opposite value. So the value of X was only equal
to A until the second line of ladder logic was scanned. Recall that during the
logic scan the outputs are only changed in memory, the actual outputs are only
updated when the ladder logic scan is complete. Therefore the output scan would
update the real outputs based upon the second line of ladder logic, and the first
line of ladder logic would be ineffective.
Fig. 11.9(a) A duplicated output error in a ladder logic for a PLC.

Tip. It is a common mistake with beginners to repeat the same ladder logic
output more than once. This will basically invalidate the first output. In this case,
the first line will never do anything.
11.9 STATUS OF PLC

On the front panel of the PLC, there are normally limited status lights. Common
lights indicate the following:
Power ON This will be ON whenever the PLC has got powered.
Program running This will often indicate if a program is running, or if no
program is running.
Fault This will indicate when the PLC has experienced a major hardware or soft‐
ware problem.
The above lights are normally used for debugging. Limited buttons will also be
provided for a PLC hardware. The most common will be a RUN/PROGRAM
switch that will be switched to PROGRAM when maintenance is being
conducted, and back to RUN when in production. This switch normally requires
a key to prevent unauthorised personnel from altering the PLC program or
stopping execution. A PLC will almost never have an ON-OFF switch or reset
button on the front panel. This needs to be designed into the remainder of the
system.
The status of the PLC can be detected by ladder logic as well. It is common
for programs to check to see if they are being executed for the first time as
shown in Fig. 11.9(b). The ‘first scan’ input will be true the very first time the
ladder logic is scanned, but false on every other scan. In this case, the address for
‘first scan’ in a PLC-5 is ‘S2 : 1/14’. With the logic in the example, the first scan
will seal on ‘light’, until ‘clear’ is turned ON. So the light will turn ON after the
PLC has been turned ON, but it will turn OFF and stay OFF after ‘clear’ is
turned ON. The ‘first scan’ bit is also referred to as the ‘first pass’ bit.
Fig. 11.9(b) A program that checks for the first scan of the PLC.
11.10 EVENT-DRIVEN DEVICE

Highly complex systems cannot be controlled with combinatorial logic alone.
The main reason for this is that it is not possible to add sensors to detect all
conditions, neither can they be selected. In these cases, events can be used to
estimate the condition of the system. Typical events used by a PLC include the
following:
First scan of the PLC This indicates that the PLC has just been turned ON.
Time since an input turned ON/OFF A delay.
Count of events To wait until a set number of events have occurred.
Latch ON or unlatch To lock something ON or turn it OFF.
The common theme for all of these events is that they are based upon one of
two questions ‘How many?’ or ‘How long?’. An example of an event-based
device is shown in Fig. 11.10. The input to the device is a pushbutton. When the
pushbutton is pushed, the input to the device turns ON. If the pushbutton is then
released, and the device turns OFF, it is a logical device. If when the pushbutton
is released, the device stays ON, it will be one type of an event-based device. To
reiterate, the device is event based if it can respond to one or more things that
have happened before. If the device responds only in one way to the immediate
set of inputs, it is logical.
Fig. 11.10 An event-based device of the PLC.
11.11 LADDER LOGIC

LANGUAGE
PLC programming language refers to the method by which the user
communicates information to the PLC. Relay ladder logic, which was the first,
and popular language available on the PLC, is a graphical programming
language designed to closely represent the appearance of a wired relay system.
The ladder logic diagram language is basically a symbolic set of instructions
used to create the logic controller program. These ladder instruction symbols are
arranged to obtain the desired control logic that is to be entered into the memory
of the PLC. Because the instruction set is composed of contacts symbols, ladder
diagram language is also called a contact symbology. Representation of contacts
and coils are the basic symbols of the logic ladder diagram instruction set.
The main function of the ladder logic diagram program is to control outputs
based on the input conditions. This control is accomplished through the use of
what is referred to as a ladder rung. In general, a rung consists of a set of input
conditions, represented by contact instructions, and an output instruction at the
end of the rung represented by the coil symbol.
Each contact or coil symbol is referenced with an address number that
identifies what is being evaluated and what is being controlled. The same contact
instruction can be used throughout the program whenever the condition needs to
be evaluated. For an output to be activated, at least one left-to-right path of
contacts must be closed. A complete closed path is referred to as having logic
continuity. When logic continuity exists in at least one path, the rung condition is
said to be TRUE.
11.12 SIMPLE PROCESS

CONTROL APPLICATION BY PLC
In Fig. 11.11(a), a mixer motor is used to automatically stir the liquid in a vat
when the pressure and temperature reach the preset values. In addition, direct
manual operation of the mixer motor is provided by means of a separate
pushbutton switch. The process is monitored with temperature and pressure
sensor switches that close their respective contacts when conditions reach their
preset values. In the relay method of motor control, the starter coil (M) of the
mixer motor is energised when both the pressure and temperature switches are
closed or when the pushbutton switch is pressed as shown in Fig. 11.11(a).
In a PLC system, the same input sensing devices, i.e. pressure switch,
temperature switch, and pushbutton switch are hard-wired (connected) to an
appropriate input module address according to the manufacturer’s addressing
format. The same output device, i.e. starter coil of the mixer motor is hard-wired
to an appropriate output module address according to the manufacturer’s
addressing format.
Next, the PLC ladder control logic diagram is constructed and programmed
into the memory of the CPU. A typical ladder logic diagram is shown in Fig.
11.11(b). The format of the ladder logic diagram is similar to the layout of the
hard-wired relay ladder circuit. The individual symbols and the numbers
represent instruction and instruction addresses. When programming the
controller, these instructions are entered one by one into the processor memory
from the keyboard. Instructions are stored in the user program portion of the
processor memory.
Working principle of a simple process control by logic controller
To operate the program, the controller is placed in the RUN mode, or operating
cycle. During each operating cycle, the controller examines the status of the
input devices, executes the user program, and changes the outputs accordingly.
The symbol –( )– used in Fig. 11.11(b), can be considered to represent a coil
that, when energised, will close a set of contacts. When contacts 001 and 002 or
only 003 are closed, the coil 011 is energised. Either of these conditions provides
a continuous path from left to right across the rung that includes the coil shown
in Fig. 11.11(b).
RUN operation
First, the inputs are examined and their status is recorded in the controller’s
memory. A closed contact is recorded as a signal that is referred to as a logic 1
and an open contact by a signal that is called a logic 0. Then the ladder diagram
is evaluated, with each internal contact given the OPEN or CLOSED status
according to the record. If these contacts provide current path from the left to
right as in Fig. 11.11(b), the output coil memory location is given a logic 1 value
and the output module interface contacts will close. The completion of one cycle
of this sequence by the controller is called a scan.
Fig. 11.11(a) Example of a simple process control application with relay logic
diagram.
Fig. 11.11(b) PLC ladder logic diagram of a simple process control application.
11.13 SIMPLE PROGRAMMING

