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Manufacturing Processes of Car Alloy Wheels

Article · July 2022

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Mohsen Soori
University of Kyrenia
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Abstract:

Passenger cars are using the alloy wheels due to lighter wheels in order to reduce fuel consumption. The alloy wheels
are usually made from light and strong alloys such as aluminum and magnesium which can improve the
performances of braking system to increase safety of the driving. They are produced by casting, machining and
forging operations. The production process can be analyzed and modified to increase efficiency of part production.
Finite element analysis can be used to find the static and dynamic stress of the wheel in actual working conditions.
Process of machining operations using turning machine tools can also be analyzed to be modified. The optimization
process can be used to increase rigidity of the produced alloy wheels. New alloys properties can be tested using
virtual simulation to increase performances of the alloy wheels. To increase quality of produced parts, thermal model
of the low-pressure die-cast in alloy wheel production process is analyzed. So, more added value in manufacturing
process of alloy wheels can be achieved.

Keywords: Alloy wheels, Casting, CNC machining operations, Finite Element Method, Optimization

1- Introduction

Alloy wheels are made of an alloy of light metals, namely aluminum, nickel, magnesium, or a combination of these
metals. They offer performance advantages over steel wheels, as they are often several pounds lighter per wheel -
less weight means quicker acceleration and faster stopping. Less weight also means less strain on suspension
components. In extreme driving conditions, alloy wheels are better able to dissipate heat away from brake
components than their steel counterparts. To produce the allow wheels, the casting operations are used. Aluminum
wheels are manufactured through a process of pouring molten aluminum into a mold.
Casting is the process of wheel manufacturing when aluminum is heated until it is molten. In such condition it is
poured into a mold where it acquires its final shape with the help of vacuum. When it is cooled, it is possible to make
modifications like drilling or trimming. Casting wheels are considered to be quick and inexpensive in terms of
manufacturing. However, they have a major disadvantage- the nature of its manufacturing results in occurrence of
porosity. To eliminate this disadvantage manufacturers, have to design heavier wheels that allows creating of
structure integrity. The shape of the wheel is formed through a process of gravity or pressure casting. It is shown in
the figures 1 and 2.
 Fig. 1. Providing the molten alloys for the casting operation.

Fig. 2. Casting operation of wheel alloys.

Forged wheels are manufactured from a solid piece of metal called billet. The billet is heated and undergoes intense
pressure to be changed. In other words, forged wheels are one-piece wheels. The forging process is, however, slightly
more complicated. In this case, a special forging alloy blank is systematically pressed at approximately 500°C, with
up to 2000 tons of pressure force into a form which is not as versatile as the one employed in die casting. The drillings
also take place at this very point in the process. The rim bowl is now finished having been done by roller milling
process. The maintenance of temperature through the process is vital for the manufacturing quality and the solution
annealing at the end. A silver removal treatment called “burnishing” then follows along with another round of spray
painting, and this is quite similar to the die cast rim production. The lower weight through less wall thickness is
decisive, and moreover increases the rigidity. Forged wheels are stronger because of grain refinement due to
thermal cycle and process of deformation. Consistent forging allows achieving the same structural integrity with less
material in comparison to cast wheels. However, considering the price of equipment needed to manufacture forged
wheels, this type of wheels is more expensive than cast wheels.

Advantages of cast wheels can be presented as,

• Wide range of alloy choice;

• Less expensive due to less expensive tooling process;

• No limits in casting weight;

• It is easy to produce complicated parts;

Advantages of forged wheels can be presented as,

• Better performance and handle due to forging process;

• The manufacturing process excludes occurrence of cavities, porosity, and shrinkage;

• Mechanically stronger wheels because of tight grain structure. It also ensures better wear resistance.

The produced alloy wheels are entered to the heat treatment process to increase strength of parts. The wheels are
heated to the 500° C and then entereted to the 80° C water for quenching to increase the strength and stability of
metals. Next, the machining operations are used to create accurate wheel alloys. It is shown at the figure 3.

Fig. 3. Machining operations of wheel alloys.

Produced wheel alloys is then controlled by using the CMM machines to obtain the dimensions of the produced
parts. It is shown on the figure 4.
 Fig. 4. Quality control of produced alloy wheels using the CMM.

