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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Bear cub" redirects here. For the 2004 film, see Bear Cub.
This article is about the carnivoran mammals. For other uses, see Bear
(disambiguation).

Bears

Temporal range: 38–0 Ma 
PreꞒ

Pg

Late Eocene – Recent

Brown bear (Ursus arctos)

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia
 Order: Carnivora

Suborder: Caniformia

Infraorder: Arctoidea

Parvorder: Ursida
Tedford, 1976

Family: Ursidae
G. Fischer de
Waldheim, 1817

Type genus

Ursus

Linnaeus, 1758

Subfamilies

Hemicyoninae
Ursavinae
Agriotheriinae
Ailuropodinae (Pandas)
Tremarctinae (Short-faced bears)
Ursinae (All other bear species)

Bears are carnivoran mammals of the family Ursidae (/ˈɜːrsɪdiː, -daɪ/). They are

classified as caniforms, or doglike carnivorans. Although only eight species of bears are
extant, they are widespread, appearing in a wide variety of habitats throughout the
Northern Hemisphere and partially in the Southern Hemisphere. Bears are found on the
continents of North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Common characteristics
of modern bears include large bodies with stocky legs, long snouts, small rounded ears,
shaggy hair, plantigrade paws with five nonretractile claws, and short tails.
While the polar bear is mostly carnivorous, and the giant panda feeds almost entirely
on bamboo, the remaining six species are omnivorous with varied diets. With the
exception of courting individuals and mothers with their young, bears are
typically solitary animals. They may be diurnal or nocturnal and have an excellent sense
of smell. Despite their heavy build and awkward gait, they are adept runners, climbers,
and swimmers. Bears use shelters, such as caves and logs, as their dens; most species
occupy their dens during the winter for a long period of hibernation, up to 100 days.
Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur; they have been
used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment, such as being made to dance.
With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology,
and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have
come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear
parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six bear species
as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species, such as the brown bear,
are at risk of extirpation in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of
these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.

Etymology
The English word "bear" comes from Old English bera and belongs to a family of names
for the bear in Germanic languages, such as Swedish björn, also used as a first name.
This form is conventionally said to be related to a Proto-Indo-European word for
"brown", so that "bear" would mean "the brown one". [1][2] However, Ringe notes that while
this etymology is semantically plausible, a word meaning "brown" of this form cannot be
found in Proto-Indo-European. He suggests instead that "bear" is from the Proto-Indo-
European word *ǵʰwḗr- ~ *ǵʰwér "wild animal".[3] This terminology for the animal
originated as a taboo avoidance term: proto-Germanic tribes replaced their original word
for bear—arkto—with this euphemistic expression out of fear that speaking the animal's
true name might cause it to appear.[4][5] According to author Ralph Keyes, this is the
oldest known euphemism.[6]
Bear taxon names such as Arctoidea and Helarctos come from the ancient Greek
ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear,[7] as do the names "arctic" and "antarctic", via the name
of the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky. [8]
Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa,
he-bear/she-bear.[8] The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a
Christian saint's name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland,
the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city
of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear. The Germanic name Bernard (including
Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear". [9][10] The
Old English name Beowulf is a kenning, "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave
warrior.[11]

Taxonomy
Further information: List of ursids
The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder Caniformia, or "doglike"
carnivorans, within the order Carnivora. Bears' closest living relatives are
the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids.[12] Modern bears comprise eight species in three
subfamilies: Ailuropodinae (monotypic with the giant panda), Tremarctinae (monotypic
with the spectacled bear), and Ursinae (containing six species divided into one to three
genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that
the karyotype of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, each having
74 chromosomes (see Ursid hybrid), whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes
and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of
some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine
species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two
species in Ursidae rather than in Procyonidae, where they had been placed by some
earlier authorities.[13]
Evolution

Plithocyon armagnacensis skull, a member of the extinct subfamily Hemicyoninae from the Miocene

The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae,

including Parictis (late Eocene to early middle Miocene, 38–18 Mya) and the slightly
younger Allocyon (early Oligocene, 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These
animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall
appearance, with diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not
appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene. [14] It is unclear whether late-Eocene
ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the Bering land
bridge may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late
Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene. [15] European genera
morphologically very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger
American Kolponomos (about 18 Mya),[16] are known from the Oligocene,
including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon.[15] There has been various morphological
evidence linking amphicynodontines with pinnipeds, as both groups were semi-aquatic,
otter-like mammals.[17][18][19] In addition to the support of the pinniped–amphicynodontine
clade, other morphological and some molecular evidence supports bears being the
closest living relatives to pinnipeds.[20][21][22][18][23][19]
Life restoration of Arctotherium bonariense

