MODULE IN

DESCRIPTIVE TITLE
ME 415

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SCHOOL

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 ME 415

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the course and this
module, you as a Louisian Mechanical
Engineering student must be able to:

1. Construct an engineering
drawing for displacement
diagram, cam profile, gear prof
2. ile and mechanical flexible
connectors

3. Explain and distinguish the basic

principles of transmission of
motion from power drives by
mechanical means

4. Demonstrate the features of

MACHINE ELEMENTS II equations and solve
requirements for the design of
pure rolling contact, gears and
flexible connectors

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 “The test of the machine is the satisfaction it gives you. There isn't any other
test. If the machine produces tranquility it's right. If it disturbs you it's
wrong until either the machine or your mind is changed.”
- Robert M. Pirsig

COURSE INTRODUCTION
Kinematics is a subfield of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points,
bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the forces
that cause them to move. Kinematics, as a field of study, is often referred to as the
"geometry of motion" and is occasionally seen as a branch of mathematics. A kinematics
problem begins by describing the geometry of the system and declaring the initial
conditions of any known values of position, velocity and/or acceleration of points within
the system. Then, using arguments from geometry, the position, velocity and acceleration
of any unknown parts of the system can be determined.
Kinematic analysis is the process of measuring the kinematic quantities used to describe
motion. In engineering, for instance, kinematic analysis may be used to find the range of
movement for a given mechanism and working in reverse, using kinematic synthesis to
design a mechanism for a desired range of motion. In addition, kinematics
applies algebraic geometry to the study of the mechanical advantage of a mechanical
system or mechanism.
The topic learning outcomes for this particular course are as follows:
1. Identify, differentiate the kinds of motion and construct a displacement diagram for
the motion of a cam follower
2. Design a cam profile with different types and orientation of the follower
3. Explain basic transmission of motion by direct contact and principles of pure rolling
contact
4. Distinguish an introductory principles and concepts on different types of gears and
aspects of gear design
5. Identify and differentiate between helical, bevel, worm and other types of gears
6. Explain basic concepts and principle of gear trains
7. Identify and distinguish flexible connectors used in transmission of motion

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS:

To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at
the end of the semester, this module for you is divided into the following:

MODULE 1: Motion Displacement Diagram, Cam and Cam Profiles - This unit aims to allow
you as a student to review and be familiar with the motions associated within the
profile of the cam and vice-versa.
…… Page 4
Displacement Diagram ..… Page 5
Assignment Exercise 1 ..… Page 10
Cam Profiles ..… Page 11
Formative Excersie 1 ..… Page 12
Formative Excersie 2 ..… Page 15
Formative Excersie 3 ..… Page 18
Assignment Exercise 2 ..… Page 23

MODULE 2: Motion Transmission Systems - This unit aims to allow you as a student to review
and be familiar with the principles of motion transmission that allow a transfer of
mechanical energy from one object to another without changing the nature of the
movement.
….. Page 23
Bodies in Pure Rolling Contact ..… Page 24
Assignment Exercise 3 ..… Page 29
Gears ..… Page 29
Assignment Exercise 4 ..… Page 34
Type of Gears and Uses ..… Page 35
Gear Train ..… Page 43
Flexible Connectors ..… Page 45
Assignment Exercise 5 ..… Page 49

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 MODULE 1: MOTION DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM, CAM AND CAM
PROFILES

In these module, you as a student will learn on how to construct displacement

diagram for the following motions associated within the cam and to construct profile for
the cam for each type of cam follower supplemented by the different motion
displacement.
This module describes the five models that will be used for the entire component
and are define below:

Engage: Apprehend cam and followers, and motions

Explore: Analyze different motions and followers for the cam
Explain: Distinguish behavior of motions from the outline of the cam and vice versa
Elaborate: Recognize procedures in adapting cams motion and cam profile from
different type of cam followers
Evaluate: Construct motion displacement diagram and cam profile from different
types of cam followers

INTRODUCTION AND MOTION DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM

Cam is a reciprocating, oscillating or rotating body which imparts reciprocating or
oscillating motion to a second body, called the follower, with which it is in contact.
Representing the cam’s motion in a displacement diagram allows further analysis of other
properties.
 Cam is a link having an irregular surface or groove that imparts motion to a
follower
 Cams are very important and frequently occurring elements in many types of
machines – especially AUTOMATIC MACHINES
 Cams are the heart of such automatic devices as automatic devices as
automatic machine tools, record changers, mechanical calculators, cash
registers, and many other devices.
Types of Cams:
a) Radial Cam Follower

Follower
Cam Cam

b) Cylindrical Cam (drum)

Follower

Cam
c) Linear Cam
Follower
Cam

d) Positive-action Cam

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 Motions Used for Cam Followers:

 The motion of the follower is of primary interest in the analysis of existing cams or
in the design of new cams.
 It is easier to analyze the motion of cam followers if their motion is plotted as a
graph often referred to as DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAM

A. Displacement Diagram

Maximum
follower
Displacement

30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°

1 revolution (360°)
(time, t)

B. Motions that are most commonly used:

1. Uniform Velocity (straight line) motion – UVM

2. Simple Harmonic Motion – SHM
3. Uniformly Accelerated motion (Parabolic Motion) – UAM or PM
4. Modified Uniform-Velocity Motion – MUVM
a. Arc method – MUVM-Arc
b. Uniform Acceleration Method – MUVM-UAM
5. Cycloidal Motion – CM

A. Uniform Velocity Motion (Straight Line Motion)

If the follower is to move with uniform velocity, its displacement must be the same for
equal units of time. 5

30° 60° 90° 120° 150°

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 Its curve in the displacement diagram, therefore, is a STRAIGHT LINE.

Example 1:
Lay out the displacement diagram for a cam follower that is to have the following motions:
Dwell 30O (at rest)
Rise 2 inches in 90O (uniform velocity)
Dwell 30O
Fall 2 inches in 60O (uniform velocity)
Dwell 150O

2"
Displacement

30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
Cam Rotation
B. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
P5
P5'
As a point moves around the
P4 P4' circumference of a circle with a constant
velocity, its projection on the diameter of the
P3 P3' circle moves with simple harmonic motion.

P2 P2'

P1 P1'

How to plot in the displacement diagram?

6
In this construction, it should 5
be noted that the diameter
4
of the semicircle is equal to
the follower rise and that the
3
number of divisions around
the semicircle agrees with the
number of divisions along the 2

time axis (angle of cam 1

rotation). 0° 30° 60° 90°

Example 2:
Lay out the displacement diagram for a cam follower that is to have the following motions:
Rise 2 inches in 120O (SHM)
Dwell 30O
Fall 1 inch in 90O (SHM)

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 Dwell 30O
Fall 1 inch in 60O (SHM)
Dwell 30O

30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°

C. Uniformly Accelerated Motion (Parabolic Motion)

 A motion of uniform or constant acceleration, often called parabolic motion
because a graph of its equation ( s = at2 / 2 ) is a parabola.
 It is motion in which the displacement taking place in each successive
interval of time proportional to the square of the time.

0 Start (t = 0)
s1 1 1 End of 1 time unit (t = 1)
s2 3
The figure at the left shows
4 End of 2 time unit (t = 2) the displacement, s of a
s3
falling object compares
5
with arbitrary time units
s4
9 End of 3 time unit (t = 3)

16 End of 4 time unit (t = 4)

How to plot in the displacement diagram?

a) First method (Figure @ the right)

In laying out this type of motion in a

displacement diagram, a given
displacement is divided into two
halves – the first half is uniformly
accelerated, and the second half is
uniformly retarded motion. It is
therefore, necessary that the
horizontal distance involved in the
total displacement be divided into 30° 60° 90° 120°
an even number of divisions.
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 b) Second Method (Figure @ the
left)

Figure as shown, shows an

4 alternative method of constructing
3 this type of motion. In this case, the
2 half displacement is divided into
equal sized divisions corresponding to
1 the number of horizontal divisions.