Soori et al. provide virtual machining methodologies to assess and improve cnc machining in virtual worlds [1-4]. A
review in advanced virtual machining systems is presented by Soori and Arezoo in order to increase the impacts of
virtual simulation and analysis to efficiency enhancement of part production [5]. A review in machining induced
residual stress in presented by Soori and Arezoo [6] in order to be analyzed and minimized. To minimize chord errors
in 5-axis cnc milling operations of turbine blades, advanced NURBS interpolation algorithms is presented by Soori
and Arezoo [7]. To analyse and modify the process of part production in virtual environments, virtual product
development is presented by Soori [8]. Advances in Web-Based Decision Support Systems is presented by Dastres
and Soori [9] to enhance the effects of web of data in decision support systems. A Review in Recent Development
of Network Threats and Security Measures is presented by Dastres and Soori [10] in order to decrease the probability
of accessing the secured data by the hackers. To analyze and modify the applications of the Artificial Neural Network
Systems in different processing units, a review in recent development of Artificial Neural Network is presented by
Dastres and Soori [11]. A review in advanced digital signal processing systems is presented by Dastres and Soori [12]
to develop the capabilities and applications of signal processing in different industries.
Soori et al. provides a review of current developments in friction stir welding techniques in order to examine and
improve efficiency in the process of component manufacturing employing welding procedures [13]. Soori and
Asamel have explored implementations of virtual machining systems to reduce residual stress and deflection error
throughout turbine blade five-axis milling processes [14]. Soori and Asmael created implementations of virtualized
machining system in evaluating and decreasing the cutting temperature throughout milling operations of hard to
cut components [15].
Soori et al. proposed an improved virtual machining method to improve surface properties throughout five-axis
milling operations of turbine blades [16]. Soori and Asmael devised virtual milling techniques to reduce deflection
error during five-axis milling processes of impeller blades [17]. Soori and Asmael provided a summary of existing
developments from published articles in order to examine and improve the parameter optimization technique of
machining processes [18]. Dastres et al. give a study of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) based wireless
manufacturing systems to improve energy utilization efficiency, data quality and availability across the supply chain,
and precision and dependability during the component production process[19].
To develop the decision support systems in the data warehouse management, advances in web-based decision
support systems is studied by Dastres and Soori [20]. To develop the applications of the artificial neural networks in
different areas such as risk analysis systems, drone control, welding quality analysis and computer quality analysis,
a review in recent development and applications of the systems is presented by Dastres and Soori [11]. Applications
of the information communication technology in the environmental protection is presented by Dastres and Soori
[21] in order to decrease the effects of technology development to the natural disaster.
In this essay, the production process of alloy wheel is presented in order to be modified. In the section 2, recent
research works related to development of the alloy wheel production is reviewed.

2- Recent research and development in manufacturing process of alloy wheels.

In this section, the research works related to the production process of alloy wheels are presented.

2-1 Computer Simulation of Casting Process of Aluminum Wheels

Hsu and Yu [22] presented the simulation and analysis of the casting operation in production process Aluminum
Wheels. In this research, a casting simulation software is used to simulate the casting process of aluminum wheels.
The casting simulation is done iteratively till the mold temperature converges to a stable temperature. A “shrinkage
index” (SI) is defined to provide a quantified index of casting quality of aluminum wheels, based on the phenomenon
of liquid entrapped at the joints of rim and spokes of the wheel where shrinkage cavity usually happens. This
shrinkage index shows good correlation with the aluminum wheel leakage test results. This paper also discusses the
influence of cooling process parameters on SI, including initial mold temperature, and geometry of the wheel, which
verifies engineers’ empirical data. This iterative simulation process and SI can be used to predict the casting quality
of aluminum wheels and to find the optimal parameters of the casting process. The figure 5 shows the CAD models
of casting molds for an aluminum disc wheel.

Fig. 5. CAD models of casting molds for an aluminum disc wheel [22].
 The finite element model of an aluminum wheel and its molds is presented in the figure 6.

Fig. 6. The finite element model of an aluminum wheel and its molds [22].
Temperature distributions of mold during the casting process is shown in the figure 5.

Fig. 7. Temperature distributions of mold during the casting process [22].

2-2 Casting defects in low-pressure die-cast aluminum alloy wheel

Defects in automotive aluminium alloy casting continue to challenge metallurgists and production engineers as
greater emphasis is placed on product quality and production cost. A range of casting-related defects found in low-
pressure die-cast aluminium wheels were examined metallographically in samples taken from several industrial
wheel-casting facilities. The defects examined include macro- and micro- porosity, entrained oxide films, and
exogenous oxide inclusions. Particular emphasis is placed on the impact of these defects with respect to the three
main casting-related criteria by which automotive wheel quality are judged: wheel cosmetics, air-tightness, and
wheel mechanical performance. Zhang et al. [23] presented the challenges related to the casting operations in low-
pressure die-cast aluminum alloy wheels to increase efficiency in process of alloy wheels production.