EXAMPLES
The electrical diagram for relays consists of
1. the relay coil which causes the relay to actuate when energised,
2. the corresponding contacts of each relay, and
3. the interconnections of these coils and contacts along with the
connections to other devices and power sources.
When the relay coil is actuated, its relay contacts change from open to closed or
closed to open, depending on the type of contact it is, NO or NC. A motor starter
is essentially a large capacity relay with heavy duty contacts in its power circuit.
Power for the three-phase ac motor is controlled by the three contacts, preferable
labelled by M which close when the starter coil M is energised. The motor is
then powered from line terminals R, Y, and B to the respective motor terminals.
A Direct On-Line (DOL) starter for starting a three-phase ac motor has (i) a
magnetic contactor (M), an overload relay (OL), and (iii) a control circuit as
illustrated in Fig. 11.12(a). When the ‘Start’ button is pressed, magnetising coil
(M) is energised. As the coil (M) is energised, it closes all M contacts. The M
contacts which are the part of the power circuit, connected in series with the
motor terminals, close to complete the current path to the motor.
The control or sealing contact (M) across the ‘Start’ button closes to seal in the
coil circuit when the ‘Start’ button is released. Three overload coils (OL), one in
each phase, are connected in series with the motor terminals. The normally
closed (NC) relay contact ‘OL’ opens automatically when an overload current is
sensed on any phase, in order to deenergise the magnetising coil (M) and stop
the motor.
Fig. 11.12(a) Schematic and relay logic diagram of a three-phase ac motor for
start-stop-seal circuit.
EXAMPLE 11.1
When the ‘Start’ button is pressed, the magnetising coil (M) energises. When the
‘Start’ button is released, the magnetising coil remains ON. It is held on by a
sealing contact that is in parallel with the ‘Start’ button. The sealing contact
closes when the magnetising coil is energised. If the ‘Stop’ button is pressed, the
power to the coil goes off and remains off. Draw (i) the schematic diagram, (ii)
the relay logic, (iii) PLC connection diagram, and
(iv) the ladder logic diagram for the statements given above.
Solution The schematic and relay logic diagrams for a start-stop-seal circuit of a
three-phase ac motor are shown in Fig. 11.12(a). When the ‘Start’ button is
pressed, a current will flow through the magnetising contactor (M) and the
normally closed (NC) overload
Fig. 11.12(b) PLC ladder logic and PLC connection diagrams of a ‘start-seal-
stop’ circuit for a three-phase ac motor.
contact (OL). The contactor (M) closes the sealing contact (M) as well as the
other three M contacts connected between the respective line terminals R, Y, and
B to the respective motor line terminals. When the ‘Stop’ button is pressed, the
magnetising coil (M) will be deenergised. Eventually, the motor will stop.
Figure 11.12(b) illustrates the PLC connection and ladder logic diagrams. A
major difference between the relay logic and PLC connections is in the physical
location of the sealing contact. In relay logic, the sealing contact (M) is attached
physically to the output (magnetising) coil (M). The power of the sealing contact
(M) goes ON and OFF with the output coil. But in the PLC ladder logic, the
sealing contact (M) is generated internally at the time of its programming. This
internal sealing contact (M) in the PLC logic closes or opens as the control relay
(CR) coil goes ON and OFF. The control relay CR002 is associated with a motor
starter coil and an overload.
EXAMPLE 11.2
A three-phase ac motor is to be rotated either in the forward direction or in the
reverse direction. If the single ‘Stop’ button is pressed, the motor will be stopped
from any direction. Mechanical interlocks are provided so that both outputs
cannot be energised at the same time. Whether operating through either forward
or reverse contactor, the power connections are run through the same set of
overload relays. Draw (i) the schematic diagram, (ii) the relay logic, (iii) the
PLC connection diagram, and (iv) the ladder logic diagram for the statements
given above.
Solution Mechanical and electrical interlocks are used to prevent the forward
and reverse contactors from being activated at the same time, which would cause
a short circuit. With the mechanical interlocks, the first coil to close moves a
lever to a position that prevents the other coil from closing its contacts when it is
energised. Electrical pushbutton interlocks use double-contact (NO and NC)
pushbuttons. When the ‘Forward’ pushbutton is pressed, the NC contacts open
the reverse coil circuit. There is no need to press the ‘Stop’ button before
changing the direction of rotation. If the ‘Forward’ button is pressed while the
motor is running in the reverse direction, the reverse control circuit is
deenergised and the forward contactor is energised and held closed.
The schematic and relay logic diagrams for a forward-reverse control with
mechanical interlocks of a three-phase ac motor are shown in Fig. 11.13(a).
When the ‘Forward’ button is pressed, a current will flow through the forward
contactor (F) and normally closed (NC) overload contact (OL). The forward
contactor (F) closes the forward contact (F) as well as the other three F contacts
connected between the line terminals R, Y, and B to the respective motor line
terminals. This prevents the reverse coil from closing its reverse contacts (R) due
to mechanical interlocks.
If the ‘Reverse’ button is pressed, the current will flow through the reverse
contactor (R) and normally closed (NC) overload contact (OL). The reverse
contactor (R) moves a lever to a position that prevents the forward contactor (F)
from closing its forward contacts and the current will flow through the reverse
contactor (R) and normally closed (NC) overload contact (OL). This reverse
contactor (R) closes the reverse contact (R) as well as the other three R contacts
connected between the line terminals R, Y, and B to the respective motor line
terminals. Now, the motor will rotate in the reverse direction. When the ‘Stop’
button is pressed, the running contactor (either F or R) will be deenergised.
Eventually, the motor will stop from its present direction of rotation.
Figure 11.13(b) illustrates the PLC connection and ladder logic diagrams of a
forward-reverse control with mechanical interlocks for a three-phase ac motor.
The contact 001 in a PLC ladder logic stops operation in either direction.
Contacts 002 and 003 are used for
Fig. 11.13(a) Schematic and relay logic diagram of a three-phase ac motor for
forward and reverse control with mechanical interlocks.
Fig. 11.13(b) PLC connection diagrams and PLC ladder logic of a forward-
reverse control with mechanical interlocks for a three-phase ac motor.
forward and reverse direction of rotation for the three-phase ac motor
corresponding to the control relays CR017 and CR018 respectively. The
interlocking contact CR018 (CR017), which is normally closed, is placed in the
forward (reverse) path.
EXAMPLE 11.3
Repeat Example 11.2 with electrical interlocks.
Solution. Electrical pushbutton interlocks are used to prevent the forward and
reverse contactors from being activated at the same time. The schematic and
relay logic diagrams for a forward-reverse control with electrical pushbutton
interlocks of a three-phase ac motor are shown in Fig. 11.13(c). When the
normally closed (NC) ‘Forward’ button is pressed, a current will flow through
the normally closed (NC) ‘Reverse’ button, forward contactor (F) and normally
closed (NC) overload contact (OL). The forward contactor (F) closes the forward
contact (F) as well as the other three F contacts connected between the line
terminals R, Y, and B to the respective motor line terminals. After releasing the
‘Forward’ button, it will take its normally closed (NC) position.
Fig. 11.13(c) Schematic and relay logic diagrams of a three-phase ac motor for
forward and reverse control with electrical pushbutton interlocks.
If the normally closed (NC) ‘Reverse’ button is pressed, the current will flow
through the normally closed (NC) ‘Forward’ button, reverse contactor (R) and
normally closed (NC) overload contact (OL). The reverse contactor (R) closes
the reverse contact (R) as well as the other three R contacts connected between
the line terminals R, Y, and B to the respective motor line terminals. After
releasing the ‘Reverse’ button, it will take its normally closed (NC) position. It is
assumed that the motor is rotating in the forward direction before closing the
‘Reverse’ button. At the time of closing the ‘Reverse’ button, it disconnects the
forward current path and establishes the new reverse current path. Consequently,
the motor will be rotating in the reverse direction. When the ‘Stop’ button is
pressed, the running contactor (either F or R) will be deenergised. Eventually,
the motor will stop from its present direction of rotation.
Figure 11.13(d) illustrates the PLC connection and ladder logic diagrams of a
forward-reverse control with electrical interlocks for a three-phase ac motor. The
contact 001 in a PLC ladder logic stops operation in either direction. Contacts
002 and 003 are used for forward and reverse direction of rotation for the three-
phase ac motor corresponding to the control relays CR017 and CR018
respectively. The interlocking contact CR018 (CR017)
Fig. 11.13(d) PLC connection diagrams and PLC ladder logic of a forward-
reverse control with electrical pushbutton interlocks for a three-phase ac
motor.
which is normally closed, is placed in the forward (reverse) path. In Fig.
11.14(a), relay logic and PLC ladder logic diagrams of a three-phase ac motor
for forward and reverse control with electrical auxiliary contact interlocks are
illustrated.
Fig. 11.14(a) Relay logic and PLC ladder logic diagrams of a three-phase ac
motor of forward and reverse control with electrical auxiliary contact
interlocks.
EXAMPLE 11.4
Repeat Example 11.3 with electrical auxiliary contact interlocks, except that the
directions of forward and reverse rotations when the motor is running, are
indicated by red and green pilot lights lights that respectively. Separate ‘Stop’
buttons for forward and reverse rotations are used.
Solution. In Fig. 11.14(b), the PLC logic connection diagram, the relay logic and
PLC ladder logic diagrams of a three-phase ac motor for forward and reverse
control with electrical auxiliary contact interlocks along with separate pilot lights
are illustrated.
Fig. 11.14(b) Relay logic and PLC ladder logic diagrams of a three-phase ac
motor for forward and reverse control with electrical auxiliary contact
interlocks.
11.13.1 Jogging/Inching of an AC Motor
Jogging or Inching is the momentary ON operation of a motor for the purpose of
accomplishing a small movement of the driven machine. It involves an operation
in which the motor runs when the pushbutton is pressed and will stop when the
pushbutton is released. Jogging is used when the motor must be operated
momentarily for a final adjustment of a machine’s position.
Repeated high starting currents created by jogging cause excessive heating of
the power contacts. If a motor is expected to be jogged more than five times per
minute, the rating of the starter must be derated. Fig. 11.5(a) shows a jog control
circuit requiring a double contact jog pushbutton—one NC contact and one NO
contact. When the ‘Jog’ button is pressed, the seal in circuit to the starter coil
(M) is opened by the NC contacts of the ‘Jog’ pushbutton. As a result, the starter
coil (M) will not lock in; instead, it can only stay energised as long as the ‘Jog’
button is fully pressed. As a result, a jogging action can be obtained.
Fig. 11.15(a) Relay logic diagrams of a jog/start/stop pushbutton without jog