1 2 3 4
30° 60° 90° 120°
Example 3:
Layout the displacement diagram for a cam follower that is to have the following motions:
Rise 2 inches in 120O (uniform acceleration and deceleration motion)
Dwell 30O
Fall 1 inch in 90O (uniform acceleration and deceleration motion)
Dwell 30O
Fall 1 inch in 90O (uniform acceleration and deceleration motion)

1
4

16 16

1
9 4

4 16
1
30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°

D. Modified Uniform Velocity Motion

a) Arc Method:
This method consists merely in introducing arcs at the beginning and at the
end of the displacement period. The size of the arcs is arbitrary, but they are usually
drawn with a radius equal to one half the displacement. The arcs are drawn first to an
indefinite length then a straight line is drawn tangent to both arcs.

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 s R
R

30° 60° 90° 120°

b) Uniform Acceleration Method:
This method consists in introducing short periods of uniform acceleration or
deceleration at both ends of the displacement period.

Uniform Uniform Uniform

acceleration velocity deceleration

1
4

16 9

9 16

4
1
30° 60° 90°
D. Cycloidal Motion
 If a circle rolls along a straight line without slipping, a point on its
circumference traces a curve that is called a cycloid.

How to plot in the displacement diagram?

In the figure below shows how such motion is laid out in a displacement diagram.
Line AB is drawn and is extended to some point such as C. A circle is drawn at C whose
circumference is equal to the displacement s or whose diameter is equal to s over constant
pi. The circumference of this circle is divided into a number of parts corresponding to the
number of divisions along the horizontal scale. The points around the circle are projected
to the vertical center line of the circle and then parallel to the line AB to the corresponding
vertical lines in the displacement diagram.

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 B

4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6

C Diameter = s / pi
3 0

2 1

Assignment Exercise 1:

Instruction: Draw the displacement diagram in a short coupon bond, landscape

Scale: y-axis, full size; x-axis: 5 mm = 10O

Exercise No. 1
Lay out the displacement diagram for a cam follower that is to have the following motions:
- Rise ¾” in 45O accelerating simple harmonic motion
- Rise ¾” in 45O uniform velocity motion
- Rise 1” in 45O retarding parabolic motion
- Dwell for 15O
- Rise 1” in 90O simple harmonic motion
- Dwell for 60O
- Fall 3 ½” in 60O parabolic motion

Exercise No. 2
Lay out the displacement diagram for a cam follower that is to have the following motions:
- Rise ¾” in 45O accelerating simple harmonic motion
- Rise ¾” in 45O uniform velocity motion
- Rise 1” in 45O retarding parabolic motion
- Dwell for 15O
- Rise 1” in 90O simple harmonic motion
- Dwell for 60O
- Fall 3 ½” in 60O parabolic motion

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 CAM PROFILE
The shape of the cam depends upon its own motion, the required motion of the
follower and the shape of the contact face of the follower.

Types of cam followers:

a. Knife edged / Pointed Follower. These are not often used due to the rapid rate of
wear of the knife edge. This design produces a considerable side thrust between the
follower and the guide.
b. Roller Follower. The roller follower has the advantage that the sliding motion
between cam and follower is largely replaced by a rolling motion. Note that sliding
is not entirely eliminated since the inertia of the roller prevents it from responding
instantaneously to the change of angular velocity required by the varying
peripheral speed of the cam. This type of follower also produces a considerable side
thrust.
c. Flat faced Follower. These are really an example of the mushroom follower and are
used where space is limited. The most obvious example being automobile engines.

Construction of Cam Profile:

A. Inline Knife/pointed and roller follower

Procedures:

1. Draw the base circle.

2. For a knife/pointed follower, draw the follower in its home position (0° position),
pointing at the base circle.
 For a roller follower, draw the follower in its home positions (0° position), tangent
to the base circle.
3. For a knife/pointed follower, proceed to step 4.
 For a roller follower, draw the reference circle through the center of the follower
in its 0° position.
4. Draw the radial lines from the center of the cam, corresponding to the vertical lines
in the displacement diagram.

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 5. Transfer displacements s1, s2, s3, etc., from the displacement diagram to the
appropriate radial lines, measuring from the base circle (pointed follower) or
reference circle (roller follower).
6. Draw in the follower outline on the various radial lines.
7. Draw a smooth curve by connecting the points of the pointed part of the follower
(knife/pointed follower) or draw a smooth curve tangent to the roller follower
outlines (It must be tangent to the each follower circles).

Sample Problem:

An In-line follower with a cam that has a counter clockwise movement has the following
motions;
- Rise 2 inches in 90° (simple harmonic motion)
- Dwell for 30°
- Fall 1 inch in 90° (modified uniform velocity - arc method)
- Dwell for 30°
- Fall 1 inch in 120° (uniform acceleration and deceleration motion)
Draw the profile of the cam for a pointed and roller follower (roller diameter is 3/4 inch)
with a diameter of the base circle equivalent to 1 1/2 inches.

NOTE: Sample figure of construction as shown on the succeeding pages.

Formative exercise 1: Re-draw the following displacement diagram and cam profile for this
sample problem for practice and to show accurateness of the drawing (drawn in scale).

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 Displacement Diagram: (note: figure shown not in scale)

Inline Knife/Pointed Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 Inline Roller Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 B. Offset Knife/pointed and roller follower

Procedures:

1. Draw the base circle.

2. For both knife/pointed and roller follower, draw the offset circle
3. For a knife/pointed follower, draw the follower in its home position (0° position),
pointing at the base circle.
 For a roller follower, draw the follower in its home positions (0° position), tangent
to the base circle.
* Note: home position (0° position) - draw a vertical line tangent to the offset circle.
4. For a knife/pointed follower, proceed to step 5.
 For a roller follower, draw the reference circle through the center of the follower
in its home position.
5. Divide the offset circle into a number of divisions corresponding to the divisions in the
displacement diagram, and number accordingly.
6. Draw the radial lines tangent to the offset circle or simply perpendicular to the
divisions inside the offset circle.
7. Lay off the various displacements along the appropriate tangent line, measuring
from the base circle (pointed follower) or from the reference circle (roller follower).
8. Draw in the follower outlines on the various tangent lines.
9. Draw a smooth curve tangent to these follower outlines

Sample Problem:

A cam rotates in a counter clockwise motion with a follower offset 1 inch at the left of
the center of the base circle has the following motions:
- rest for 30°
- rise 2 inches in 180° (modified uniform velocity motion-parabolic method)
- rest for 30°
- fall 2 inches in 120° (simple harmonic motion)
Determine the profile of the cam for a pointed and roller follower. The diameter of the
base circle is 3 inches and a diameter of the roller to be 3/4 inch

NOTE: Sample figure of construction as shown on the succeeding pages.

Formative exercise 2: Re-draw the following displacement diagram and cam profile for this
sample problem for practice and to show accurateness of the drawing (drawn in scale).