2-3 Process capability improvement for aluminum alloy wheel machining

Hence, aluminium alloy wheel machining constitutes an important area of study for improvement of process
capability. In this process more prominence is laid on prevention of defects rather than simply detecting and
rejecting the defect in the usual traditional end inspection quality check. Sharma et al. [24] developed the machining
operations in the alloy wheel production process.

This paper first enlists the generic problems of alloy wheel machining and subsequently details on the process
improvement of the identified critical-to-quality machining characteristic of A356 aluminium alloy wheel machining
process. The causal factors are traced using the Ishikawa diagram and prioritization of corrective actions is done
through process failure modes and effects analysis. Process monitoring charts are employed for improving the
process capability index of the process, at the industrial benchmark of four sigma level, which is equal to the value
of 1.33. The procedure adopted for improving the process capability levels is the define-measure-analyze-improve-
control (DMAIC) approach. By following the DMAIC approach, the C p, C pk and C pm showed signs of improvement
from an initial value of 0.66, −0.24 and 0.27, to a final value of 4.19, 3.24 and 1.41, respectively. Alloy wheel
machining drawing with center hole diameter of ø50.000 is shown in the figure 8.

Fig. 8. Alloy wheel machining drawing with center hole diameter of ø50.000 (±0.050) [24].

2-4 Analysis of Static Stress in an Alloy Wheel of the Passenger car

Optimization of Dynamic Cornering Fatigue Test Process of Aluminum Alloy Wheels Aluminum wheels are most
commonly used wheel type for passenger cars for decades.
Static Stress in an Alloy Wheel of the Passenger car is analyzed and decrease by Nallusamy et al. [25] to increase
quality as well as safety of the produced alloy wheel. A356 alloy (including alloying elements of 7% Si and 0.3% Mg)
is used and a T6 heat treatment is applied for the wheels. A lot of proofing tests are applied on a wheel in order to
ensure its reliability and to guarantee passenger safety. Dynamic cornering fatigue test is the most widely used
fatigue performance evaluation method for passenger car wheels. Test is basically applied on the wheel by stretching
and bending of the wheel spokes with an oscillating force applied at the far end of a shaft connected to the offset
surface of the wheel. This test lasts for 2 to 200 hours depending on the desired number of cycles without a crack or
the number of crack initiation cycle (fatigue life). Therefore, for a laboratory conducting more than 1500 fatigue
tests a year, minimization of test duration without changing applied stress on wheels increases the productivity and
improves testing capacity. This study includes the investigations and applications to accelerate the dynamic
cornering fatigue test of wheels experimentally. Applied stress levels for regular and accelerated tests were
compared by using strain gage recordings experimentally.

2-5 Optimization of Rigidity of Aluminum Alloy Wheels

Kocaturk et al. [26] presented the optimization procedures for rigidity parameters of the aluminum alloy wheels.
Cast aluminium alloy wheels are widely used in passenger cars for decades due to their high specific strength, high
ductility, and high impact resistance. As a safety part, it is subjected to a lot of proofing tests such as fatigue, impact,
rigidity, modal analysis etc. Rigidity of a wheel spoke is mainly related to its fatigue performance and has a big impact
on handling and driving performance of a car. Therefore, in this study, rigidity of an aluminium alloy wheel was
investigated numerically. As a result of good agreement between experimental and numerical result, study
continued with the multi-objective optimization of geometrical parameters for the wheel with objectives of
maximizing rigidity with minimum mass increase of the wheel. In the study ANSYS Workbench was used in the finite
element simulations, and experimental design and statistical analysis was conducted by using Minitab Statistical
Software.

2-6 Analysis of Alloy properties for the Manufacture of Automotive Wheels

In order to increase performances of produced alloy wheels in actual working conditions, an analysis research work
for alloy properties is developed by Kaba et al. [27]. The heat-treated AlSi7Mg0.3 alloy is the standard wheel alloy
as it offers the best compromise between fatigue strength and elongation. Alloys with less than 7 wt% Si may also
be of interest for the manufacture of aluminium wheels to limit Si poisoning that impairs grain refinement. Hence,
the potential of AlSi5Mg0.3 alloy was investigated as it could offer superior mechanical properties owing to a smaller
grain structure. AlSi5Mg0.3 alloy does indeed exhibit smaller grains but fails to offer higher mechanical properties.
AlSi7Mg0.3 alloy with a smaller dendritic structure but coarser grains are superior. The higher fluidity of the latter is
believed to offer better feeding characteristics, which in turn improves the soundness of the casting and thus leads
to superior structural quality and mechanical properties. An overall industrial assessment favours the standard
Al7Si0.3 Mg alloy in the manufacture of light alloy wheels.