control relay and with control relay for a three-phase ac motor.
On quick release of the ‘Jog’ pushbutton, should its NC contacts reclose
before the starter main contacts (M) open, the motor would continue to run. A
jogging attachment can be used to prevent the reclosing of the NC contacts of
the ‘Jog’ button. This device ensures that the starter holding circuit is not
reestablished if the ‘Jog’ button is released too rapidly. Jogging can be repeated
by reclosing the ‘Jog’ button. It can be continued until the jogging attachment is
removed.
The control relay jogging circuit using jog control relay is much safer than the
control circuit without the jog control circuit shown in Fig. 11.15(a). A single
contact ‘Jog’ pushbutton switch is used. A jog control relay (CR) is incorporated
in the circuit. Pressing the ‘Start’ button completes the circuit for the control
relay coil (CR), closing the CR1 and CR2 contacts. As soon as the contact CR2
closes, the motor starter coil (M) is energised, starting the motor. On the other
hand, pressing the ‘Jog’ button energises the motor starter coil (M) only, starting
the motor. Both the contacts CR1 and CR2 remain open, and the control relay
coil (CR) is deenergised. The M coil will not remain energised when the ‘Jog’
button is released. It is necessary to push ‘Stop’ button before going from RUN
to JOG in the circuit of Fig. 11.15(b).
Fig. 11.15(b) Relay logic and PLC ladder logic diagrams of jog/start/stop
pushbutton with jog control relay of an ac motor.
EXAMPLE 11.5
There are four hazard inputs to the alarm system that go on as some operational
malfunction occurs. The system operates as follows:
(i) If one hazard input is ON, nothing happens.
(ii) If any two hazard inputs are ON, a Red Pilot glows.
(iv) If any three hazard inputs are ON, an alarm siren sounds.
(v) If all four hazard inputs are ON, the fire department is notified.
Draw a ladder logic diagram with PLC connection diagram for the above
situation.
Solution. The PLC connection diagram of an alarm system and its ladder logic
diagram are illustrated in Fig. 11.16. The PLC program numbers for the inputs
may be assigned as Input A – I : 001, Input B – I : 002, Input C – I : 003, and
Input D – I : 004.
Fig. 11.16 Relay logic and PLC ladder logic diagrams of an alarm system.
If any two hazard inputs among inputs A, B, C, and D are ON, the Red Pilot
glows. There will be six combinations of different inputs. The control relay may
be assigned CR017.
If any three hazard inputs among inputs A, B, C, and D are ON, the alarm
sounds. There will be four combinations of different inputs. The control relay
may be assigned CR018.
When all the four hazard inputs are ON the fire department is notified. There
will be only one combination. The control relay is assigned CR019.
1. A PLC is capable of
(a) counting, and calculating analog signals.
(b) comparing analog signals.
(c) processing analog signals.
2. PLCs are used to control
(a) batch processes
(b) manufacturing processes
(c) industrial processes
3. PLC controls are used in annunciators for the working of the plant that
could be monitoring of
(a) pressure.
(b) temperature.
4. PLCs can be used in controlling of
(a) electrical machines within a sequence of values of time, pressure,
temperature, level, etc.
(b) mechanical machines within a sequence of values of time, pressure,
temperature, level, etc.
5. If a programming error occurs in a PLC controlled ladder diagram,
(a) this error can be corrected quickly.
(b) this error cannot be corrected at all.
(c) a new program has to be written.
6. A data processing computer system is
(a) an event-driven system.
(b) a non event-driven system
7. The input sensing devise in a PLC is
(a) a motion sensor.
(b) a sound sensor
(c) a heat sensor.
(d) a all of the above.
8. PLCs with word processors are used
(a) when processing text and numerical data are required
(b) when calculations are required.
(c) when simple processing of signals in binary code is required.
(d) for all of the above.
9. If a PLC system is made up of TTL ICs, the internal power supply will be
(a) 5 V.
(b) 10 V.
(c) 15 V.
(d) 18 V.
10. The programming device in a PLC can be
(a) an LCD hand-held terminal.
(b) a video display unit with keyboard.
11. If the programming unit in a PLC is removed,
(a) the operation of the user program will be affected.
(b) the operation of the user program will not be affected.
(c) the user program will be terminated automatically.
(d) none of the above will occur.
12. The microprocessor in a PLC
(a) receives and analyses data.
(b) processes data.
(c) sends data to the output devices.
(d) does all of the above.
13. In the RUN/PROGRAM mode of a PLC,
(a) the program cannot be completely erased.
(b) the program can only be modified.
(c) both (a) and (b) can be done.
(d) either (a) or (b) can be done.
14. The scan in a PLC is normally a continuous process of
(a) reading the status of inputs.
(b) evaluating the control logic.
(c) updating the outputs.
15. If an active sensor allows current to flow from a supply through the output
device to ground, it is
(a) sinking.
(b) sourcing.
16. A thermistor is
(a) a nonmetallic as well as a non-linear resistor.
(b) a nonmetallic as well as a linear resistor.
(c) a metallic as well as a non-linear resistor.
(d) a metallic as well as a linear resistor.
17. An optical pyrometer has a
(a) linear output and is used at high temperatures.
(b) linear output and is used at low temperatures.
(c) non-linear output and is used at high temperatures.
(d) non-linear output and is used at low temperatures.
18. A solar cell converts electromagnetic radiation (EMR) into electrical
voltage which is proportional to
(a) wind pressure.
(b) temperature.
(c) EMR intensity.
19. The resistance of strain wire in a strain gauge changes if the strain wire is
(a) compressed.
(b) elongated.
(c) either compressed or elongated.
(d) subjected to none of the above.
20. A ladder logic scan begins at
(a) the top rung.
(b) the bottom rung.
(c) the middle rung.
21. The main function of the ladder logic diagram program is
(a) to control inputs based on the output conditions.
(b) to control outputs based on the input conditions.