The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the oldest-known member of the

subfamily Hemicyoninae, which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia
about 30 Mya.[15] The subfamily includes the younger genera Phoberocyon (20–15 Mya),
and Plithocyon (15–7 Mya). A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the
genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into
many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species
of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together
with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya). Members
of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus between 15 and 20 Mya,[24][25] likely
via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the
Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya,
although no fossils of this group have been found before about 11 Mya. [26][27]
The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a
dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13 Mya).
[26]
 They invaded South America (≈2.5 or 1.2 Ma) following formation of the Isthmus of
Panama.[28] Their earliest fossil representative is Plionarctos in North America (c. 10–
2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the North American short-faced
bears (genus Arctodus), the South American short-faced bears (Arctotherium), and the
spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species
(T. floridanus), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South
American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).[15]

Fossil of the cave bear (Ursus spelaeus), a relative of the brown bear and polar bear from
the Pleistocene epoch in Europe
The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya,
coincident with major environmental changes; the first members of the
genus Ursus appeared around this time. The sloth bear is a modern survivor of one of
the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its
peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early
Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of
Europe; apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's Asian black bear. It is likely
ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages
evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the sun bear, the Asian black bear,
and the American black bear); and the brown bears (which includes the polar bear).
Modern brown bears evolved from U. minimus via Ursus etruscus, which itself is
ancestral to the extinct Pleistocene cave bear.[26] Species of Ursinae have migrated
repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene.
[29][30]
 The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from a
population of brown bears that became isolated in northern latitudes by glaciation
400,000 years ago.[31]
Phylogeny
The relationship of the bear family with other carnivorans is shown in the
following phylogenetic tree, which is based on the molecular phylogenetic analysis of six
genes in Flynn, 2005.[32]
Carnivora
Feliformia 
   Caniformia   

Canidae 
   Arctoidea       
Ursidae 

Pinnipedia 
Musteloidea
Ailuridae 

Mephitidae 

Procyonidae 

Mustelidae 

Note that although they are called "bears" in some languages, red pandas and raccoons
and their close relatives are not bears, but rather musteloids.[32]
There are two phylogenetic hypotheses on the relationships among extant and fossil
bear species. One is all species of bears are classified in seven subfamilies as adopted
here and related
articles: Amphicynodontinae, Hemicyoninae, Ursavinae, Agriotheriinae, Ailuropodinae, 
Tremarctinae, and Ursinae.[33][34][35][36] Below is a cladogram of the subfamilies of bears after
McLellan and Reiner (1992)[33] and Qiu et al. (2014):[36][clarification needed]
Ursidae
Amphicynodontinae 

Hemicyoninae

Ursavinae

Agriotheriinae

Ailuropodinae 

Tremarctinae 

Ursinae 

The second alternative phylogenetic hypothesis was implemented by McKenna et al.

(1997) to classify all the bear species into the superfamily Ursoidea, with Hemicyoninae
and Agriotheriinae being classified in the family "Hemicyonidae". [37] Amphicynodontinae
under this classification were classified as stem-pinnipeds in the superfamily Phocoidea.
[37]
 In the McKenna and Bell classification both bears and pinnipeds are in a parvorder
of carnivoran mammals known as Ursida, along with the extinct bear dogs of the
family Amphicyonidae.[37] Below is the cladogram based on McKenna and Bell (1997)
classification:[37][clarification needed]
Ursida
Amphicyonidae 
Phocoidea

Amphicynodontidae 

Pinnipedia 
Ursoidea Hemicyonid
Hemicyoninae
ae
Agriotheriinae
Ursidae
Ursavinae

Ailuropodinae 
The phylogeny of extant bear species is shown in a cladogram based on
complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al. (2007)[38] The giant panda,
followed by the spectacled bear, are clearly the oldest species. The relationships of the
other species are not very well resolved, though the polar bear and the brown bear form
a close grouping.[13]
Ursidae Ursinae
Brown bear 

Polar bear 

Asian black bear 

American black bear 

Sun bear 

Sloth bear 

Spectacled bear 

Giant panda 

Physical characteristics
Size
Polar bear (left) and sun bear, the largest and smallest species respectively, on average