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 Displacement Diagram: (note: figure shown not in scale)

Offset Knife/Pointed Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 Offset Roller Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 C. Pivoted roller follower

Procedures:
1. Draw the base circle.
2. Draw the follower in its home positions, tangent to the base circle.
3. Draw the reference circle through the center of the follower.
4. Locate points around the reference circle corresponding to the divisions in the
displacement diagram, and number accordingly.
5. Draw the pivot circle through the follower pivot.
6. Locate the pivot points around the pivot circle corresponding to each point on the
reference circle, and number accordingly.
7. From each pivot points, draw an arc whose radius is equal to the length of the
follower arm.
8. At the zero position, draw the two extreme positions of the follower lever by laying
off the chord AB equal to the maximum displacement.
9. Lay off the various displacements s1, s2, s3, etc., along this chord then project these
points to the arc AB.
10. Rotate each of the points on arc AB to its proper position around the cam profile.
11. Draw in the follower outline at each of the points just located.
12. Draw a smooth curve tangent to the follower outlines for the profile of the cam.

Sample Problem:

A pivoted roller follower has a counter clockwise movement with the following motions:

- Rise 2 inches in 90° (simple harmonic motion)

- Dwell for 30°
- Fall 1 inch in 90° (modified uniform velocity - arc method)
- Dwell for 30°
- Fall 1 inch in 120° (uniform acceleration and deceleration motion)
Base circle diameter is 2 inches, center of the roller (at home position) is located at ¾”
at the right and 1 ¼”above the center of base circle. Pivot diameter is 7 ½”and pivot point
at home position is located 3”at the left and 2 ¼”above the center of base circle. Draw
the profile of the cam.

NOTE: Sample figure of construction as shown on the succeeding pages.

Formative exercise 3: Re-draw the following displacement diagram and cam profile for this
sample problem for practice and to show accurateness of the drawing (drawn in scale).

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 Displacement Diagram: (note: figure shown not in scale)

Pivoted Roller Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 D. Inline Flat Face Follower

Procedures:
1. Draw the base circle, which in this case also serves as the reference circle.
2. Draw the follower in its home position, tangent to the base circle.
3. Draw the radial lines corresponding to the divisions in the displacement diagram,
and number accordingly.
4. At the zero position, locate S1, S2, S3, etc and rotate the given displacement to its
respective angle specified.
5. Draw in the follower outline on the various radial lines by drawing lines perpendicular
to the radial lines.
6. Draw a smooth curve tangent to the follower outlines.

E. Pivoted Flat Face Follower

Procedures:
1. Draw the base circle, which in this case also serves as the reference circle.
2. Draw the follower in its home position, tangent to the base circle.
3. Locate points around the base circle corresponding to the divisions in the
displacement diagram, and number accordingly. (to be extended beyond the
base circle)
4. Draw a pivot circle through the follower pivot.
5. Locate the pivot points around the pivot circle corresponding to each point on the
base circle, and number accordingly.
6. At the zero position, locate S1, S2, S3, etc and rotate the given displacement to its
respective angle specified.
7. Create a line by connecting the intersection of the located displacement on a
given angle to its respective pivot points. (The line created will serve as the follower
outline on the various radial lines).
8. Draw a smooth curve tangent to the follower outlines.

Sample construction on the succeeding pages

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 Inline Flat Face Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 Pivoted Flat Face Follower: (note: figure shown not in scale)

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 Assignment Exercise 2:

A cam rotates in a clockwise motion with the has the following motions:
- rise 1 inch (SHM) for the 1st 120°,
- dwell for 30°,
- rise again for 1 inch (MUVM-arc) in 90°,
- dwell for 15°,
- fall 2 inches (UVM) for 90° and
- rest for 15°.

a. Draw the displacement diagram

b. Cam profile for an inline knife/pointed follower with a base circle of 3 inches.
c. Cam profile for an inline roller follower with a base circle of 3 inches and a roller
diameter of ¾ inches.
d. Cam profile for on offset roller follower offset 1 inch at the right of the center of the
base circle having a diameter of 3 inches and a roller diameter to be 3/4 inch
e. Cam profile for an inline flat face follower with a base circle of 3 inches

MODULE 2: MOTION TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

In these module, you as a student will learn on theories and principles behind motion
transmission systems as well as on how to analyze, design and compute engineering
problems about this system
This module describes the five models that will be used for the entire component
and are define below:

Engage: Apprehend motion transmission system

Explore: Analyze and recognize different types of pure rolling contacts such as gears
and flexible connectors
Explain: Distinguish behavior and characteristics of motions from each type of pure
rolling contacts
Elaborate: Recognize theories including formulas in determining and analyzing
characteristics of each type of pure rolling contacts
Evaluate: Solve engineering problems about motion transmission system
The motion transmission systems allow a transfer of mechanical energy from one
object to another without changing the nature of the movement (rotational to rotational
or translation to translation).

Example: In gears, or friction wheels, the motor wheel transmits its rotational
movement to the following wheel. Both wheels are in rotation.

The transmission of movement can occur by direct contact between two

mechanical pieces or with the help of an intermediate device such as a chain or a belt.

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 BODIES IN PURE ROLLING CONTACT

Pure rolling contact consist of such a relative motion of two lines or surfaces that the
consecutive points or elements of one come successively into contact with those of the
other in their order. (Every consecutive points on a rolling body mate with each other, for
two rolling contacts having the same linear speed)
In pure rolling contact, there is NO SLIPPING between the two surfaces unless it is not
called a pure rolling contact.

 CYLINDER ROLLING TOGTHER without Slipping

A. External Pure Rolling Contact

In the figure, two cylinders are fastened by two

shafts, assuming that the shafts are held by the frame
so that their centers are at a distance apart just equal
to the sum of the radii of the two cylinders. Then, A B

R + R1 = C

The surface will touch at P and since this is a pure

rolling contact, no slipping of surfaces by both R N N1
R1
cylinders. Then surface speed of A must be equal to
P
that of B and the direction of rotation of the two
cylinders must be opposite

Velocity A = Velocity B
C
Velocity A = 2RN
Velocity B = 2R1N1
Therefore,

2RN = 2R1N1 or N/N1 = R1/R

B. Internal Pure Rolling Contact

For internal pure rolling contact as shown on the figure, the cylinder A is hollow with B
inside it, so that the contact is between the inner surface of A and the outer surface of B.
The two cylinders will turn in the same sense.

Since it is also a pure rolling contact, the surface speed of A must also be equal to that
of B or Velocity A = Velocity B. However, the center to center distance of these two
cylinders will be equal to R - R1 = C instead of R + R1 = C.

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 A B

N1 P

R1
R

Sample Problems:

1. A cylinder 24 in. in diameter on shaft S drives, by pure rolling contact, another cylinder 2 on
shaft T. Shaft S has an angular speed of 600 radians per minute, Shaft T turns 143. 25 rpm in
the opposite direction from S. Calculate the diameter of cylinder 2 and the distance
between the axes of the shafts.
Solutions:
Given: NS = 600 rad/min (1 rev/2 rad) = 95.5 rpm
DS = 24 in
NT = 143.25 rpm
DT & C = ?

NSDS = NTDT ; DT = (NSDS/NT)

DT = (95.5 rpm)(24 in) / 143.25 rpm ; DT = 16 inches

C = (DS + DT) / 2 ; C = (24 + 16)/2 ; C = 20 inches

2. Two parallel shafts connected by rolling cylinders turn in the same direction 150 rpm and 100
rpm respectively. The smaller cylinder is 16 inch in diameter. How far apart are the axes of
the shafts?
Solutions:
Given: N1 = 150 rpm
D1 = 16 in
N2 = 100 rpm
C=?

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 N1D1 = N2D2 ; D2 = (N1D1/N2)

D2 = (150 rpm)(16 in) / 100 rpm ; DT = 24 inches

C = (D1 - D2) / 2 ; C = (24 - 16)/2 ; C = 4 inches

 CONES ROLLING TOGETHER WITHOUT SLIPPING

These are cylinders rolling together in a pure rolling contact in which the shafts of
these cylinders are not parallel but two or more shafts that are connected which lie in the
same plane and make some angle with each other.