State whether the following statements are true or false.
1. A PLC is capable of performing not only the relay switching tasks, but also
other applications such as counting, calculating, comparing, and the
processing of analog signals.
2. The programmable logic controller (PLC) is a nonevent driven device.
3. In a PLC, a program is needed to process the inputs and decide the means of
turning OFF and ON load devices.
4. PLCs are used in annunciators for the working of the plant that could be
monitoring of pressure, temperature, motor and valve status.
5. A PLC has a limited number of contacts for each coil available in its
programming.
6. Troubleshooting a PLC cannot be done more quickly during visual
observation.
7. A PLC is built for a specific purpose.
8. PLC’s software is designed for different jobs.
9. A data processing computer system is used for batch processing.
10. A process control computer system is used for real-time control
applications.
11. If the integrated circuit is a complementary metal oxide semiconductor
(CMOS) type, the power supply voltage will be in the range of 3 V to 18 V
dc.
12. The input module terminals do not receive signals from wires connected to
input sensors and transducers.
13. The output module terminals provide output voltages to energise actuators
and indicating devices.
14. Even if the CPU signal does not match, the terminals of the output module
will be energised.
15. The optoisolator protects the CPU from any erratic voltage surge which
may be produced by the output device.
16. If the programming unit in a PLC is not in use, it may be unplugged and
removed.
17. In the OFF/PROGRAM mode of a PLC, a system cannot run, but can be
programmed or reprogrammed.
18. The information stored in a ROM is erased when the system is switched
off.
19. The scan time in a PLC does not vary with program content and length.
20. A PROM device can be programmed only once in its lifetime.
21. A data storage memory in a PLC stores information needed to carry out the
user program.
22. The LVDT measures the circular displacement using magnetic coupling.
23. The outputs to actuators allow a PLC to cause something to happen in a
process.
24. The output module terminals receive signals from CPU and drive the
output load.
25. A watchdog timer will cause an error and shut down the PLC if not reset
within a short period of time.
26. When the ladder scan is done, the outputs will not be updated in memory.
27. When the outputs to a PLC are scanned, they are copied from memory to
the physical outputs.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. (a) What is a PLC? Why is PLC an event-driven device?
(b) What are the functions of PLC?
(c) State the industrial applications of PLC.
(d) Mention the advantages and disadvantages of PLC over the
conventional relay type of control.
2. (a) Compare the data processing computer system with the process control
computer system.
(b) What are the factors to be considered in selecting a PLC?
(c) Name the different parts in a functional block diagram of PLCs.
(d) Write the addressing format of an I/O module. What do (i) I : 012/03
and
(ii) O : 024/07 mean?
3. (a) What are the functions of input module and multiple modules in a PLC?
(b) Explain the necessity of isolation of I/O module from its input.
(c) How does an output module in a PLC function?
(d) Briefly explain the working of a CPU in the PLC.
4. (a) What are the functions of RAM and ROM in a PLC?
(b) How does the scan block perform its task?
(c) Classify ROM. What is mask ROM? State its disadvantages.
(d) Describe PROM. What are the different links used in PROM? A PROM
chip is a one-time programmable memory. Justify.
5. (a) Discuss EPROM. Why is EPROM referred to as ultraviolet EPROM?
(b) EEPROM is superior than EPROM. Justify.
(c) Compare EPROM with EEPROM.
(d) Describe flash memory. What are the limitation of flash memory?
6. (a) On what factors does the requirement of memory depend?
(b) Write the functions of user memory and data storage memory.
(c) Describe the typical format of default data files in a PLC.
(d) Explain the input and output image table with its necessary diagrams.
7. (a) Explain the meaning of different bits used in timer/control memory in a
typical PLC.
(b) What are functions of integer and floating memory used in data files of
a typical PLC?
(c) What is meant by sinking sensor?
(d) Explain a PLC input card for sinking sensor with a diagram.
8. (a) How does an optical sensor operate?
(b) What are sinking and sourcing in a PLC?
(c) Mention the most common ON/OFF switches used in PLCs.
(d) What is thermal transducer? Name the different types of thermal
transducers. Explain the basic difference between thermistor and RTD.
9. (a) What are magnetic transducers? Write the basic difference between
LVDT and RVDT.
(b) Explain the function of ‘Latch/Unlatch system’ input in a PLC. Draw
its ladder logic.
(c) How does an ac input card in a PLC work?
(d) Mention the most common ON/OFF output devices used in PLCs.
10. (a) Explain a motor feedback controller system in a PLC.
(b) How does a dc input card in a PLC work? Draw its ladder logic.
(c) Describe the basic operation cycle in a PLC with a diagram.
(d) What are the different stages of operations that are repeated many times
in a PLC?
11. (a) Explain what is meant by (i) self-test, (ii) input scan, (iii) logic
solve/scan, and
(iv) output scan.
(b) How does a dc input card in a PLC work? Draw its ladder logic.
(c) What is the importance of logic scan?
(d) Mention the common lights used on the front panel of a PLC.
12. (a) Explain the ladder logic language.
(b) Define contact symbology.
(c) Draw a relay logic and ladder logic diagram when a mixer motor is
used to automatically stir the liquid in a vat when the temperature and
pressure reach the preset values.
(d) Explain with the help of a schematic diagram the working of a DOL
starter used for starting of a three-phase induction motor. Also draw its (i)
relay logic diagram, (ii) ladder logic diagram with start/stop/seal circuit,
and (iii) PLC connection diagram.
13. (a) Explain how a three-phase induction motor is rotated either in the
forward or in the reverse direction with mechanical interlocks. Also draw
its (i) relay logic diagram, (ii) ladder logic diagram, and (iii) PLC
connection diagram.
(b) Describe part 13(a) with electrical pushbutton interlocks.
(c) Describe part 13(a) with electrical auxiliary contact interlocks.
(d) Explain the forward-reverse control with electrical auxiliary contact
interlocks, except that the forward and reverse rotations are indicated by
red and green pilots respectively. Separate ‘Stop’ buttons are to be
provided. Also draw its (i) relay logic diagram, (ii) ladder logic diagram,
and (iii) PLC connection diagram.
14. (a) Explain what is meant by jogging/inching of a motor.
(b) Explain the relay logic diagram of a Jog/Start/Stop pushbutton control
circuit for a three-phase induction motor. How is this circuit modified
with the help of a jog control relay?
(c) Draw a ladder logic diagram with PLC connection diagram of a
Jog/Start/Stop pushbutton control circuit for an induction motor.
(d) There are four hazard inputs to the alarm system that go on as some
operational malfunction occurs. The system operates as follows:
(i) If two hazard inputs are ON, nothing happens.
(ii) If any three hazard inputs are ON, an alarm siren sounds.
(iii) If all the four hazard inputs are ON, the fire department is notified.
Draw a ladder logic diagram with PLC connection diagram for the
above situation.
*A transducer is a device which converts a physical quantity into its equivalent electrical signal.
† In a ball screw, rotation is converted to linear motion using balls screws. These are low-friction screws
that drive nuts filled with ball bearings. These are normally used with slides to bear mechanical loads.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE
QUESTIONS, TRUE OR FALSE
STATEMENTS, AND PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 1
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a)
8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (a)
15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (b) 21. (c)
22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (c) 27. (a) 28. (a)
29. (b) 30. (b) 31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (a)
36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (a) 40. (b) 41. (b) 42. (c)
43. (d) 44. (d) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (a) 48. (b) 49. (b)
50. (c) 51. (b) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (a) 55. (c) 56. (d)
57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (b) 61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (c)
64. (d) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (b) 69. (a) 70. (b)
True or False Statements