The bear family includes the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order
Carnivora.[a] The polar bear is considered to be the largest extant species, [40] with adult
males weighing 350–700 kilograms (770–1,500 pounds) and measuring 2.4–3 metres
(7 ft 10 in – 9 ft 10 in) in total length.[41] The smallest species is the sun bear, which
ranges 25–65 kg (55–145 lb) in weight and 100–140 cm (40–55 in) in length.
[42]
 Prehistoric North and South American short-faced bears were the largest species
known to have lived. The latter estimated to have weighed 1,600 kg (3,500 lb) and
stood 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) tall.[43][44] Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of
temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn
and lose weight during the winter.[45]
Morphology

Unlike most other carnivorans, bears have plantigrade feet. Drawing by Richard Owen, 1866.

Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are sexually
dimorphic with regard to size, with males typically being larger. [46][47] Larger species tend
to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species.
[47]
 Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs
with thick bones to support their bulk. The shoulder blades and the pelvis are
correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the big cats as
there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The
strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, excavate dens, dig out burrowing animals, turn
over rocks and logs to locate prey, and club large creatures. [45]
Despite being quadrupeds, bears can stand and sit as humans do, as demonstrated by this American black
bear.

Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are plantigrade. They distribute their weight
toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are
capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather
than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable
balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-
retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws
on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance when
climbing trees; black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest
claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which
acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.[45]
Most mammals have agouti hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of color
corresponding to two different types of melanin pigment. Bears however have a single
type of melanin and the hairs have a single color throughout their length, apart from the
tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which
form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer
trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter
hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have
hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-
colored skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles
of their feet have a dense pad of fur.[45] While bears tend to be uniform in color, some
species may have markings on the chest or face and the giant panda has a bold black-
and-white pelage.[48]
Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimize heat loss, but neither their hearing or
sight are particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivorans they have color vision,
perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among
carnivorans in not having touch-sensitive whiskers on the muzzle; however, they have
an excellent sense of smell, better than that of the dog, or possibly any other mammal.
They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and
for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food,
and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have
found food before.[45]

Brown bear skull

The skulls of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the

powerful masseter and temporal jaw muscles. The canine teeth are large but mostly
used for display, and the molar teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of
the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped carnassial teeth, and their teeth are
adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter. [45] Considerable
variation occurs in dental formula even within a given species. This may indicate bears
are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly
herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like
cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory. [49] Sloth bears lack
lower central incisors and use their protrusible lips for sucking up the termites on which
they feed.[45] The general dental formula for living bears is: 3.1.2–4.23.1.2–4.3 .[45] The
structure of the larynx of bears appears to be the most basal of the caniforms.[50] They
possess air pouches connected to the pharynx which may amplify their vocalizations.[51]
Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single
stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no cecum.[52][53] Even the herbivorous giant
panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes.
Its ability to digest cellulose is ascribed to the microbes in its gut.[54] Bears must spend
much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from foliage. The panda, in
particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding. [55]

Distribution and habitat

The spectacled bear is the only species found in South America.[56]

Further information: List of carnivorans by population
Extant bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are
concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is the spectacled bear;
native to South America, it inhabits the Andean region.[56] The sun bear's range extends
below the equator in Southeast Asia.[57] The Atlas bear, a subspecies of the brown bear
was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the
1870s.[58]

The brown bear photographed near the Russian border in the forests of Kainuu, Finland.

The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe
eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black
bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All
the remaining species of bear are Asian.[56] They occur in a range of habitats which
include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies,
steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the
polar bear, ice floes.[56][59] Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs
and dense vegetation for shelter.[59]

Behavior and ecology

American black bear tracks at Superior National Forest, Minnesota, U.S.

Brown and American black bears are generally diurnal, meaning that they are active for
the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night. [60] Other
species may be nocturnal, active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed
more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators.
[61]
 Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the
Carnivora. The only times bears are encountered in groups are mothers with young or
occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs). [62][63] Fights between
males can occur and older individuals may have extensive scarring, which suggests that
maintaining dominance can be intense.[64] With their acute sense of smell, bears can
locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use olfaction to locate other foods,
encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognize their cubs. [45]
Feeding

Giant panda feeding on bamboo at Smithsonian National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C. This species is

almost entirely herbivorous.