2-7 Simulation of Inner Rim Compression Test of Aluminum Alloy Wheels

Kara and Daysal [28] developed the simulation and analysis for casting operations of aluminum alloy wheels. The
Aluminum alloy wheels are the most commonly used wheel type for passenger cars for decades. Generally, A356
alloy (including alloying elements of 7% Si and 0.3% Mg) is used and a T6 heat treatment (solutionizing and artificial
aging) is applied for the wheels. The most commonly used casting method is the Low Pressure Die Casting method
for the wheels. As a cast product, wheels are one of the most important safety parts of a car along with a huge visual
impact on the car. Therefore, a lot of proofing tests are applied on a wheel in order to ensure its reliability and to
guarantee passenger safety. Inner rim compression test of aluminum alloy wheels is one of these important
mechanical tests which is a quasi-static deformation test to determine the fracture and failure behavior of the wheel.
In this test, wheel is fixed at its offset surface using lug nuts and a crosshead applies the load with an offset from the
inner rim position applying the biggest stress to the valve hole section. This study comprises the efforts of simulation
of this test. In the study, ABAQUS finite element software is used and results were compared with experimentally
obtained results.

2-8 Analysis of the forging processes for 6061 aluminum-alloy wheels

To develop the capabilities of the forging process in aluminum alloy wheel production, Kim et al. [29] presented an
analysis study. The metal forming processes of aluminum-alloy wheel forging at elevated temperatures are analyzed
by the finite element method. A coupled thermo-mechanical model for the analysis of plastic deformation and heat
transfer is adapted in the finite element formulation. In order to consider the strain-rate effects on material
properties and the flow stress dependence on temperatures, the rigid visco-plasticity is applied to the simulation.
Several process conditions were applied to the simulation such as punch speed, rim thickness, and the depth of die
cavity. Experiment for a simplified small-scale model is carried out and compared with the simulation in terms of
forging load to verify the validity of the formulation adapted in this study. Then, various processes with full-scale
model for a 6061 aluminum-alloy wheel are simulated. Material flow, pressure distributions exerted on the die wall,
temperature distributions and forging loads are summarized as basic data for process design and selection of a
proper press equipment. The figure 9 shows the wheel configuration just after forging process.

Fig. 9. Wheel configuration just after forging [29].

2-9 Development of a 3-D thermal model of the low-pressure die-cast (LPDC) process of A356 aluminum alloy
wheels

Zhang et al. [30] presented the thermal model for the low-pressure die-cast process in order to increase alloy wheels
production capacities. A mathematical model of the low-pressure die casting process for the production of A356
aluminum alloy wheels has been developed to predict the evolution of temperature within the wheel and die under
the auspices of a collaborative research agreement between researchers at the University of British Columbia and a
North American wheel casting facility. The heat transfer model represents a three-dimensional, 30° slice of the wheel
and die, and was developed within the commercial finite-element package, ABAQUS. Extensive temperature
measurements in the die and in the wheel taken over several cycles in the casting process were used to develop key
process boundary conditions and validate the model. The predicted and measured temperatures agree very well,
with the maximum difference less than 20 °C at the majority of locations examined. A heat flux analysis conducted
with the model has identified the complex path that the heat follows within the die and wheel during the
solidification process. A solidification path analysis conducted with the model showed the presence of a hot spot in
the rim/spoke junction area, which was confirmed by the observation of macro-porosity in a sectioned wheel. 30°
section mesh of a wheel and die (wheel differentiated by fine mesh size compared to die) is shown in the figure 10.

Fig. 10. 30° section mesh of a wheel and die (wheel differentiated by fine mesh size compared to die) [30].

Contour plot of temperatures in the (a) wheel and (b) die prior to die-open is presented in the figure 11.
 Fig. 11. Contour plot of temperatures in the (a) wheel and (b) die prior to die-open [30].