1. False 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. True 7. True
8. False 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. True 13. False 14. False
15. True 16. True 17. True 18. False 19. False 20. False 21. True
22. False 23. False 24. True 25. False 26. False 27. True 28. True
29. True 30. True 31. True 32. False 33. True 34. False 35. True
Problems
1.1 (i) 24.75 mA, 7.87 mA, 12.37 mA; (ii) 0.0612 W; (iii) 0.155 W; (iv) 40%;
(v) 1.21
1.2 (i) 192 V; (ii) 107.41 V; (iii) 39 W; (iv) 45.43 W; (v) 85.85%
1.3 43.5 W
CHAPTER 2
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (b)
8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (b)
…
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. False
8. True 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. True 13. True 14. False
15. True 16. False 17. False 18. True 19. False 20. True 21. True
Problems
2.1 (a) 4000; (b) 72.04 dB
2.2 100
CHAPTER 3
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (d)
8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a)
15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (a)
22. (b) 23. (b) 24. (d) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a)
29. (c) 30. (b) 31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (b) 35. (b)
36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (d) 41. (b) 42. (d)
43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (a) 49. (c)
50. (d) 51. (a) 52. (b) 53. (c) 54. (a) 55. (a) 56. (a)

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. True
8. False 9. True 10. True 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. True
15. True 16. False 17. True 18. False 19. False 20. False 21. False
22. True 23. False 24. False 25. True 26. False 27. False 28. False
29. True 30. False 31. True 32. False 33. False 34. True 35. False
36. True 37. True 38. False 39. True 40. False 41. True 42. True
43. False 44. False
Problems
3.1 – 6.8 V
3.2
3.3 800p cos 2000wt mV

3.4 3.18 V
CHAPTER 4
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a)
8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (c)
15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c) 21. (b)
22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (b) 25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (c)
29. (a) 30. (a) 31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (b)
36. (b) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (c) 41. (b) 42. (c)

1. False 2. True 3. False 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. True
8. False 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. False 13. False 14. False
15. True 16. False 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. False
22. True 23. True 24. True 25. True 26. True 27. False 28. False
29. False 30. True 31. True 32. False 33. True 34. True 35. False
36. True 37. True 38. True 39. True
Problems
4.1 RL = 3 kW, RB = 150 kW, and C = 24 pF
4.2 R1 = 11.4 kW, R2 = 22.8 kW, R = 1.2 kW, duration of output pulse = 1 ms
4.3 9.79 mA, 0.49 mA, – 1.02 V
4.4 0.48 MHz, 66.67%
CHAPTER 5
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (c)
8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (b)
15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (c)
22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c)
29. (a) 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (c) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (b)
36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (a) 41. (c) 42. (a)
43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (c) 46. (a) 47. (a) 48. (b) 49. (b)
50. (b) 51. (c) 52. (d) 53. (b) 54. (b) 55. (a) 56. (d)
57. (a) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (c) 61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (c)
64. (b) 65. (b) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (c) 69. (c) 70. (c)
71. (c) 72. (c) 73. (a) 74. (a) 75. (a) 76. (d) 77. (b)
78. (c) 79. (a) 80. (b) 81. (c) 82. (a) 83. (b) 84. (b)
85. (d) 86. (b) 87. (d) 88. (d) 89. (d) 90. (c) 91. (d)
92. (c) 93. (a) 94. (b) 95. (c) 96. (c) 97. (b) 98. (a)
99. (a) 100. (b) 101. (c) 102. (d) 103. (c) 104. (a) 105. (a)
106. (b) 107. (c)

8. True 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. True 13. False 14. False
15. True 16. False 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. False
22. True 23. True 24. False 25. True 26. True 27. True 28. False
29. False 30. True 31. False 32. False 33. True 34. True 35. False
36. False 37. True 38. False 39. False 40. True 41. False 42. True
43. False 44. True 45. True 46. False 47. True 48. False 49. True
50. False 51. False 52. True 53. True 54. True 55. False 56. False
57. True 58. False 59. True 60. False 61. True 62. True 63. True
64. True 65. True 66. False 67. False 68. False 69. True 70. True
71. True 72. False 73. True 74. True 75. False 76. True 77. True
78. True 79. True 80. False 81. True 82. True 83. False 84. False

85. True 86. False 87. False 88. True
Problems
5.1 3.094 ms 5.2 2000 W
5.3 (a) 5.74 V; (b) 30.26 W, 29.55 W, 0.71 W; (c) 1015.26 W
5.4 10 mH
5.5 0.1 mF
CHAPTER 6
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d)
8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (b)
15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (a) 20. (c) 21. (d)
22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (d)
29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (d) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (a)
36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (b) 41. (a) 42. (c)

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. True 7. False
8. True 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. True 13. False 14. True
15. True 16. False 17. True 18. True 19. True 20. False 21. True
36. True 37. True 38. True 39. True 40. True 41. True 42. False
50. True 51. True 52. True 53. True 54. True 55. False 56. False
57. True 58. True 59. True 60. False 61. True 62. True 63. True
64. False 65. True 66. True
Problems
6.1 50 Hz 6.2 40 mH
6.3 L = 5 mH, C = 1 mF
6.4 350 V
6.5 50%
CHAPTER 7
Multiple Choice Question
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a)
8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (c)
15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (c) 21. (a)
22. (c) 23. (a)

1. True 2. True 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. False 7. True
8. False 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. True 13. True 14. False
15. True 16. False 17. True 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. False
22. True 23. True 24. True
Problems
7.1 30°
7.2 12
7.3 50%
7.4 3.5 W
CHAPTER 8
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a)
8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (a)
15. (a) 16. (b)
1. False 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. False 6. True 7. False
8. True 9. False 10. True 11. False 12. True 13. True 14. True
15. True 16. True 17. True
Problems
8.1 800 V, 5 A, 53.3 MHz 8.2 2076 V, 3.847 A
CHAPTER 9
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a)
8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (a)
15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (a) 20. (b) 21. (c)
22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a)

1. False 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False 7. False
8. True 9. True 10. False 11. True 12. False 13. True 14. False
15. False 16. True 17. False 18. True 19. True 20. True 21. True
22. False 23. True

CHAPTER 10
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c)
8. (b) 9. (a)