A. External Pure Rolling Contact

These are cones in pure rolling contact in which the rotation of each cone is
opposite to one another.
=+

 = angle between axes

O

Since, VA = VB due to pure rolling

contact, we have,

 Velocity A = 2R ANA

Velocity B = 2RBNB

 Therefore,

2RANA = 2RBNB or NA/NB = RB/RA
NA
Shaft A
NB But RA = OP sin  and
RB = OP sin , therefore,

Shaft B
RA P 𝑅 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
= =
RB 𝑅 𝑂𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

𝑁 are
Therefore, the angular speeds of two cones rolling together without slipping sin 𝛽
= inversely
proportional as the sines of the angles

Cone angles:
To calculate the cone angles, the angle between the axes and the speed ratio
must be known.

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 sin 𝛽
cos 𝛽
𝑁 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛽 tan 𝛽
= = = = =
𝑁 sin 𝛼 sin(𝜃 − 𝛽) sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 tan 𝛽
cos 𝛽
𝑁
sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 tan 𝛽 = tan 𝛽 𝑁
𝑁
sin 𝜃 = tan 𝛽 𝑁 + cos 𝜃 tan 𝛽
𝑁
sin 𝜃 = tan 𝛽 𝑁 + cos 𝜃
Whence,
sin 𝜃
tan 𝛽 =
𝑁
𝑁 + cos 𝜃

In similar manner,
sin 𝜃
tan ∝=
𝑁
𝑁 + cos 𝜃

B. Internal Pure Rolling Contact

These are cones in pure rolling contact in which the rotation of each cone is the
same to one another.

=-

 = angle between axes

NA

P Shaft B
NB 
Shaft A



Since the direction of each cone has changed, speed ratio for internal pure rolling
contact is still the same with the speed ratio for an external pure rolling contact

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 𝑁 sin 𝛽
=
𝑁 sin 𝛼

Given that  =  +  and  =  - , the equation for cone angles are;

sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛼 = tan 𝛽 =
cos 𝜃 −
𝑁 and 𝑁
− cos 𝜃
𝑁 𝑁

Sample Problem:

1. Two shafts, having axes in the same plane intersecting at an angle of 45 O, turn in
opposite sense at 30 rpm and 90 rpm. Diameter of base of smaller cone is 1 inch.
Calculate the cone angles.

Solutions:
Given: N1 = 30 rpm (larger cone)
N2 = 90 rpm & D2 = 1 inches (smaller cone)
&=?

N1D1 = N2D2 ; D1 = (N2D2/N1)

D1 = (90 rpm)(1 in) / 30 rpm ; D1 = 3 inches
C = (D1 - D2) / 2 ; C = (24 - 16)/2 ; C = 4 inches

Larger Cone:
Sin  = 1.5 / OP ; OP = 1.5/sin 
Smaller Cone:
Sin  = 0.5 / OP ; OP = 0.5/sin 

Equate OP of the smaller and larger cone:

1.5 0.5
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
therefore;

3 sin  = sin  also,  =  +  ;  = (45 - )

3 sin  = sin (45 - )

Therefore,
3 sin  = sin45cos - cos45sin
 = 10.8 O
3 sin  = 0.707cos - 0.707sin
 = 45 – 10.8 = 34.2O
3 sin  = 0.707 (cos - sin)

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 [ 3 sin  = 0.707 (cos - sin) ] (1/cos )

3 tan  = 0.707 (1 – tan )

tan  = 0.707 / (3 + 0.7070) = 0.1907

Assignment Exercise 3:

1. Two parallel shafts, 24 inches apart and having a speed ratio of 3, are connected by
cylinders in pure rolling contact. Determine the diameters of the cylinders:
a) When they turn in opposite directions; and
b) When they turn in the same direction.

2. Given two cones rolling together in opposite sense. Diameter of the smaller cone, DB is 2
inches and the diameter of the larger cone, DA is 1.5DB. Given angle  = 30O. Compute
for angles  and  and the speed ratio NB / NA.

3. A and B are rolling cylinders connecting

the shafts S and T. C and E are cylinders C P E
fast to these shafts and slipping on each
S T
other at P. Find the diameters of C and E
if the surface speed of E is twice that of A B
C. See figure at the right.
16" 6"
4. Two shafts, having axes in the same plane intersecting at an angle of 45 O, turn in the
same sense at 30 rpm and 90 rpm. Diameter of base of smaller cone is 1 inch. Calculate
the cone angles.

GEARS

It was shown from the previous lesson that one shaft could cause another to turn by
means of two bodies in PURE ROLLING CONTACT. However, in actual, presence of friction
of the two bodies is not sufficient enough in order there is no slipping between the two
surfaces. For this reason toothed wheels, called GEARS, are used in place of the rolling
bodies.

Gears are toothed, mechanical transmission elements used to transfer motion and
power between machine components. Operating in mated pairs, gears mesh their teeth
with the teeth of another corresponding gear or toothed component which prevents
slippage during the transmission process. Each gear or toothed component is attached to
a machine shaft or base component, therefore when the driving gear (i.e., the gear that
provides the initial rotational input) rotates along with its shaft component, the driven
gear (i.e., the gear or toothed component which is impacted by the driving gear and
exhibits the final output) rotates or translates its shaft component. Depending on the design
and construction of the gear pair, the transference of motion between the driving shaft
and the driven shaft can result in a change of the direction of rotation or movement.
Additionally, if the gears are not of equal sizes, the machine or system experiences a

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 mechanical advantage which allows for a change in the output speed and torque (i.e.,
the force which causes an object to rotate).

Gears and their mechanical characteristics are widely employed throughout

industry to transmit motion and power in a variety of mechanical devices, such as clocks,
instrumentation, and equipment, and to reduce or increase speed and torque in a variety
of motorized devices, including automobiles, motorcycles, and machines. Other design
characteristics, including construction material, gear shape, tooth construction and design,
and gear pair configuration, help to classify and categorize the various types of gears
available. Each of these gears offers different behaviors and advantages, but the
requirements and specifications demanded by a particular motion or power transmission
application determine the type of gear most suitable for use.

 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

A. Spur Gears (Connecting parallel axes)

a. External gear
b. Internal gear
c. Twisted spur or helical gear
d. Herringbone spur gear
e. Rack and pinion gear
f. Pin gearing
B. Bevel Gears (Connecting intersecting axes)
a. Plain bevel gear
b. Crown gear
c. Spiral bevel gear
C. Screw Gears (Connecting axes in different planes)
a. Hyperboloidal or skew gear
b. Hypoid gear
c. Worm and wheel gear
d. Helical gear

 Analysis of External Spur Gear

Figure 1 shown below a pair of external spur gears in mesh with each other. Since
these are the simplest form of gears, the following discussion of definitions and general
principles will be based on this type of gears. It must be borne in mind, however, that these
definitions and principles are general and apply to the other types of gears as well as spur
gears.
Clearance

Addendum Circle

DB
DA B
Dedendum Circle A

Pitch Circle of B
Pitch Circle of A

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 A. Pitch Circle and Pitch point

Since gear is only a replacement for two bodies in pure rolling contact, a
representation for the diameter of the two bodies in pure rolling contact for gears is what
we called the PITCH CIRCLE and the common point by which the two surfaces in contact is
what we called the PITCH POINT that we designate as point P.
Given that the gear is considered as a pure rolling contact, the surface speed of A
and B must also be equal. Therefore,
DANA = DBNB or RANA = RBNB

Also, the speed ratio of a pair of gears may be defined as the ratio of the angular
speed of the driving gear to the angular speed of the driven gear and is equal to the
number of teeth on the driven divided by the number of teeth on the driver.