Most bears are opportunistic omnivores and consume more plant than animal matter,
and appears to have evolved from an ancestor which was a low-protein macronutrient
omnivore.[65] They eat anything from leaves, roots, and berries to insects, carrion, fresh
meat, and fish, and have digestive systems and teeth adapted to such a diet. [56] At the
extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous
polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally
available.[55] For example, Asiatic black bears in Taiwan consume large numbers
of acorns when these are most common, and switch to ungulates at other times of the
year.[66]
When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their
most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older grasses, sedges and leaves.[53]
[55]
 Hence, in more northern temperate areas, browsing and grazing is more common
early in spring and later becomes more restricted. [67] Knowing when plants are ripe for
eating is a learned behavior.[55] Berries may be foraged in bushes or at the tops of trees,
and bears try to maximize the number of berries consumed versus foliage. [67] In autumn,
some bear species forage large amounts of naturally fermented fruits, which affects
their behavior.[68] Smaller bears climb trees to obtain mast (edible reproductive parts,
such as acorns).[69] Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and
mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food
sources.[70] Brown bears, with their powerful digging abilities, commonly eat roots. [67] The
panda's diet is over 99% bamboo,[71] of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted
for crushing the tough stems of these plants, though they prefer to eat the more
nutritious leaves.[72][73] Bromeliads can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear,
which also has strong jaws to bite them open.[74]
Brown bear feeding on infrequent, but predictable, salmon migrations in Alaska

The sloth bear is not as specialized as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front
teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on
the ants, termites, and other burrowing insects. At certain times of the year, these
insects can make up 90% of their diets.[75] Some individuals become addicted to sweets
in garbage inside towns where tourism-related waste is generated throughout the year.
[76]
 Some species may raid the nests of wasps and bees for the honey and immature
insects, in spite of stinging from the adults. [77] Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up
both insects and honey.[78] Fish are an important source of food for some species, and
brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at salmon runs. Typically, a bear
plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts
to eat are the brain and eggs. Small burrowing mammals like rodents may be dug out
and eaten.[79][67]

Polar bear feeding on a seal on an ice floe north of Svalbard, Norway. It is the most carnivorous species.

The brown bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such
as deer and bovids, mostly the young and weak.[66][80][79] These animals may be taken by a
short rush and ambush, though hiding young may be stiffed out and pounced on. [67]
[81]
 The polar bear mainly preys on seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their
dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber. [82][79] Large mammalian prey is
typically killed by a bite to the head or neck, or (in the case of young) simply pinned
down and mauled.[67][83] Predatory behavior in bears is typically taught to the young by the
mother.[79]
Bears are prolific scavengers and kleptoparasites, stealing food caches from rodents,
and carcasses from other predators.[53][84] For hibernating species, weight gain is
important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat
41 kg (90 lb) of food and gain 2–3 kg (4–7 lb) of fat a day prior to entering its den. [85]
Communication

Captive Asian black bears during an aggressive encounter

Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking, grunting or

chuffing many be made in cordial situations, such as between mothers and cubs or
courting couples, while moaning, huffing, snorting or blowing air is made when an
individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give
away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while
teeth-chatters, bellows, growls, roars and pulsing sounds are made in aggressive
encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-
like humming when comfortable or nursing.[50][86][87][88][89][90]

Sloth bear rubbing against a tree at Nagarhole Tiger Reserve, India

Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as standing upright, which
exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this
intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled
bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes
during agonistic encounters.[48] Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged
walking with the head lowered. Dominance between bears is asserted by making a
frontal orientation, showing the canine teeth, muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A
subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the
head and by sitting or lying down.[63][91]
Bears may mark territory by rubbing against trees and other objects which may serve to
spread their scent. This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark
may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post. [92] Pandas are known to
mark objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands. [93] Polar bears
leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one
another in the vast Arctic wilderness.[94]
Reproduction and development

American black bears mating at the North American Bear Center

The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form

of polygyny, promiscuity and serial monogamy.[95][96][97] During the breeding season, males
take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A
male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks,
depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males
try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in
some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting
and vocalizing. Ovulation is induced by mating, which can last up to 30 minutes
depending on the species.[96]
0:38
Polar bear mother nursing her cub