1. False 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True 7. True
8. False 9. True
Chapter 11
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b)
7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (b) 12. (d)
13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c)
19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (b)
True/False Statements
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. False
7. True 8. False 9. True 10. True 11. True 12. False
13. True 14. False 15. True 16. True 17. True 18. False
19. False 20. True 21. True 22. False 23. True 24. True
25. True 26. False 27. True
INDEX 78XX, 36
79xx, 47
3524 pulse width modulation, 47
AC
chopper, 392
chopper control, 415
generator voltage regulator, 540
circuit diagram, 540
principle of operation, 540
power conditioner, 533
power control, 428
voltage controllers, 413
applications, 412
Active filter
bleeder resistor, 20
capacitor, 15
choke, 18
high-pass, 162
inductor, 17
low-pass, 162
pi (p) filter or CLC, 19
Adder or summing amplifier (noninverting mode), 122
Adder-subtractor, 125
Additional protection of thermal overload by using external pass
transistor for the 78xx series, 37
transistor for the 78xx series, 37
Adjustable positive voltage regulator, 35
Audio amplifier, LM378, 163
Bilateral series inverter, 355

BJTs
hybrid model, 90
input impedance, 91
open circuit reverse voltage gain, 90
output admittance, 91
short circuit current gain, 91
hybrid parameters, 89
power
snubber circuit (switching-aid circuit), 308
Boost converter, 44
Buck-boost converter, 45
Buck converter, 43
Central processing unit (CPU), 551

Chopper(s)
applications, 380
frequency, 383
voltage step-down, 380
voltage step-up, 380
Circulating current type dual converter (dual-bridge configuration),
375
Circulating current type dual converter (mid-point configuration), 373
CMRR, error term, 80
CMRR, error term, 80
Colpitt’s oscillator, 473
Commutating, transpose, or speed-up capacitors, 187
Compliance voltage, 84
Contact symbology, 590
Continuous actuators, 582
Corona, 478
CPU, 561
CSCR (complementary SCR), 227
Cuk converter, 45
Current limit control (CLC), 382, 383
Current limiting circuit, 38
Current mirror, 84
limitation, 85
Widlar, 85
Wilson, 87
Current regulator, 36
Current series negative feedback amplifier, 133
Current-source inverters
applications, 360
Current-to-voltage follower, 132
applications, 132
Cycloconverter
applications, 394
phase-controlled, 394
bridge configuration, 394
mid-point configuration, 394
single-phase/single-phase, 394
Darlington amplifier, 93
Darlington amplifier, 93
input impedance, 93
DC chopper, 381
DIAC, 227
applications, 301
structure and symbol, 300
V-I characteristic
breakback voltage, 301
Differential amplifier, 61
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 79
common mode signal, 71
rejection, 77
with a constant current source, 81
necessity of two diodes, 83
with current mirror, 85
with Darlington configuration, 95
difference mode signal, 71
double-ended input and double-ended output, 61
double-ended input and single-ended output, 72
DC equivalent circuit, 72
with common mode signal, 78
dual input, balanced output, 61
figure of merit, 80
input bias current, 74
input impedance, 74
input offset current, 74
single-ended input and double-ended floating load, 64
single-ended input and double-ended output, 64
Single-ended input and single-ended output, 66
noninverting amplifier, 69
simple amplifier, 66
single-ended input, single-ended output, 69
tail current, 72
tail current, 72
tandem connection, 96
Differentiator, 138
Diode
dynamic resistance, 2, 7
fast recovery, 302
peak inverse voltage, 10
power
applications, 305
construction, 303
current ratings, 305
protection of snubber circuit, 306
stud-type package, 304
types, 304
hockey puck, 304
voltage ratings, 305
Diode rectifier
three-phase half-wave diode rectifier with resistive load, 293
Double-ended input, double-ended output difference mode signal, 63
Dual converters
antiparallel connection, 377
cross connection, 377
direct antiparallel connection, 377
Ebers–Moll ac Model, 59
ac emitter resistance, 61
ac model of a transistor, 60
dc model of a transistor, 60
Electromechanical transducers, 580
Electron tubes
Electron tubes
cold-cathode type gas-filled diode, 322
glow discharge, 322
plasma, 322
Event-driven device, 589
Fixed linear negative voltage regulator, 36

Fixed positive voltage regulator, 33
Flyback converter, 42
Forward converter, 43
Four-quadrant operation, 369
Function generator using, 741
Heating
dielectric, 466, 474
applications, 478
effect of variation of frequency of the power supply, 478
effect of variation of voltage of the power supply, 478
materials of irregular shapes, 477
electrical, 466
high frequency, 466
induction, 466, 467
advantages, 472
applications, 474
surface hardening, 473
choice of frequency, 472
effects of source voltage, 471
effects of source voltage, 471
effects of supply frequency, 471
magnetic coupling, 469
skin effect, 467
IC 7805, 32
IC 7815, 32
IC voltage regulators, three-terminal, 32
IGBT
applications, 317
switching characteristics, 317
Ignitron
applications, 328
contactor, 489
change of firing angles, 489
Induction motor
equivalent circuit, 432
referred to the stator side, 432
equivalent circuit diagram of rotor, 431
rotor copper loss, 431
rotor current, 431
rotor power developed, 431
squirrel cage type, 432
synchronous watt, 432
torque, 429
torque-slip characteristic curves, 430
wound rotor type, 432
Inductive sensors, 574
Input ON/OFF switching devices, 576
Input/output module, 554
Input/output module, 554
Instrumentation amplifier, 129
applications, 130
principle of working, 129
with transducer bridge, 130
Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), 315
construction, 315
Integral cycle control, 415
or ON-OFF control, 413
Integral cycle triggering, 416
Integrated circuits
classification, 164
digital, 164
hybrid, 165
linear, 164
Integrator, 139
Interfaces, 554, 572, 582
Inverter, 345
applications, 345
forced-commutated, 345
single-phase parallel, 353
single-phase parallel-capacitor, 351
line-commutated, 345, 346, 349
inversion, 345
single-phase full-controlled, 346
three-phase full-controlled, 349
single-phase series, 355
Inverting amplifier, 71
Inverting comparator, 144
I/O modules, 555
Isolation amplifier, 121

Jones chopper, 387
LAPUT (Light activated programmable unijunction transistor), 227

LASCR (Light activated silicon controlled rectifier), 227
LASCS (Light activated silicon controlled switch), 227
Lasers, 500
classification, 503
electromagnetic spectrum, 500
formation of laser beam, 503
losses, 503
optical feedback, 502
population inversion, 502, 504
pumping, 502
semiconductor laser diode, 503
injection laser diode, 504
solid state laser (ruby), 505
spontaneous emission, 501
stimulated emission, 501
LCD, 506
construction, 507
types of ordering, 506
cholesteric, 507
nematic, 507
LEDs, 497
infrared diodes, 498
edge emitting, 498
surface emitting, 498
materials, 496
materials, 496
Linear voltage regulator, 32
Line-commutated converter, 365
LM78xx, 32
Logarithmic amplifier, 134
Logic controllers, 550
Luminescence
cathodeluminescence, 494
electroluminescence, 494
photoluminescence, 494
Magnetic transducers, 579

Memory, 561
address, 565
EEPROM, 563
EPROM, 562
floating, 572
integer, 572
map, 565
PROM, 562
ROM, 562
size, 564
Microprocessor, 560
Microstepping, 584
Motor controller, 583
Multivibrator
astable, 174
frequency of oscillation, 178
switching time, 178
symmetrical, 175
symmetrical, 175
using a 741 op-amp, 207
using a 741 opamp, 208
bistable, 185
741 OP-AMP, 209
symmetrical, 185
comparison, 187
monostable, 179
Negative scale changer, 114