Speed of driver / Speed of driven = Teeth on driven / Teeth on Driver = DB / DA

Or

NA / NB = TB / TA = DB / DA

B. Addendum and Dedendum Circles

The circle passing through the outer ends of the teeth of a gear is called the
ADDENDUM CIRCLE, and the circle passing through the bottom of the spaces is called the
DEDENDUM CIRCLE.

C. Addendum distance and Dedendum distance and Tooth Depth

The radius of the addendum circle minus the radius of the pitch circle is the
ADDENDUM DISTANCE, or more commonly the addendum. The radius of the pitch circle
minus the radius of the root circle is the DEDENDUM DISTANCE, or more commonly the
dedendum or root distance. The addendum plus the dedendum is the TOTAL TOOTH DEPTH.
(See figure below)

D. Tooth Face and Tooth Flank

That portion of the tooth curve which is outside the pitch circle is called the TOOTH
FACE, or commonly called as the face of the tooth. The part of the tooth curve inside the
pitch circle is called the TOOTH FLANK. (See figure below)

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 Addendum Dedendum
Distance Distance
Tooth Face

Pitch Circle
Tooth Flank

E. Clearance

The distance measured on the line of centers between the addendum circle of one
gear and the root circle of the other, when they are in mesh, is the CLEARANCE. This is
equal to the dedendum of one gear minus the addendum of the mating gear.

F. Tooth Thickness, Space Width and Backlash

The width of the tooth (arc distance) Space Width, S

measured on the pitch circle is called the
TOOTH THICKNESS. The arc distance between
the two adjacent teeth measured on the pitch
circle is called the SPACE WIDTH or TOOTH
SPACE.

The difference between the space

width and tooth thickness is the BACKLASH.
Accurately made gears have very little
backlash, but cast gears or roughly made
gears require considerable backlash.
Tooth Thickness, t
G. Circular Pitch

The distance from the center of one tooth to the center of the next tooth, measured
on the pitch circle is called the CIRCULAR PITCH. This is of course, equal to the distance
from any point on a tooth to the corresponding point on the nest tooth measured along
the pitch circle. The circular pitch is equal to the tooth thickness plus the space width. The
whole circumference of the pitch circle is equal to the circular pitch multiplied by the
number of teeth, or the circular pitch is equal to the circumference of the pitch circle
divided by the number of teeth. This relationship may be expressed by the equation;
Pc = D / T
Where:
Pc = Circular pitch, inches; T = Number of teeth
D = Pitch circle, inches

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 H. Diametral Pitch

Is the term ordinarily used to designate the tooth size; it is equal to the number of
teeth divided by the diameter of the pitch circle. The DIAMETRAL PITCH is sometimes called
as the PITCH NUMBER or PITCH without the adjective diametral. The diametral pitch is
expressed by the equation;
Pd = T / D
Where:
Pd = Diametral pitch or pitch number

 Relationship between circular pitch and diametral pitch:

From the equation;

Pc = D / T and Pd = T / D

And multiplying the two equations, the pitch diameter and number of teeth will cancel
out. Therefore;

Pc Pd = 

That is, the product of the circular pitch and the diametral pitch is equal to constant .

Sample Problems:
1) Find the distance between centers of a pair of gears, one of which has 12 teeth and
the other is 37 teeth. The diametral pitch is 7.
Solution:
D = T/Pd

Da = Ta/Pd = 12 teeth / 7 = 1.71 inch and Db = Tb/Pd = 37 teeth / 7 =

5.29 inch

C = (Da + Db) / 2 = (1.71 + 5.29) / 2 = 3.5 inches

2) Two shafts are 15 in. on centers. One of the shafts carries a 40-tooth, 2-diametral
pitch gear which drives a gear on the other shaft at a speed of 150 rpm. How fast is
the 40-tooth gear turning?
Solution:
Da = Ta/Pd = 40 / 2 = 20 inches

C = (Da + Db) / 2; Db = 2c – Da = 2(15) – 20 = 10 inches

Therefore;
DaNa = DbNb ; Na = 150 rpm (10) / 20 = 75 rpm

3) Given a gear of 24 teeth, 4 diametral pitch, the addendum equals 1/Pd, the
clearance is to be one-eighth of the addendum, and the backlash is to be 2% of
the circular pitch. Calculate the following, giving results to 3 decimal places:

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 a. Pitch diameter, b. the diameter of the blank gear before cutting the teeth, c.
the depth of the teeth, d. the backlash, and e. the tooth thickness and space
width
Solution:
a. D = T/Pd = 24 teeth / 4 = 6 inches

b. Addendum = 1 / 4 = 0.25; so

Addendum diameter = 6 inches + (2)(1 / 4) = 6.5 inches

c. Clearance = 1 / 8 (addendum) = 1/8 (1/4) = 0.031

Tooth depth = 2(addendum) + clearance = 2(1/4) = 0.031 = 0.531 inch

d. Backlash = 2%(circular pitch) ; Pc = D/T = (6 in) / 24 teeth = 0.7854 inch

Therefore, backlash = 0.02 (0.7854 inch) = 0.016 inch

e. Pc = S + t and B=S–t

S + t = 0.7854 eqn. 1 and S – t =0.016 eqn. 2 ; 2 equations and 2 unknowns

S = 0.401 inch and t = 0.385 inch

Assignment Exercise 4:

1. A 3 pitch gear is driven by a pinion whose pitch diameter is 3 in. the pinion makes 4
turns while the gear makes 1 turn. The clearance is 1/8 in. Find the circular pitch of the
pinion, the circular pitch of the gear, the diametral pitch of the gear, the pitch
diameter of the gear, the number of teeth on the pinion and gear, and the distances
between centers of the shaft.
2. A 4 pitch gear is driven by a pinion whose pitch diameter is 3 inches. The pinion makes 4
turns while the gear make 1 turn. Find
a. the circular pitch and the pitch diameter of the gear
b. the number of teeth on the gear and pinion and
c. the distance between centers of shafts when the gear and pinion rotates on
opposite direction.
3. Three spur gears by which their centers are in line with each other. The smallest and the
largest pitch circle are gear A and gear C, respectively. Gear B is both an external and
internal gear so that the rotation of shaft A and B is the same and the rotation of shaft B
and C is opposite. The smallest pitch diameter is 3 inches, speed ratio of shaft A to B
and B to C are 2 and 3 respectively and the pitch of gear A is found to be 12.
a. Calculate the center to center distance of gear A-B, gear B-C and the two
possible center to center distance of gear A-C (neglecting the tooth depth
of each gear) and
b. the number of teeth of the three gears.

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 TYPES OF GEARS OF USES

Based on the design characteristics indicated above, there are several different types
of gears available. Some of the more common types of gears employed throughout
industry include:
 Spur gears
 Helical gears
 Bevel gears
 Worm gears
 Rack and pinion

Spur Gears
The most common type of gears employed, spur gears are constructed with straight
teeth cut or inserted parallel to the gear’s shaft on a circular (i.e., cylindrical) gear body. In
mated pairs, these gears employ the parallel axes configuration to transmit motion and
power. Depending on the application, they can be mated with another spur gear, an
internal gear (such as in a planetary gear system), or a gear rack (such as in a rack and
pinion gear pair).
The simplicity of the spur gear tooth design allows for both a high degree of precision and
easier manufacturability. Other characteristics of spur gears include lack of axial load (i.e.,
the thrust force parallel to the gear shaft), high-speed and high-load handling, and high
efficiency rates. Some of the disadvantages of spur gears are the amount of stress
experienced by the gear teeth and noise produced during high-speed applications.
This type of gear is used for a wide range of speed ratios in a variety of mechanical
applications, such as clocks, pumps, watering systems, power plant machinery, material
handling equipment, and clothes washing and drying machines. If necessary for an
application, multiple (i.e., more than two) spur gears can be used in a gear train to provide
higher gear reduction.