2-10 Precision forging technology for aluminum alloy

To increase accuracy of produced alloy wheels using forging technology, Deng et al. [31] presented a case study.
Aluminium alloy is a preferred metal material for lightweight part manufacturing in aerospace, automobile, and
weapon industries due to its good physical properties, such as low density, high specific strength, and good corrosion
resistance. However, during forging processes, underfilling, folding, broken streamline, crack, coarse grain, and other
macro- or microdefects are easily generated because of the deformation characteristics of aluminium alloys,
including narrow forgeable temperature region, fast heat dissipation to dies, strong adhesion, high strain rate
sensitivity, and large flow resistance. Thus, it is seriously restricted for the forged part to obtain precision shape and
enhanced property. In this paper, progresses in precision forging technologies of aluminium alloy parts were
reviewed. Several advanced precision forging technologies have been developed, including closed die forging,
isothermal die forging, local loading forging, metal flow forging with relief cavity, auxiliary force or vibration loading,
casting-forging hybrid forming, and stamping-forging hybrid forming. High-precision aluminium alloy parts can be
realized by controlling the forging processes and parameters or combining precision forging technologies with other
forming technologies. The development of these technologies is beneficial to promote the application of aluminium
alloys in manufacturing of lightweight parts.

2-11 Finite element simulation and experimental validation of the cracking phenomenon in aluminum alloy
wheels

Otarawanna et al. [32] developed finite element analysis in order to predict and prevent the cracking phenomena in
the aluminum alloy wheels. The impact test is a mandatory mechanical test used to ensure the structural integrity
of alloy wheels produced. In the impact test, a specified mass is dropped from a specified height onto the wheel-tire
assembly. In the wheel manufacturing industry, finite element analysis (FEA) is often used to reduce time and cost
associated with the wheel design process. This study aims to find suitable methods for modelling the wheel impact
test by FEA. In this research, two modelling methods (with and without the tire) were used to simulate the impact
test of a passenger-car wheel model. The wheel impact test was performed in order to validate the real test results
with the FEA results. The results in this work suggest that both modelling methods are capable of predicting the
cracking phenomenon in the wheel. Contour of the von Mises stress obtained from the simulation without the tire
at 850 kg is shown in the figure 12.

Fig. 12. Contour of the von Mises stress obtained from the simulation without the tire at 850 kg. Arrows
mark the location where the von Mises stress is maximum (ignoring the direct impact region) [32].

2-12 Effect of Cooling Process on Porosity in the Aluminum Alloy Automotive Wheel During Low-Pressure Die
Casting

Sui et al. [33] presented the analysis and experimental study to decrease the Porosity in the Aluminum Alloy
Automotive Wheel Low-Pressure Die Casting using the cooling process. Experiments were conducted to verify the
feasibility of cooling process for one aluminium alloy wheel during low-pressure die casting, and the results showed
there were some microporosity defects in the junctions of small spokes. Numerical simulation was implemented,
and the rational cooling and insulation process was determined by analysing the solidification times of different
stages at some locations of casting. The simulation and experimental results both demonstrated the insulation spots
had a good effect on prolonging solidification time at the location with thin wall thickness, preventing the feeding
paths cut-off prematurely and decreasing the size of porosity defects distinctly. Effect of the cooling and insulation
process in removing the microporosity defects in the junctions of alloy wheels is shown in the figure 13.

Fig. 13. Effect of the cooling and insulation process in removing the macroporosity defects in the junctions
of prodcuced alloy wheels [33].
 3- Conclusion

In the present study, the process of alloy wheel production is presented and analyzed. Recent research work for
developing the production process is then discussed. Computer simulation and analysis is used to increase the alloy
wheels production process capabilities. Defects in automotive aluminium alloy casting is analysed and decreased to
increase quality of produced parts. aluminum alloy wheel machining operations are studied to improve the
machining efficiency in the production process. Static stress in the alloy wheel production process is analyzed [6] to
increase safety of produced parts. Rigidity of aluminum alloy wheels is analyzed and optimized to increase
performances of produced parts in actual working condition. Alloy properties for the manufacture of automotive
wheels is studied to develop the new produced wheels using the advanced alloys.
Simulation and analysis for casting operations of aluminum alloy wheels is developed to increase production
capacities. The forging processes in production process of alloy wheels is simulated and analyzed to modify the
manufacturing process. Thermal model of the low-pressure die-cast is analyzed to increase quality of produced parts.
The forging technology for aluminum alloy is analyzed to increase accuracy of part production. The cracking
phenomenon in aluminum alloy wheels is analyzed using the finite element method to increase the production
capabilities. Moreover, the cooling methodologies in porosity of the Aluminum alloy automotive wheel during Low-
Pressure die casting is studied to increase the quality of produced parts.
The alloy wheel production process can be accurately analyzed and modified using virtual simulation in order to
increase accuracy as well as efficiency in manufacturing process. The optimization procedures can be applied to the
simulated production process to boost level of production capabilities. Also, finite element method can be applied
to predict the stress, strain and cracking phenomena in the production operation. As a result, accuracy as well as
efficiency in process of car alloy wheels can be enhanced by using the simulation and modification of the
manufacturing process in digital environments.

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