Gestation typically lasts 6–9 months, including delayed implantation, and litter size

numbers up to four cubs.[98] Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only
suckle one young and the other is left to die. [99] In northern living species, birth takes
place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin
layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat
and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By 2–3
months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot,
but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back. [98][59] Male bears play no role in
raising young. Infanticide, where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been
recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other
species.[100] Males kill young to bring the female into estrus.[101] Cubs may flee and the
mother defends them even at the cost of her life. [102][103][104]
In some species, offspring may become independent around the next spring, though
some may stay until the female successfully mates again. Bears reach sexual
maturity shortly after they disperse; at around 3–6 years depending on the species.
Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years
old.[98] Lifespan may also vary between species. The brown bear can live an average of
25 years.[105]
Hibernation
Main article: Hibernation
Bears of northern regions, including the American black bear and the grizzly bear,
hibernate in the winter.[106][107] During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its
body temperature decreases slightly, and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55
to just 9 beats per minute.[108] Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and
can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating. [45] A fecal
plug is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring. [109] If they
have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein
maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste urea.[45] Female bears give birth
during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so. [107]
Mortality

Hunters with shot bear, Sweden, early 20th century. This photograph is in the Nordic Museum.

Bears do not have many predators. The most important are humans, and as they
started cultivating crops, they increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided
them. Since the invention of firearms, people have been able to kill bears with greater
ease.[110] Felids like the tiger may also prey on bears,[111][112] particularly cubs, which may
also be threatened by canids.[13][97]
Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans
and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and
bloodstream. Externally they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears
found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan Sarcocystis, the
parasitic worm Diphyllobothrium mansonoides, and the nematodes Dirofilaria
immitis, Capillaria aerophila, Physaloptera sp., Strongyloides sp. and others. Of
these, D. mansonoides and adult C. aerophila were causing pathological symptoms.
[113]
 By contrast, polar bears have few parasites; many parasitic species need a
secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few
alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has been
found in polar bears, and the nematode Trichinella nativa can cause a serious infection
and decline in older polar bears.[114] Bears in North America are sometimes infected by
a Morbillivirus similar to the canine distemper virus.[115] They are susceptible to infectious
canine hepatitis (CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and
hepatitis.[116]
Relationship with humans
Conservation
Main article: Bear conservation

Giant pandas at the Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries

A barrel trap in Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, used to relocate bears away from where they
might attack humans.

In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their
habitats[117] and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market, though
hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming. [118] The IUCN lists six bear species
as vulnerable;[119] even the two least concern species, the brown bear and the American
black bear,[119] are at risk of extirpation in certain areas. In general these two species
inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural
causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation. [120]
Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from habitat
destruction. Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears
due to their omnivorous diets, their ability to stand on two legs, and their symbolic
importance.[121] Support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent
societies.[122] The giant panda has become a worldwide symbol of conservation.
The Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuaries, which are home to around 30% of the wild
panda population, gained a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation in 2006.[123] Where
bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans. [124][125] In
poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears, and
the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.[124]
Attacks
Main article: Bear attack
Bear warning sign in Alberta, Canada

Several bear species are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have
become used to people; elsewhere, they generally avoid humans. Injuries caused by
bears are rare, but are widely reported.[126] Bears may attack humans in response to
being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons. [127]
Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine
Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been
trained to dance,[128] and were kept for baiting in Europe from at least the 16th century.
There were five bear-baiting gardens in Southwark, London, at that time; archaeological
remains of three of these have survived.[129] Across Europe, nomadic Romani bear
handlers called Ursari lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century. [130]
Bears have been hunted for sport, food, and folk medicine. Their meat is dark and
stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In Cantonese cuisine, bear paws are considered a
delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the
parasite Trichinella spiralis.[131][132]
The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their
gallbladders and bile) as part of traditional Chinese medicine. More than 12,000 bears
are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production
of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under CITES, but bear bile has been
detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States
and Australia.[133]

The Dancing Bear by William Frederick Witherington, 1822

 
 