Example of spur gears.

Helical Gears
Similar to spur gears, helical gears typically employ the parallel axes configuration
with mated gear pairs, but, if aligned properly, they can also be used to drive non-parallel,
non-intersecting shafts. However, unlike spur gears, these gears are constructed with teeth
which twist around the cylindrical gear body at an angle to the gear face. Helical gears
are produced with right-hand and left-hand angled teeth with each gear pair comprised
of a right-hand and left-hand gear of the same helix angle.

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 The angled design of helical teeth causes them to engage with other gears
differently than the straight teeth of spur gears. As properly matched helical gears come in
contact with one another, the level of contact between corresponding teeth increases
gradually, rather than engaging the entire tooth at once. This gradual engagement allows
for less impact loading on the gear teeth and smoother, quieter operation. Helical gears
are also capable of greater load capabilities but operate with less efficiency than spur
gears. Further disadvantages include the complexity of the helical tooth design, which
increases the degree of difficulty in its manufacturing (and, consequently, the cost) and
the fact that the single helical gear tooth design produces axial thrust, which necessitates
the employment of thrust bearings in any application which uses single helical gears. This
latter necessity further increases the total cost of using helical gears.
As helical gears are also capable of handling high speeds and high loads, they are
suitable for the same types of applications as spur gears, such as pumps and generators.
Their smoother, quieter operation also suits them for automobile transmissions where spur
gears are typically not used.

Single or Double Helical Gear Design

Helical gears are available in single helical and double helical designs. Single helical
gears consist of a single row of angled teeth cut or inserted around the perimeter of the
gear body, while double helical gears consist of two mirrored rows of angled teeth. The
advantage of the latter design is its greater strength and durability (than the single helical
design), and the elimination of axial load production.

Additional Helical Gear Designs

Other types of helical gears include herringbone gears and screw gears.
Herringbone: Herringbone gears are a type of double helical teeth in which the two tracks
of teeth touch, rather than being separated by a groove, which forms a “V” shape similar
to that of the herringbone pattern.
Screw: Screw gears, also called crossed helical gears, are helical gears which are used for
non-parallel, non-intersecting configurations. Unlike the helical gears used for parallel
configurations, screw gears employ same-hand pairs rather than a right-hand and left-
hand gear per pair. These gears have relatively low load capacities and efficiency rates
and are not suitable for high power transmission applications.

E
Example of helical gears.

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 Bevel Gears
Bevel gears are cone-shaped gears with teeth placed along the conical surface.
These gears are used to transmit motion and power between intersecting shafts in
applications which require changes to the axis of rotation. Typically, bevel gears are
employed for shaft configurations placed at 90-degree angles, but configurations with
lesser or greater angles are also manageable.
There are several types of bevel gears available differentiated mainly by their tooth
design. Some of the more common types of bevel gears include straight, and spiral,

 Straight Bevel Gears

The most commonly used of the bevel gear tooth designs due to its simplicity and,
consequently, its ease of manufacturing, straight bevel teeth are designed such that when
properly matched straight bevel gears come into contact with one another, their teeth
engage together all at once rather than gradually. As is the issue with spur gears, the
engagement of straight bevel gear teeth results in high impact, increasing the level of
noise produced and amount of stress experienced by the gear teeth, as well as reducing
their durability and lifespan.

 Spiral Bevel Gears

In spiral bevel gears, the teeth are angled and curved to provide for more gradual tooth
engagement and more tooth-to-tooth contact than with a straight bevel gear. This design
greatly reduces the vibration and noise produced, especially at high angular velocities
(>1,000 rpm). Like helical gears, spiral bevel gears are available with right-hand or left-hand
angled teeth. As is also the case with helical gears, these gears are more complex and
difficult to manufacture (and, consequently, more expensive), but offer greater tooth
strength, smoother operation, and lower levels of noise during operation than straight
bevel gears.

Additional Bevel Gear Designs

Other than the types mentioned above, there are several other designs of bevel gears
available including miter, crown, and hypoid gears.
Miter: Miter gears are bevel gears which, when paired, have a gear ratio of 1:1. This gear
ratio is a result of pairing two miter gears with the same number of teeth. This type of bevel
gear is used in applications which require a change only to the axis of rotation with speed
remaining constant.
Crown: Crown gears, also referred to as face gears, are cylindrical (rather than conical)
bevel gears with teeth cut or inserted perpendicular to the gear face. Crown gears can be
paired either with other bevel gears or, depending on the tooth design, spur gears.
Hypoid: Originally developed for the automobile industry, hypoid gears, unlike the
previously mentioned types, are a type of spiral bevel gear used for non-parallel, non-
intersecting configurations. This design allows for components to be placed lower, allowing
for more space in the sections above. Employing curved and angled teeth similar to those
used in spiral bevel gears, hypoid gears are even more complex and, consequently, more
difficult (and costly) to manufacture.

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 Example of a spiral bevel gear pair.

Worm Gears
Worm gear pairs are comprised of a worm wheel—typically a cylindrical gear—
paired with a worm—i.e., a screw-shaped gear. These gears are used to transmit motion
and power between non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts. They offer large gear ratios and
capabilities for substantial speed reduction while maintaining quiet and smooth operation.
One distinction of worm gear pairs is that the worm can turn the worm wheel, but,
depending on the angle of the worm, the worm wheel may not be able to turn the worm.
This characteristic is employed in equipment requiring self-locking mechanisms. Some of
the disadvantages of worm gears are the low transmission efficiency and the amount of
friction generated between the worm wheel and worm gear which necessitates
continuous lubrication.

Example of a worm gear pair.

Rack and Pinion Gears

Rack and pinion gears are a pair of gears comprised of a gear rack and a
cylindrical gear referred to as the pinion. The gear rack can be considered as a gear of
infinite radius (i.e., a flat bar) and is constructed with straight teeth cut or inserted on the
bar’s surface. Depending on the type of pinion gear with which it is mated, the gear rack’s
teeth are either parallel (when mated with spur gears) or angled (when mated with helical
gears). For either of these rack designs, rotational motion can be converted into linear
motion or linear motion can be converted into rotational motion.
Some of the advantages of a rack and pinion gear pair are the simplicity of the
design (and the low cost of manufacturing) and high load carrying capacities. Despite the
advantages of this design, gears which employ this approach are also limited by it. For
example, transmission cannot continue infinitely in one direction as motion is limited by the
designated length of the gear rack. Additionally, rack and pinion gears tend to have a

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 greater amount of backlash (i.e., additional space between mated gear teeth) and,
consequently, the teeth experience a significant amount of friction and stress.
Some of the common applications of rack and pinion gear pairs include the steering
system of automobiles, transfer systems, and weighing scales.
(Note: whereas in rack and pinion gears, the term “pinion” refers to the gear which
meshes with the gear rack, in pairs of other types of gears, the term “pinion” refers, when
applicable, to the gear with the smallest number of teeth)

Example of a rack and pinion gear pair.