Negative voltage regulator, 36
Noise
common mode, 535
different forms, 534
effect on computer and communication systems, 534
line, 535
low frequency or flicker, 535
origin, 533
partition, 535
power supply, 533
reduction, 534
shot, 534
temperature fluctuating, 535
thermal, 534
Noninverting comparator, 142
Op-amps, 154
as a current-to-voltage converter, 132
as a current-to-voltage converter, 132
as a differentiator, 138
as a logarithmic amplifier, 135
as an adder, 122
as an inverting amplifier, 114
as a noninverting amplifier, 118
as a rectangular-to-triangular pulse converter, 151
as a relaxation oscillator, 149
as a Schmitt trigger, 146
as a subtractor, 124
as a triangular-to-rectangular pulse converter, 152
as a voltage-to-current converter, 134
block representation, 159
bode response plots, 156
break frequency, 155
common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), 112
common mode signal, 113
difference mode signal, 113
frequency response, 155
general purpose, 100
input bias current, 105
input bias current drift, 105
input common mode voltage range, 107
input differential mode range, 107
input offset current, 105
input offset current drift, 106
input offset voltage, 104
input offset voltage drift, 105
instrumentation, 101
isolation, 101
large-signal voltage gain, 107
LM709, 159
LM725, 157
LM725, 157
mA741, 102
features, 102
parameters, 113
pin configuration, 103
mA741 op-amp series, 101
norton, 101
offset voltage adjustment range, 107
open-loop configurations, 108
open-loop connection, 108
output offset voltage, 106
output offset voltage drift, 106
output voltage range, 107
output voltage swing, 107
positive scale changer, 119
power bandwidth, 112
power supply rejection ratio, PSRR, 107
properties, 102
short-circuit output current, 107
slew rate, 112
tailored frequency response, 155
terminologies, 109
summing point, 110
virtual ground, 110
thermal bias current drift, 105
thermal voltage drift, 105
uncompensated, 155
unity gain frequency, 157
Op-comparator, 142
applications, 142
Operational amplifier, 59
crossover frequency, 155
open-loop and closed-loop voltage gains, 156
unity voltage gain, 155
unity voltage gain, 155
Optical fibre(s)
acceptance cone, 527
advantages, 524
applications, 525
basic fibre-optic link, 523
cable, 527
Kevlar, 527
materials, 523
parameters, 523
attenuation, 523
bandwidth, 523
splices and connectors, 528
structure of a single fibre, 527
working principle, 525
Optical power, 526
Optical sensors, 575
Optical transducers, 579
Optocouplers, 494
advantages, 520
air-isolated optocoupler configuration, 520
applications, 520
dielectrically isolated, 518
disadvantages, 520
glass-isolated optocoupler configuration, 519
isolation capacitance, 518
isolation resistance, 519
isolation voltage, 518
symbols, 519
Optoisolator, 556, 559
Output ON/OFF devices, 582

Phase control with resistive load, 413

Phase-controlled
inversion mode, 366
rectification mode, 366
Phase-controlled dual converter, 371
Phase-locked-loop (PLL) control, 460
Photocells, 132
Photoconductive
cells, 508
specific sensitivity, 510
Photoconductive sensors, 508
Photoconductors, 510, 521
Photodetectors, 494
Photodiode
integral sensitivity, 510
photoconductive type, 511
dark current, 511
principle of operation, 512, 513
Photo-emf, 514
Photo emitters, 494
Photomultipliers, 132
Photons, 497
Photo relay, 521
Photoresistors, 510
Photo SCRs, 517
Phototransistors irradiance, 516
Photovoltaic, 494
PLC
input card for sinking sensors, 573
input image table, 568, 569
input instructions, 580
input instructions, 580
input sensing switches, 578
ladder logic, 580, 584
ladder logic language, 590
ladder rung, 590
output image table, 568, 570
process control by logic controller, 591
programming examples, 593
scan cycle, 586
sequence of operations, 585
status bits, 572
status lights, 589
strategies, 587
types of output devices, 583
Positive voltage regulator, 32
Power MOSFET
applications, 314
construction, 312
integral reverse diode, 313
snubber circuit (switching-aid circuit), 314
switching characteristics, 314
Power supplies, performance parameters, 7
Power supply, 1
block diagram, 1
figure of merit, 23
line regulation or source regulation voltage regulation, 11
load regulation, 12
power dissipation, 12
regulated, 24
input regulation factor, 24
output resistance, 24
temperature coefficient, 24
regulated, 23
regulated, 23
ripple rejection, 12
stabilisation factor, 12
temperature stability, 12
thermal regulation, 12
Power transistor
construction, 306
double-diffused, 306
triple-diffused, 306
switching characteristic, 309
Precision rectifier, 135
principle of working, 135
Programmable logic controller (PLC), 547
advantages, 548
applications, 548
block diagram, 552, 553
functions, 548
selecting, 550
Programming device, 559
Proximity sensors, 575
Pulse rate modulation, 381
Pulse width modulation, 243, 381
PUT (programmable unijunction transistor), 227
Quadrac, 302
Quanta, 497

Ratio of rectification, 7
Rectifier
full-wave, 14
bridge, 7
efficiency, 10
using centre-tap transformer, 5
half-wave, 2, 14
efficiency, 9, 14
P.I.V., 14
ripple factor, 14
ripple frequency, 14
utilisation factor, 14
Relaxation oscillator, 218
Relay type of control, 548
Rotor ON-OFF control, 435
Scale-changing amplifier, 115

Scaling amplifier, 125
SCR
antiparallel mode, 298
diac, 301
average ON-state current, 234
class A commutation (series resonant commutation, 247
class B commutation (parallel resonant commutation, 249
class C commutation complementary commutation, 250
class D commutation (auxiliary commutation), 251
class E commutation (external pulse commutation), 253
class F commutation (AC line commutation), 253
comparison of SCRs and transistors, 254
comparison of triacs with antiparallel, 299
composite triggering, 242
constructional features, 228
crowbar protection, 260
dv/dt protection, 258
dv/dt turn-on, 239
finger voltage, 234
forced commutation, 240, 247
forward blocking region, 232
forward breakdown voltage, 233
forward breakover voltage, 233
forward conduction region, 232
forward current rating, 235
full-wave full-controlled bridge rectifier (B-2 connection), 279
full-wave half-controlled bridge rectifier (B-2 connection), 282
gate protection, 259
gate triggering current, 235
gate turn-off, 240
gate turn-on, 239
gate voltage, 232
half-wave controlled
for an inductive load, 269
with resistive load, 272
holding current, 234
latching current, 234
light turn-on, 238
M-2 connection, 273
natural commutation, 240
ON-state voltage, 234
operated in parallel, 265
current imbalance, 265
inductive compensation method, 265
resistance compensation method, 265
parallel capacitor turn-off, 250
parallel connected
parallel connected
phase angle control, 267
triggering, 266, 267
slave triggering, 267
power losses, 236
pulse triggering circuit, 242
reverse bias turn-off, 240
reverse blocking region, 232
reverse breakdown voltage, 233
non-repetitive peak, 233
repetitive peak, 233
reverse conduction region, 232
self commutation, 247
series connected, 260, 261
application, 264
equalising resistance, 262
independent triggering, 262
slave triggering, 263
voltage equalisation, 261
single-phase full-wave controlled, 273
bridge circuit, 273
structure and symbol, 228
thermal characteristics, 255
junction temperature, 255
thermal resistance, 255
three-phase full-wave rectifier (M-6 connection), 285
tree-phase full-wave full-controlled bridge rectifier (B-6 connection),
288
turn-off time, 237
turn-on time, 236
two transistor analogy, 229, 231
UJT triggering circuit, 241
V-I characteristic, 233
voltage turn-on, 238
voltage turn-on, 238
Semiconductor devices, 317
Sequence control, 413
Sequential circuit, 185
Series inverter
current commutation, 356
resonant turn-off, 356
ringing frequency, 357
self commutation, 356
Servosystem, positioning, 457
Silicon bilateral switch, 227
Silicon controlled switch, 227
Silicon unilateral switch, 227
Single-phase dual converter, 372
Snell’s law
critical angle, 526
internal reflection, 526
numerical aperture, 526
Speed control
DC series motors, 424
induction motors
slip ring, 435
induction motors stator voltage control method, 433
separately excited DC motors, 426
shunt-wound DC motors (armature voltage control), 422
Step-down converter, 43
Stepper motor
bipolar, 447
in a PLC, 585
permanent magnet, 447
cogging, 447
detent torque, 447
permanent magnet, 447
permanent magnet hybrid (PMH), 451
variable reluctance, 444
Stepper motors, 443
Step-up converter, 44
Switching circuits, 212
transistor as a switch, 212
turn-off time, 212
turn-on time, 212
Switching regulator
PWM, 39
PWM IC TL494, 40
Switch mode converter, 42
Synchro
control transformer, 457
control transmitter, 457
generator, 453
motor, 457
Synchronous tap changer, 418
for inductive load, 421
for single-phase transformers, 419
Telemetering system, 458