A nomadic ursar, a Romani bear-busker. Drawing by Theodor Aman, 1888

Cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions of bears
See also: Bear in heraldry
Bears have been popular subjects in art, literature, folklore and mythology. The image
of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia,
based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs. [134] In many Native
American cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-
emergence.[135] A widespread belief among cultures of North America and northern Asia
associated bears with shaman; this may be based on the solitary nature of both. Bears
have thus been thought to predict the future and shaman were believed to have been
capable of transforming into bears.[136]
There is evidence of prehistoric bear worship, though this is disputed by archaeologists.
[137]
 It is possible that bear worship existed in early Chinese and Ainu cultures.[138] The
prehistoric Finns,[139] Siberian peoples[140] and more recently Koreans considered the bear
as the spirit of their forefathers.[141] Artio (Dea Artio in the Gallo-Roman religion) was
a Celtic bear goddess. Evidence of her worship has notably been found at Bern, itself
named for the bear. Her name is derived from the Celtic word for "bear", artos.
[142]
 In ancient Greece, the archaic cult of Artemis in bear form survived into Classical
times at Brauron, where young Athenian girls passed an initiation rite as arktoi "she
bears".[143]
The constellations of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the great and little bears, are named
for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of Ptolemy.[b][8] The nearby
star Arcturus means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations.
[145]
 Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years
since Paleolithic times, in the widespread Cosmic Hunt myths. These are found on both
sides of the Bering land bridge, which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago. [146]
Bears are popular in children's stories, including Winnie the Pooh,[147] Paddington Bear,
[148]
 Gentle Ben[149] and "The Brown Bear of Norway".[150] An early version of "Goldilocks and
the Three Bears",[151] was published as "The Three Bears" in 1837 by Robert Southey,
many times retold, and illustrated in 1918 by Arthur Rackham.[152] The Hanna-
Barbera character Yogi Bear has appeared in numerous comic books, animated
television shows and films.[153][154] The Care Bears began as greeting cards in 1982, and
were featured as toys, on clothing and in film. [155] Around the world, many children—and
some adults—have teddy bears, stuffed toys in the form of bears, named after the
American statesman Theodore Roosevelt when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an
American black bear tied to a tree.[156]
Bears, like other animals, may symbolize nations. The Russian Bear has been a
common national personification for Russia from the 16th century onward.[157] Smokey
Bear has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his
message "Only you can prevent forest fires". [158]

"The Three Bears", Arthur Rackham's illustration to English Fairy Tales, by Flora Annie Steel, 1918
 

The constellation of Ursa Major as depicted in Urania's Mirror, c. 1825

Organizations

Juvenile pandas at the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding

The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as
the International Bear Association, and the Bear Specialist Group of the Species
 Survival Commission, a part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature focus
on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International
works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely
Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat
Conservation.[159]
Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:

 Vital Ground, for the brown bear[160]

 Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear[161]
 Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear [162]
 Polar Bears International, for the polar bear [163]
 Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear [164]
 Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear[165]
 Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear [166]
 Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda [167]

See also

 Animals portal

 List of fictional bears

 List of individual bears

Notes
1. ^ Treating pinnipeds[39] as marine mammals.
2. ^ Ptolemy named the constellations in Greek: Ἄρκτος μεγάλη (Arktos Megale) and Ἄρκτος
μικρά (Arktos Mikra), the great and little bears.[144]

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General and cited references
 Ward, Paul; Kynaston, Suzanne (1995). Wild Bears of the World. New York: Facts
on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-3245-7. OCLC 443610490.

Further reading
 Brunner, Bernd (2007). Bears: A Brief History. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-
300-12299-2.
 Domico, Terry; Newman, Mark (1988). Bears of the World. Facts on
File. ISBN 978-0-8160-1536-8.
 Faulkner, William (1942). The Bear. Curley Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7927-0537-6.

External links

Look up bear in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Bears.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ursidae.

 The Bears Project – Information, reports and images of European brown bears and
other living species
 The Bear Book and Curriculum Guide – a compilation of stories about all eight
species of bears worldwide, including STEM lessons rooted in bear research,
ecology, and conservation
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Extant Carnivora species

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Heraldry
Wikidata: Q11788

Wikispecies: Ursidae

ADW: Ursidae

BioLib: 1808

BOLD: 1408

CoL: HQQ

EoL: 7664

EPPO: 1URSUF

Fauna Europaea: 12635

Fauna Europaea (new): 9e3b44c5-bbfa-4884-930a-22039b1d7acd

Fossilworks: 41301

GBIF: 9681

iNaturalist: 41636

IRMNG: 104793

ITIS: 180540

MSW: 14000939

NBN: NHMSYS0000377309

NCBI: 9632

uBio: 11319754

WoRMS: 136977

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Authority control 
Categories: 
 Bears
 Extant Eocene first appearances
 Predators
 Taxa named by Gotthelf Fischer von Waldheim
 This page was last edited on 9 April 2023, at 16:13 (UTC).
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