Table 1 – Characteristics of Gears by Type

Note: If applicable, “A” indicates advantageous characteristics and “D” indicates
disadvantageous characteristics
Type of Gear Characteristics

Spur  Most common type of gear

 Circular gear body
 Straight teeth cut or inserted parallel to the gear’s shaft
 Used for parallel axes configuration
 Mated with spur gears, internal gears, or gear racks
 High precision and efficiency (A)
 Easy to manufacture (A)
 Does not produce thrust force (A)
 Capable of handling high speed and high loads (A)
 Gear teeth experience high stress due to tooth design (D)
 Noise production during high speeds (D)

Helical  Circular gear body

 Teeth twisted at an angle around gear body
 Used for parallel axes configuration
 Available in right-hand and left-hand designs
 Available in single and double helical designs
 Gradual tooth engagement and less impact loading (A)
 Quieter, smoother operation (A)
 Capable of handling greater loads (A)

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  Lower efficiency (D)
 Higher design complexity, greater cost of manufacturing (D)
 Single helical design products thrust force (D), double helical
does not (A)
Bevel  Cone-shaped gear body
 Used for intersecting axes configuration
 Available in straight, spiral, and Zerol® bevel tooth designs
 Straight: simplest bevel gear design and easiest to
manufacture (A); high impact, noise level, and stress (D)
 Spiral: gradual tooth engagement and less impact loading,
noise, and vibration (A); higher design complexity and greater
cost of manufacturing (D)
 Zerol®: Quieter and smoother than straight bevel, able to
rotate in both directions unlike spiral bevel (A)

Worm  Pair comprised of a circular gear and a screw-shaped gear

 Used for non-parallel, non-intersecting axes configuration
 Large gear ratios and gear reduction (A)
 Quiet, smooth operation (A)
 Self-locking mechanism (A)
 Low transmission efficiency (D)
 Large amounts of friction (D)

Rack and Pinion  Pair comprised of a gear rack and cylindrical gear
 Used for parallel axes configuration
 Rack mated with spur or helical gear
 Converts rotational motion to linear motion or vice versa
 Simple design, easy to manufacture (A)
 Capable of handling greater loads (A)
 Transmission cannot continue infinitely in one direction (D)
 Large amount of backlash between mated teeth (D)
 Gear teeth experience high friction and stress due to tooth
design (D)

Gear Selection Considerations

Gears are employed in a variety of mechanical devices, and, consequently, several

different types and designs are available. The suitability of each type of gear and its exact
design for a motion or power transmission application is dependent on the specifications
and requirements of the application. Some of the principal factors which may be
considered when designing and choosing a gear include:
 Operational and environmental conditions
 Dimensional restrictions
 Transmission requirements
 Design standards

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  Costs

Operational and Environmental Conditions

The operational and environmental conditions of the gear application largely

influence the optimal type and design of gear as the conditions can affect the gear’s
performance and durability. Some of the operational conditions which may affect a gear
are the amount of weight applied, noise and vibration produced, and friction and stress
placed on the teeth, while some of the environmental conditions which may affect a gear
include temperature, humidity, and sanitation and cleanliness. These conditions influence
a variety of gear design factors, including the construction material, surface treatments,
and lubricant type and lubrication method.

Gear Applications

Gears are devices used throughout industry for a variety of mechanical machines and
systems. Several types of gears are available and employed in a wide range of residential,
commercial, and industrial applications, including:
 Aircrafts
 Automobiles
 Clocks
 Marine systems
 Material handling equipment
 Measuring instrumentation
 Power plants
 Pumps

One of the most widespread manner in which gears are applied is in gearboxes, which
are devices comprised of gears contained within an enclosure or housing. These devices
utilize a wide range of gear types— including worm gears, bevel gears, helical gears, and
spur gears—and are engineered to perform a specific motion or power transmission task
within the machine system, from changing the speed and torque to changing output shaft
direction. Similar to most gear systems, gearboxes have a variety of uses, such as in
automobiles and other motorized vehicles.

Table 2, below, indicates some of the common industries and applications of the types of
gears previously mentioned.
Table 2 – Industries and Applications of Gears by Type
Type of Gear Common Industries and Applications

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 Spur  Clocks
 Pumps
 Watering systems
 Household appliances
 Clothes washing and drying machines
 Power plants
 Material handling systems
 Aerospace and aircrafts
 Railways and trains

Helical  Same as spur gears but with greater loads and higher speeds
(see above)
 Automobiles (transmission systems)

Bevel  Pumps
 Power plants
 Material handling systems
 Aerospace and aircrafts
 Railways and trains
 Automobiles

Worm  Instruments
 Lifts and elevators
 Material handling systems
 Automobiles (steering systems)

Rack and Pinion  Weighing scales

 Material handling and transfer systems
 Railways and trains
 Automobiles (steering systems)

Key Terms

Driving Gear: The gear closest to the power source (motor or engine) and attached
to the driving shaft that provides the initial rotational input

Driven Gear: The gear or toothed component attached to the driven shaft which is
impacted by the driving gear and exhibits the final output

Idler Gear: A gear placed between the driving gear and driven gear; typically
employed to allow for the transmission of motion without a change in the direction of
rotation

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 Gear Ratio: The ratio between the output value to the input value; typically
expressed as the number of teeth of the driven gear (output) to number of teeth of the
driving gear (input)

Tooth Profile: The cross-sectional shape of the gear’s teeth

Axes Configuration: The orientation of the axes—along which the gear shafts lay
and around which the gears rotate—in relation to each other

Torque: Also referred to as moment or moment of force; the measure of the

rotational or twisting force which causes an object to rotate

Axial Load: The thrust force parallel to the gear shaft

Efficiency: The percentage value of the ratio of output power (i.e., input power
minus power loss) to the input power

GEAR TRAINS
A gear train is a mechanical system formed by mounting gears on a frame so the
teeth of the gears engage.
Gear teeth are designed to ensure the pitch circles of engaging gears roll on each
other without slipping, providing a smooth transmission of rotation from one gear to the
next.
 Simple Gear Train

The simple gear train is used where there is a large distance to be covered between
the input shaft and the output shaft. Each gear in a simple gear train is mounted on its own
shaft.
When examining simple gear trains, it is necessary to decide whether the output
gear will turn faster, slower, or the same speed as the input gear. The circumference
(distance around the outside edge) of these two gears will determine their relative speeds.
Suppose the input gear's circumference is larger than the output gear's
circumference. The output gear will turn faster than the input gear. On the other hand, the
input gear's circumference could be smaller than the output gear's circumference. In this
case the output gear would turn more slowly than the input gear. If the input and output
gears are exactly the same size, they will turn at the same speed.
In many simple gear trains there are several gears between the input gear and the
output gear.
These middle gears are called idler gears. Idler gears do not affect the speed of the
output gear.

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  Compound Gear Train
In a compound gear train at least one of the shafts in the train must hold two gears.
Compound gear trains are used when large changes in speed or power output are
needed and there is only a small space between the input and output shafts.
The number of shafts and direction of rotation of the input gear determine the direction
of rotation of the output gear in a compound gear train. The train in Figure has two gears in
between the input and output gears. These two gears are on one shaft. They rotate in the
same direction and act like one gear. There are an odd number of gear shafts in this
example. As a result, the input gear and output gear rotate in the same direction.
Since two pairs of gears are involved, their ratios are “compounded”, or multiplied
together.

Example- The input gear, with 12 teeth, drives its mating gear on the counter-shaft, which
has 24 teeth. This is a ratio of 2 to 1.
This ratio of DRIVEN over DRIVER at the Input - 2 to 1 - is then multiplied by the Output
ratio, which has a DRIVEN to DRIVER ratio of 3 to 1.
This gives a gear ratio of 6 to 1 between the input and the output, resulting in a
speed reduction and a corresponding increase in torque.