Telemetry, 458
Thermal shutdown, 35
Three-phase forced-commutated bridge inverters, 361
waveforms, 363
Three-phase/single-phase cycloconverter, 399, 400
circulating current type, 400
non-circulating type, 400
Three-phase/three-phase cycloconverter, 402
Three-phase/three-phase cycloconverter, 402
Three-terminal current regulator using LM78xx, 36
Three-terminal IC voltage regulators, 32
Thyratron
applications, 326
firing characteristic, 326
control grid voltage, 325
critical grid voltage, 325
Thyristor, 227
symbolic representations, 228
Timers
555 IC
astable mode, 197
disadvantages, 203
monostable mode, 195
parameter values, 203
as RAMP generator, 204
as Schmitt trigger, 205
as voltage-controlled oscillator, 204
556 dual, 207
556 IC, 206
AC operated delay, 217
applications, 190
basic principle, 191
buckling voltage, 191
time constant, 191
DC operated delay, 217
digital or programmable, 210
sequential, 209
Transconductance amplifier, 133
Transducer bridge, 130
Transducer bridge, 130
Transistor as a switch
comparison of a transistor and an SCR, 216
cut-off region, 215
fall time, 215
storage time, 215
propagation delay time, 215
saturation region, 213
delay time, 214
power loss, 214
rise time, 215
TRC
constant frequency, 383
variable frequency, 383
Triac
applications, 298
construction, 295
gate triggering modes, 296
Triac-diac lamp dimmer circuit, 429
Triggering signals
types, 187
asymmetrical, 187
symmetrical, 187
Two-quadrant chopper or reversible chopper, 391
Two-quadrant phase-controlled converter for a dc drive with
regenerative braking, 368
Two-quadrant phase-controlled converter—HVDC power link, 366
UJT
applications, 321
construction, 319
conductivity modulation, 320
cut-off region, 321
negative resistance region, 321
saturation region, 321
valley point, 320
Unity gain buffer, 121
Voltage doubler
full-wave, 22
half-wave, 20
Voltage follower, 121
Voltage regulator
linear, 23
series, 23
723/723C, 29
op-amp, 28
with negative output, 27
with positive output, 27
shunt, 29
switching, 23
three-terminal, 33
adjustable positive, 35
fixed negative, 36
fixed positive, 32
advantages, 35
disadvantages, 35
disadvantages, 35
self-protection, 35
working principle
fixed positive, 33
overcurrent protection, 35
zener diode, 23
Voltage-source inverter, 360, 437
Voltage step-down chopper, 384
switching duty cycle, 385
valley current, 385
Voltage step-up chopper, 386
Voltage-to-current converter, 133
Voltage-to-frequency converter, 204
Welding
AC resistance, 487
butt, 483, 486
flash butt, 483, 486
projection, 483, 487
seam, 483, 485
sequence timer
hold time, 490
OFF time, 490
squeeze time, 490
weld time, 490
spot, 483, 484
Wien bridge oscillator, 151
Window comparator, 150

Zero-crossing detector, 144

Zero voltage switch or zero crossover switch, 417

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INDUSTRIAL

Twelfth Printing (Third Edition)……………………………………………………………July, 2014

(Dr. P.K. Banerjee) Professor

4.2 The ASTABLE

Fig. 4.1 Block representation of the astable multivibrator.

Fig. 4.2(a) Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled astable multivibrator.

Fig. 4.2(d) Waveforms of a collector-coupled astable multivibrator.

= (5 10–6)/(1.38 150 103) = 24 10–12 =

Fig. 4.3 Block representation of the monostable multivibrator.

Fig. 4.4(a) Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled monostable multivibrator.

Fig. 4.4(b) Charging path of capacitor C for a collector-coupled monostable

Fig. 4.4(c) Discharging path of capacitor C for a collector-coupled monostable

or (R1 + R2)/R1 = – VBB/vB1

4.4 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

Fig. 4.5 Block representation of the bistable multivibrator.

Fig. 4.6(a) Circuit diagram of a collector-coupled bistable multivibrator.

Fig. 4.6(b) Waveforms of the collector-coupled bistable multivibrator.

Function of capacitors C and C

Astable multivibrator Monostable multivibrator Bistable multivibrator

2. It has two quasi-stable states.

3. No external pulse is required to complete

Hence, the exact value of base current of the ON transistor is given by

The exact value of base voltage of the OFF transistor is given by

They can operate from a wide range of supply voltages.

Fig. 4.7(a) Symmetrical square waveform.

Fig. 4.7(b) Asymmetrical waveform.

Time constant as an important parameter in timer circuits The rate of

4.6 The LM555 IC TIMER

Fig. 4.9(c) Block diagram of the 555 IC timer as in monostable mode.

Fig. 4.10(a) Internal and external connections of a 555 IC timer as in astable

Fig. 4.10(b) Waveforms of a 555 IC timer as in astable mode.

Fig. 4.10(c) Block representation of a 555 IC timer as in astable mode.

Therefore, tON = 0.469 ms and tOFF = T – tON

4.6.3 10 kHz IC Timer In Fig. 4.10(c) when R2 is very large

Supply voltage range 4.5–16 V

Power dissipation (max) 600 mW

Threshold voltage + (2/3)VCC

Trigger voltage + (1/3)VCC

Reset voltage 0.7 V

Supply current (at VCC = 15 V) 10 mA

Maximum output source/sink current 200 mA

Timing accuracy, typical ± 1%

Drift with temperature 50 ppm/°C

Drift with supply voltage 0.1%/V

4.7 555 IC AS VOLTAGE-

Fig. 4.11(c) Capacitor timing waveform of a voltage-controlled oscillator using

4.8 555 IC AS RAMP GENERATOR

Fig. 4.12 555 IC as a ramp generator.

4.9 555 IC AS SCHMITT TRIGGER

Fig. 4.13 555 IC timer as Schmitt trigger.

4.10 556 IC TIMER

4.11 741 OP-AMP AS an ASTABLE

Fig. 4.15 The 741 op-amp as an astable multivibrator.

4.12 741 OP-AMP AS a

Fig. 4.16 The 741 op-amp as a monostable multivibrator.

4.13 741 OP-AMP AS A BISTABLE

4.14 SEQUENTIAL TIMER

Fig. 4.19(b) External connections of a mA2240 programmable/digital timer.

4.16 SWITCHING CIRCUITS

Instant turn-on and turn-off times