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 FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS

A. Belts
When the distance between the driving shaft and the driven shaft is too great to
be connected by gears, a flexible connector is used (ex. belts, ropes, chains, etc.)

V = 2RN = DN

t Linear speed of A = Linear speed of B

2t Va = Vb = V flexible connector
NA NB
DA DB
Therefore;
Na(Da+2t) = Nb(Db+2t)
Na/Nb = (Db+2t) / (Da+2t)

*** If the thickness of the flexible

connector is negligible, then
Na / Nb = Db / Da

Classification of Belts
1. Open belt – The pulleys turn in the same sense of direction
2. Crossed belt – The pulley turn in the opposite sense of direction

Length of belt connecting parallel axes:

1. Open belt
L = 2 (mn + no + op)

L = (/2 + )D + 2Ccos + (/2 - )d



 L = /2 (D + d) + (D – d) + 2Ccos
D d
 (D  d ) 2

 L ( D  d )  2C 
2 4C

2. Crossed Belt:
C  (D  d ) 2
L ( D  d )  2C 
2 4C

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 B. Stepped Pulleys
Driver (constant speed)
A Belt connection
between two shafts that the d1 D2
speed of the driving shaft N
remains constant is known as n1 Belt
stepped pulleys.
Since surface speed of
the driver and the driven are nx
equal, we have, Driven (speed varies)
dx Dx
n1d1 = ND2 C

- If the belt is shifted to any other position, then nxdx = NDx

- Since the length of the belt does not change when shifting to any other position, then,
a. Crossed belt
D2 + d1 = Dx + dx

b. Open belt
 ( Dx  dx) 2  ( D 2  d1) 2
( Dx  dx)   ( D 2  d1) 
2 4C 2 4C

In designing such a pair of pulleys, two factors must be taken into account:
1. The ratio of the diameter of the successive pairs of steps must be such as to give the
desired speed ratios.
2. The sum of the diameter of any pair of steps must be such as to maintain the proper
tightness of the belt for all positions.

C. Equal stepped pulleys

It is common practice, when convenient to design a pair of stepped pulleys in
such a way that both sets of pulleys have the same dimensions.

Driver (constant speed)

D2 = d9, D4 = d7, D6 = d5, D8 = d3,
N
n1 1 d1 D2 2 D10 = d1
n3 3 d3 D4 4
n5 5 d5 D6 6 * When equal stepped pulleys are used, the
n7 7 d7 D8 8
speeds of the driven shaft must be chosen that
n9 9 d9 D10 10
the speed of the driving shaft is a mean
proportional between the speeds of the driven
Driven (speed varies) shaft for belt positions symmetrically either side
of the middle.

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 D. Speed cones
Sometimes, instead of stepped
pulleys, pulleys which are Dx D2
approximately frustums cones are used
Shipper

* When cone pulleys are used, a shipper must

guide each part of the belt near the point where
it runs on to the pulley; otherwise the belt will dx d1
tend to climb toward the large end of each
pulley.

Sample problems:
1. Two parallel shafts, 30 inch apart are connected by a belt drive. The driving pulley is
20 inch in diameter and rotates at 250 rpm. Determine the diameter of the driven
and the belt length if
a. the driven pulley rotates at 200 rpm in the same direction as the driving pulley
b. the driven pulley rotates at 400 rpm in the opposite direction as the driving
pulley.

Given:
C = 30 inch
Da = 20 inch
Na = 250 rpm

a. Nb = 200 rpm  (D  d ) 2
L ( D  d )  2c 
2 4c
NaDa = NbDb ; Db = NaDa/Nb
Db = 20 inch (250 rpm)/200 rpm
 (25  20) 2
L  (25  20)  2(30) 
Db = 25 inches. 2 4(30)
L  130.88in  131inch

b. Nb = 400 rpm
 (D  d ) 2
NaDa = NbDb ; Db = NaDa/Nb L ( D  d )  2c 
2 4c
Db = 20 inch (250 rpm)/400 rpm
Db = 12.5 inches  (25  12.5) 2
L  (25  12.5)  2(30) 
2 4(30)
L  119.85inch  120inch

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 2. A pair of equal three stepped pulleys connects two shafts A and B by means of a
crossed belt. A is the driver having a constant speed of 75 rpm. Highest speed of B is
225 rpm. Diameter of largest step is 15 inch. Find the other two speeds of B and the
diameter of all steps.
Driver (N = 75rpm)
Given:
N
n1 1 d1 D2 2 D2 = d5 = 15 inch N = 75 rpm
n3 3 d3 D4 4
n5 5 d5 D6 6
n1 = 225 rpm

Driven (Pulley B)

n1d1 = ND2; d1 = ND2/n1 ND6 = n5d5 ; n5 = ND6/d5

d1 = 75 rpm (15 in)/225 rpm n5 = 75 rpm (5 in)/15 in

d1 = D6 = 5 inch n5 = 25 rpm

Since D4 = d3; n3 = N n3 = 75 rpm

- for a crossed belt

D2 + d1 = D4 + d3 and since D4 = d3

2d3 = D2 + d1 = 15 + 5 = 20 inch
3. Two shafts, each carrying a four stepped pulley are to be connected by a crossed
belt. The driving shaft is to turn 150 rpm while the driven shaft is to turn 50, 150, 250
and 600 rpm. The smallest step of the driver is 10 inch in diameter. Find the diameter
of all the steps

Driver (N = 150rpm)
D8 = 10 inch
N
600 rpm 1 d1 D2 2
250 rpm 3 d3 D4 4
150 rpm 5 d5 D6 6
50 rpm 7 d7 D8 8

Driven

a) ND8 = n7d7; d7 = ND8/n7 = 150 rpm (10 in) / 50 rpm

d7 = 30 inches

b) ND6 = n5d5 but N = n5 = 150 rpm therefore D6 = d5

- for crossed belt D6 + d5 = D8 + d7
2d5 = 10 + 30 = 40

D6 = d5 = 20 inches

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 c) ND4 = n3d3; D4 = n3d3/N D4 = 250 rpm (d3) / 150 rpm
D4 = 1.67 d3 – eqn. 1

also, D4 + d3 = D8 + d7 = 40 inch; D4 + d3 = 40 in. – eqn. 2

subst. eqn. 1 in eqn. 2, we have,

d3 = 15 inch and D4 = 25 inch

d) ND2 = n1d1; D2 = n1d1/N D2 = 600 rpm (d1) / 150 rpm

D2 = 4 d1 – eqn. 3

also, D2 + d1 = D8 + d7 = 40 in.; D2 + d1 = 40 in. – eqn. 4

subst. eqn. 3 in eqn. 4, we have,

d1 = 8 inch and D2 = inches

Assignment Exercise 5:

1. Two parallel shafts, 36 inches apart are connected by a belt drive. The driving pulley
rotates at 250 rpm and the driven pulley rotates at 600 rpm. The smaller pulley
diameter is 10 inches. Determine:
a. The diameter of the larger pulley in inches (open or crossed belt)
b. The linear velocity of the belt in fpm (open or crossed belt)
c. The length of the belt in inches, both for an open and a crossed belt
connection

2. In a pair of stepped pulleys, the driver has diameters of 31.62, 25.5, 20.53 and 10
inches. The smallest diameter of the driven pulley is 7.91 inches and its largest
diameter is 30 inches.
a. Is the connection an open belt or a crossed belt? Prove your answer
b. The center to center distance of the parallel shaft in inches
c. The two remaining diameters of the driven pulley in inches

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